338:
297:. They found that 30 to 40% of exposures could be compromised during the first and last hours of the night. A study found that twilight observations are particularly affected by SC and that the fraction of streaked images taken during twilight has increased from less than 0.5% in late 2019 to 18% in August 2021 due to SpaceX Starlink Satellites. Astronomers have also voiced concern over the impact satellite internet constellations will have on
174:, 2021). By late 2018, more than 18,000 new satellites had been proposed to be launched and placed in LEO orbits between 2019 and 2025. This is more than ten times as many satellites as the sum of all active satellites in space as of March 2018. More recent proposals by 2020 could bring that number to over 100,000.
177:
A year after the start of fielding the first satellite internet constellation—Starlink which began launching in late 2019 and began beta test of the network in late 2020; OneWeb began satellite deployment in 1H2020—the competitive disruption to established satellite company business models began to
389:
As of 2022, global space activity is not sufficiently shaped by any international entity, and therefore "there is no common set of rules that govern global space activity and no mechanisms to ensure the proper disposal of hardware at the completion of space missions. Nor is there any coordinated
514:
G60 — a satellite project developed by
Shanghai Spacecom Satellite Technology (SSST) to deploy 14,000 satellite by 2030, first stage is consist of 1,296 satellites to provide global coverage, 648 of these are to be launched by the end of 2025 to provide regional network
239:). System designs have been analyzed using statistical methods and simulations to estimate the total throughput. Particularly challenging is the dynamic nature of the network, as LEO satellites typically pass over a given location in less than 10 minutes.
407:— an operational constellation of 24 low Earth orbiting (LEO) satellites for satellite phone and low-speed data communications, covering most of the world's landmass. The launch of the second-generation constellation was completed on February 6, 2013
1714:
Lawrence, Andy; Rawls, Meredith L.; Jah, Moriba; Boley, Aaron; Di Vruno, Federico; Garrington, Simon; Kramer, Michael; Lawler, Samantha; Lowenthal, James; McDowell, Jonathan; McCaughrean, Mark (April 2022). "The case for space environmentalism".
137:
In the 2010s, interest in satellite internet constellations reemerged due to the dropping cost of launching to space and the increased demand for broadband internet access. Internet satellite constellations are planned by private companies like
1145:
Bhattacherjee, Debopam; Aqeel, Waqar; Bozkurt, Ilker Nadi; Aguirre, Anthony; Chandrasekaran, Balakrishnan; Godfrey, P. Brighten; Laughlin, Gregory; Maggs, Bruce; Singla, Ankit (15 November 2018). "Gearing up for the 21st century space race".
312:
A report from the SATCON1 workshop in 2020 concluded that the effects of large satellite constellations can severely affect some astronomical research efforts and lists six ways to mitigate harm to astronomy. In 2022, the
251:
than optical fiber links. This is expected to hold even without inter-satellite links, using only ground station relays. The new networks are said to be able to "potentially compete with today's ISPs in many settings".
1828:
421:, used to provide satellite phone and low-speed data services over the entire surface of Earth. Iridium NEXT, a second-generation constellation of the communications satellites, was completed on January 11, 2019
504:
1471:
MrĂłz, Przemek; Otarola, Angel; Prince, Thomas A.; Dekany, Richard; Duev, Dmitry A.; Graham, Matthew J.; Groom, Steven L.; Masci, Frank J.; Medford, Michael S. (1 January 2022).
634:
The most visible or at least, the most talked about LEO contenders stem from the U.S. and Canada, numbering at least 11 with planned satellites to be deployed at around 18,000.
982:
427:— an operational constellation used to provide global asset monitoring and messaging services from its constellation of 29 LEO communications satellites orbiting at 775 km
304:
Additional research is needed to determine impact of (inter alia) light pollution on various locations, communities, indigenous peoples, and other forms of observation.
1842:
953:
825:
667:
235:
Proposed systems vary greatly in the number of satellites, the types of orbits and the telecommunication architecture (in particular the presence or absence of
1227:
746:
719:
1952:
1857:
217:
In 2018, the
Russian government established the Sphere constellation program, to consist of 162 satellites, providing broadband internet connectivity,
2192:
293:
that use ultra-wide imaging exposures, such as the 8.4-meter
Simonyi Survey Telescope used in the Legacy Survey of Space and Time project at the
202:
were to invest government funds in the effort as well. All three companies had formerly focused on the provision of communication services from
1802:
1326:
1300:
72:. As of 2020, 63 percent of rural households worldwide lack internet access due to the infrastructure requirements of underground cables and
1008:
1558:
925:
1997:
879:
1656:
1583:
853:
1686:
1776:
337:
171:
247:
For continental distances (greater than about 3,000 km), LEO satellite internet networks are expected to be able to provide lower
2032:
647:
221:, video broadcast, and remote sensing services. In October 2022, a demonstrator satellite called Skif-D technology was launched.
1945:
1908:
1275:
1202:
1165:
1116:
443:— a satellite-to-mobile-phone satellite constellation with the objective of coverage to traditional low-cost mobile devices
282:
and, more generally, a lack of end-of-life cleanup for the increasing number of satellites that would become space debris.
1584:"Report Offers Roadmap to Mitigate Effects of Large Satellite Constellations on Astronomy | American Astronomical Society"
774:"Elon Musk's Next Mission: Internet Satellites SpaceX, Tesla Founder Explores Venture to Make Lighter, Cheaper Satellites"
1407:"Impact of satellite constellations on astronomical observations with ESO telescopes in the visible and infrared domains"
585:
494:— a satellite-to-mobile-phone constellation to provide 5G services around the world to existing unmodified mobile phones
52:. In particular, the term has come to refer to a new generation of very large constellations (sometimes referred to as
2197:
773:
2067:
1938:
983:"GROUP CONVERSION, OR PAY US & WE BELIEVE? SES, EUTELSAT, HISPASAT SAY THEY'D INVEST IN EU LEO BROADBAND PROJECT"
799:
314:
2042:
1406:
560:
485:
410:
127:
1982:
750:
452:
386:. The study concludes that it needs "new policies, rules and regulations at national and international level".
143:
190:—which had until that time eschewed developing and fielding a broadband satellite internet constellation with
2027:
2002:
1032:"A technical comparison of three low earth orbit satellite constellation systems to provide global broadband"
322:
210:
orbits, while the newer satellite internet providers have been fielding their constellations exclusively in
345:
UN Guidelines and ISO standard 24113 on space debris mitigation "encourages" organizations to voluntarily:
2153:
697:
230:
1687:"Impacts of Large Satellite Constellations on Astronomy: Live Updates | American Astronomical Society"
1992:
1031:
565:
383:
294:
85:
69:
49:
30:
1101:
Proceedings of the 15th
International Conference on Emerging Networking Experiments and Technologies
467:- provides coverage to most of the globe under a service launched in 2024. Satellites were built by
2012:
488:— a satellite constellation project of the Russian Federation, with plans for up to 640 satellites.
341:
The growth of all tracked objects in space over time showing a recent increase of active satellites
118:
In the 1990s, several LEO satellite internet constellations were proposed and developed, including
954:"A future with tens of thousands of new satellites could 'fundamentally change' astronomy: report"
720:"What is the difference between terrestrial (land based) Internet and satellite Internet service?"
1961:
1358:"Bringing policy coherence to satellite constellation mitigations for space debris and astronomy"
1357:
550:
414:
126:(initially 840, later 288 satellites). These projects were abandoned after the bankruptcy of the
41:
26:
2077:
1473:"Impact of the SpaceX Starlink Satellites on the Zwicky Transient Facility Survey Observations"
854:"Amazon wants to launch thousands of satellites so it can offer broadband internet from space"
449:— a current broadband satellite provider providing fixed, ground mobile, and airborne antennas
1664:
319:
Centre for the
Protection of the Dark and Quiet Sky from Satellite Constellation Interference
248:
236:
104:
100:
61:
45:
1432:
2202:
2166:
1969:
1734:
1494:
1428:
1043:
545:
461:— Amazon's constellation will consist of 3,236 satellites operating in three orbital shells
433:— a satellite constellation development project to provide high-speed Internet underway by
290:
203:
89:
1262:. HotNets '19. Princeton, NJ, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 125–132.
8:
2052:
479:
371:
366:. A team of scientists outlined rationale for governance that regulates the current free
275:
195:
96:
1738:
1608:
1498:
1150:. HotNets '18. Redmond, WA, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 113–119.
1047:
1758:
1724:
1484:
1418:
1281:
1208:
1122:
1103:. CoNEXT '19. Orlando, Florida: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 341–354.
1077:
207:
1882:
1777:"Orbital space around Earth must be protected amid rise in satellites, say scientists"
1189:. HotNets '18. Redmond, WA, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 85–91.
76:. Satellite internet constellations offer a low-cost solution for expanding coverage.
1762:
1750:
1634:
1512:
1446:
1285:
1271:
1198:
1161:
1126:
1112:
1081:
1069:
897:"Russia to start deploying new cluster of Sfera next-generation satellites from 2021"
507:(IRIS²) — planned multi-orbit satellite internet constellation to be deployed by the
362:
A study suggests policies could help achieve the goal of debris mitigation and space
1212:
1055:
617:
178:
be better understood. In early 2021, the three largest
European satellite operators
1742:
1502:
1436:
1263:
1190:
1151:
1104:
1059:
1051:
155:
1441:
1257:
926:"Chinese rocket company Space Pioneer secures major funding ahead of first launch"
2113:
2098:
2047:
555:
491:
378:"part of the human environment" which should be subject to the same concerns and
326:
298:
286:
267:
211:
198:
that they would be willing to invest in the development of such a project if the
191:
57:
22:
1635:"Protection of the Dark and Quiet Sky from Satellite Constellation Interference"
1531:
880:
Amazon lays out constellation service goals, deployment and deorbit plans to FCC
2118:
2108:
1858:"AST SpaceMobile orbital launch of first five commercial satellites successful"
1746:
1507:
1472:
1327:"As satellite constellations grow larger, NASA is worried about orbital debris"
508:
458:
375:
363:
199:
159:
535:— a former (1990s) venture to accomplish broadband satellite internet services
437:
to deploy nearly 12,000 satellites in multiple orbital shells by the mid-2020s
390:
effort to clean up the decades of space debris already accumulated in orbit."
321:
to coordinate or aggregate measures to mitigate such detrimental effects. The
2186:
1803:"Without sustainable practices, orbital debris will hinder space's gold rush"
1754:
1516:
1450:
1254:"Using ground relays for low-latency wide-area routing in megaconstellations"
1073:
261:
1267:
1194:
1156:
1108:
618:"NSR Reports China's Ambitious Constellation of 300 Small Satellites in LEO"
285:
Astronomers have studied the potential effects increased satellite usage in
2072:
1930:
1301:"Starlink Simulation Shows Low Latency Without Inter-Satellite Laser Links"
1064:
830:
446:
279:
1843:"China launches satellite internet that could challenge SpaceX's Starlink"
1253:
1182:
1096:
1030:
del
Portillo, Inigo; Cameron, Bruce G.; Crawley, Edward F. (1 June 2019).
505:
Infrastructure for
Resilience, Interconnectivity and Security by Satellite
2161:
440:
418:
367:
2103:
2037:
826:"SpaceX and OneWeb broadband satellites raise fears about space debris"
684:
Satellite latency is 638ms, 20 times higher than terrestrial broadband.
464:
404:
131:
1909:"China launches first satellites for Thousand Sails megaconstellation"
1228:"The first detailed look at how Elon Musk's space internet could work"
2139:
1913:
1009:"Failure of Japan's Epsilon rocket blamed on attitude control system"
930:
883:
800:"Elon Musk and Richard Branson invest in satellite-Internet ventures"
590:
532:
379:
271:
167:
123:
73:
65:
668:"Satellite Internet faster than advertised, but latency still awful"
2171:
2134:
2062:
2057:
1729:
1489:
1423:
896:
475:
430:
187:
183:
179:
151:
119:
2093:
910:
1987:
586:"Megaconstellation ventures cautious about deployment milestones"
519:
478:) — an operational satellite internet constellation owned by the
424:
163:
92:
1144:
25:
only. For internet provision by satellites in other orbits, see
1977:
1559:"SpaceX's Dark Satellites Are Still Too Bright for Astronomers"
649:
Low Orbit, High Stakes: All-In on the LEO Broadband
Competition
468:
434:
218:
147:
139:
112:
1829:"China Has Begun Launching its Own Satellite Internet Network"
1259:
Proceedings of the 18th ACM Workshop on Hot Topics in
Networks
1187:
Proceedings of the 17th ACM Workshop on Hot Topics in Networks
1148:
Proceedings of the 17th ACM Workshop on Hot Topics in Networks
455:— 648-satellite network is planned for completion by late 2022
1709:
1707:
1379:
108:
976:
974:
858:
1704:
1029:
1405:
Hainaut, Olivier R.; Williams, Andrew P. (1 April 2020).
1095:
Bhattacherjee, Debopam; Singla, Ankit (3 December 2019).
971:
655:. Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS).
1609:"Astronomers stand up to satellite mega-constellations"
1470:
698:"Latency- why is it a big deal for Satellite Internet?"
16:
Satellite constellation providing internet connectivity
1713:
1094:
374:around the Earth as an "additional ecosystem" or a
134:satellite phone constellations in the early 2000s.
646:Young, Makena; Thadani, Akhil (1 December 2022).
612:
610:
608:
2184:
1637:. Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy, Bonn
1404:
1532:"Satellite constellations and radio astronomy"
1356:Williams, Andrew P.; Rotola, Giuliana (2021).
1355:
772:Winkler, Rolfe; Pasztor, Andy (11 July 2014).
771:
747:"Will Google Build a Satellite Constellation?"
605:
561:Two-way communication satellite constellations
349:Limit debris released during normal operations
1946:
1855:
945:
352:Minimize the potential for on-orbit break-ups
115:for the services offered has been quite low.
1960:
1000:
845:
645:
266:Critics have objected against the increased
99:for years, these have been of quite limited
1097:"Network topology design at 27,000 km/Hour"
817:
1953:
1939:
980:
917:
886:, 8 July 2019, accessed 19 September 2019.
873:
791:
765:
738:
659:
329:that tracks recent progress in the field.
307:
1887:European Commission - European Commission
1728:
1506:
1488:
1440:
1422:
1351:
1349:
1347:
1155:
1063:
577:
107:, and provided at such a relatively high
1657:"International Astronomical Union | IAU"
981:de Selding, Peter B. (11 January 2021).
797:
518:Lightspeed - Broadband constellation by
336:
2193:Communications satellite constellations
1251:
1180:
823:
744:
690:
665:
368:externalization of true costs and risks
255:
2185:
1344:
1225:
851:
712:
1934:
1906:
1529:
1324:
1298:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1006:
951:
923:
583:
413:— an operational constellation of 66
231:Satellite constellation § Design
170:(Sfera) and China (Hongwan, 2018, or
88:services have been available through
798:Petersen, Melody (16 January 2015).
21:This article is about satellites in
1856:archit_tandon (14 September 2024).
1226:Heaven, Douglas (7 November 2018).
749:. SpaceRef Business. Archived from
332:
172:national satellite internet project
13:
1325:Grush, Loren (28 September 2018).
1252:Handley, Mark (14 November 2019).
1181:Handley, Mark (15 November 2018).
1133:
1007:Clark, Stephen (18 October 2022).
522:, to be deployed starting in 2026.
14:
2214:
1556:
1477:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
1299:Press, Larry (30 December 2019).
666:Brodkin, Jon (15 February 2013).
474:China State Owned Constellation (
393:
358:Prevention of on-orbit collisions
1380:"About LSST | Rubin Observatory"
852:Sheetz, Michael (4 April 2019).
38:satellite internet constellation
1907:Jones, Andrew (6 August 2024).
1900:
1875:
1849:
1835:
1821:
1795:
1769:
1679:
1649:
1627:
1601:
1576:
1550:
1523:
1464:
1398:
1372:
1318:
1292:
1245:
1219:
1174:
1088:
1056:10.1016/j.actaastro.2019.03.040
1023:
952:Grush, Loren (26 August 2020).
903:
889:
824:Brodkin, Jon (4 October 2017).
924:Jones, Andrew (27 July 2021).
639:
398:
1:
911:""SCOPE" of common interests"
745:Boucher, Marc (3 June 2014).
724:Network Innovation Associates
584:Henry, Caleb (25 June 2019).
571:
1411:Astronomy & Astrophysics
274:, the increased possibility
242:
7:
1442:10.1051/0004-6361/202037501
539:
10:
2219:
1747:10.1038/s41550-022-01655-6
526:
498:
259:
228:
79:
50:satellite internet service
20:
2198:Satellite Internet access
2152:
2127:
2086:
2020:
2011:
1968:
566:Satellite Internet access
295:Vera C. Rubin Observatory
262:Starlink § Criticism
224:
31:Satellite internet access
1962:Satellite constellations
1508:10.3847/2041-8213/ac470a
1183:"Delay is Not an Option"
1433:2020A&A...636A.121H
1268:10.1145/3365609.3365859
1195:10.1145/3286062.3286075
1157:10.1145/3286062.3286079
1109:10.1145/3359989.3365407
551:Satellite constellation
308:Mitigation in astronomy
27:Satellite constellation
1536:www.thespacereview.com
342:
103:(not broadband), high-
355:Post-mission disposal
340:
237:inter-satellite links
46:artificial satellites
1862:Communications Today
700:. VSAT Systems. 2013
546:Satellite navigation
453:OneWeb constellation
384:e.g. oceans on Earth
291:Very Large Telescope
276:satellite collisions
256:Issues and criticism
144:OneWeb constellation
122:(63 satellites) and
1845:. 30 November 2023.
1739:2022NatAs...6..428L
1563:Scientific American
1499:2022ApJ...924L..30M
1048:2019AcAau.159..123D
778:Wall Street Journal
480:government of China
196:European Commission
97:geostationary orbit
84:While more-limited
1538:. The Space Review
987:Space Intel Report
343:
86:satellite internet
64:, high bandwidth (
54:megaconstellations
2180:
2179:
2148:
2147:
1615:. 4 February 2022
1530:Kimbrough, Adam.
1277:978-1-4503-7020-2
1204:978-1-4503-6120-0
1167:978-1-4503-6120-0
1118:978-1-4503-6998-5
1036:Acta Astronautica
1011:. Spaceflight Now
804:Los Angeles Times
325:is maintaining a
60:(LEO) to provide
2210:
2018:
2017:
1955:
1948:
1941:
1932:
1931:
1926:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1904:
1898:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1879:
1873:
1872:
1870:
1868:
1853:
1847:
1846:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1825:
1819:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1799:
1793:
1792:
1790:
1788:
1773:
1767:
1766:
1732:
1717:Nature Astronomy
1711:
1702:
1701:
1699:
1697:
1683:
1677:
1676:
1674:
1672:
1667:on 13 March 2022
1663:. Archived from
1653:
1647:
1646:
1644:
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1631:
1625:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1605:
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1402:
1396:
1395:
1393:
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1370:
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1367:
1365:
1353:
1342:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1322:
1316:
1315:
1313:
1311:
1305:www.circleid.com
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1086:
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1067:
1027:
1021:
1020:
1018:
1016:
1004:
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997:
995:
993:
978:
969:
968:
966:
964:
949:
943:
942:
940:
938:
921:
915:
914:
907:
901:
900:
893:
887:
877:
871:
870:
868:
866:
849:
843:
842:
840:
838:
821:
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814:
812:
810:
795:
789:
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760:
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716:
710:
709:
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705:
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687:
680:
678:
663:
657:
656:
654:
643:
637:
636:
631:
629:
614:
603:
602:
600:
598:
581:
417:satellites in a
333:Space governance
70:internet service
2218:
2217:
2213:
2212:
2211:
2209:
2208:
2207:
2183:
2182:
2181:
2176:
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2007:
1964:
1959:
1929:
1919:
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1891:
1889:
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1880:
1876:
1866:
1864:
1854:
1850:
1841:
1840:
1836:
1831:. 15 July 2023.
1827:
1826:
1822:
1812:
1810:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1786:
1784:
1783:. 22 April 2022
1775:
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1387:
1378:
1377:
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1363:
1361:
1354:
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1333:
1323:
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1065:1721.1/135044.2
1028:
1024:
1014:
1012:
1005:
1001:
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989:
979:
972:
962:
960:
950:
946:
936:
934:
922:
918:
909:
908:
904:
895:
894:
890:
882:, Caleb Henry,
878:
874:
864:
862:
850:
846:
836:
834:
822:
818:
808:
806:
796:
792:
782:
780:
770:
766:
756:
754:
753:on 16 July 2014
743:
739:
729:
727:
718:
717:
713:
703:
701:
696:
695:
691:
676:
674:
664:
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327:living document
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299:radio astronomy
287:Low Earth Orbit
268:light pollution
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1809:. 2 March 2022
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1918:. Retrieved
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1867:16 September
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1781:The Guardian
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1665:the original
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1384:www.lsst.org
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831:Ars Technica
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672:Ars Technica
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415:cross-linked
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2154:Observation
2114:SpaceMobile
2021:Operational
1661:www.iau.org
1542:22 November
1456:22 November
1390:22 November
1360:(in German)
1310:22 November
1237:22 November
1042:: 123–135.
963:22 November
441:Lynk Global
419:polar orbit
399:Operational
380:regulations
370:, treating
62:low-latency
2187:Categories
2104:O3b mPOWER
2038:Globalstar
1970:Navigation
1892:12 October
1807:TechCrunch
1730:2204.10025
1490:2201.05343
1483:(2): L30.
1424:2003.01992
1015:23 October
992:11 January
809:19 January
572:References
465:O3b mPOWER
405:Globalstar
260:See also:
229:See also:
132:Globalstar
48:providing
2140:Teledesic
2128:Abandoned
1914:SpaceNews
1763:248300127
1755:2397-3366
1517:2041-8205
1451:0004-6361
1331:The Verge
1286:207960066
1127:208946393
1082:115993580
1074:0094-5765
958:The Verge
931:SpaceNews
884:SpaceNews
837:7 October
591:SpaceNews
533:Teledesic
515:coverage.
511:by 2027.
272:astronomy
243:Potential
168:Roscosmos
124:Teledesic
101:bandwidth
66:broadband
2172:RapidEye
2167:Pleiades
2135:Celestri
2087:Proposed
2063:Tianlian
2058:Starlink
1920:8 August
1813:22 March
1696:22 March
1671:10 March
1641:10 March
1619:10 March
1613:BBC News
1417:: A121.
1364:22 March
1336:22 March
1213:53284161
783:25 March
757:25 March
730:24 March
704:24 March
677:24 March
628:24 March
540:See also
476:Chinasat
431:Starlink
188:Hispasat
184:Eutelsat
152:Starlink
120:Celestri
93:commsats
2053:Orbcomm
2043:Iridium
1988:GLONASS
1983:Galileo
1735:Bibcode
1691:aas.org
1588:aas.org
1495:Bibcode
1429:Bibcode
1044:Bibcode
937:27 July
622:SatNews
527:Defunct
520:Telesat
499:Planned
425:Orbcomm
411:Iridium
249:latency
164:Samsung
128:Iridium
105:latency
80:History
2162:Planet
2099:OneWeb
2073:ViaSat
1978:BeiDou
1787:13 May
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726:. 2014
597:3 July
469:Boeing
435:SpaceX
376:common
225:Design
186:, and
156:Amazon
148:SpaceX
140:OneWeb
113:demand
2094:IRIS²
1998:IRNSS
1759:S2CID
1725:arXiv
1485:arXiv
1419:arXiv
1282:S2CID
1209:S2CID
1123:S2CID
1078:S2CID
653:(PDF)
486:Sfera
382:like
111:that
109:price
40:is a
2068:TDRS
2033:DSCS
2028:BGAN
2003:QZSS
1922:2024
1894:2023
1869:2024
1815:2022
1789:2022
1751:ISSN
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1673:2022
1643:2022
1621:2022
1595:2020
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1513:ISSN
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1392:2020
1366:2022
1338:2022
1312:2020
1272:ISBN
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1070:ISSN
1017:2022
994:2021
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867:2019
859:CNBC
839:2017
811:2015
785:2018
759:2018
732:2018
706:2018
679:2018
630:2018
599:2019
270:for
206:and
130:and
29:and
2078:WGS
2048:O3b
1993:GPS
1743:doi
1503:doi
1481:924
1437:doi
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1264:doi
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1152:doi
1105:doi
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