1470:(MRI). While high-field MRI uses precession fields of one to several teslas, SQUID-detected MRI uses measurement fields that lie in the microtesla range. In a conventional MRI system, the signal scales as the square of the measurement frequency (and hence precession field): one power of frequency comes from the thermal polarization of the spins at ambient temperature, while the second power of field comes from the fact that the induced voltage in the pickup coil is proportional to the frequency of the precessing magnetization. In the case of untuned SQUID detection of prepolarized spins, however, the NMR signal strength is independent of precession field, allowing MRI signal detection in extremely weak fields, on the order of Earth's magnetic field. SQUID-detected MRI has advantages over high-field MRI systems, such as the low cost required to build such a system, and its compactness. The principle has been demonstrated by imaging human extremities, and its future application may include tumor screening.
1323:, even of extremely small signals, have been made using RF SQUIDS. The RF SQUID is inductively coupled to a resonant tank circuit. Depending on the external magnetic field, as the SQUID operates in the resistive mode, the effective inductance of the tank circuit changes, thus changing the resonant frequency of the tank circuit. These frequency measurements can be easily taken, and thus the losses which appear as the voltage across the load resistor in the circuit are a periodic function of the applied magnetic flux with a period of
1605:. These nanoparticles are paramagnetic; they have no magnetic moment until exposed to an external field where they become ferromagnetic. After removal of the magnetizing field, the nanoparticles decay from a ferromagnetic state to a paramagnetic state, with a time constant that depends upon the particle size and whether they are bound to an external surface. Measurement of the decaying magnetic field by SQUID sensors is used to detect and localize the nanoparticles. Applications for SPMR may include cancer detection.
1307:
1419:
29:
127:
229:
335:
1172:
The discussion in this section assumed perfect flux quantization in the loop. However, this is only true for big loops with a large self-inductance. According to the relations, given above, this implies also small current and voltage variations. In practice the self-inductance
1458:
systems, made by several manufacturers, that measure the magnetic properties of a material sample which typically has a temperature between 300 mK and 400 K. With the decreasing size of SQUID sensors since the last decade, such sensor can equip the tip of an
1434:
activity inside brains. Because SQUIDs can operate at acquisition rates much higher than the highest temporal frequency of interest in the signals emitted by the brain (kHz), MEG achieves good temporal resolution. Another area where SQUIDs are used is
511:, begins to circulate the loop that generates the magnetic field canceling the applied external flux, and creates an additional Josephson phase which is proportional to this external magnetic flux. The induced current is in the same direction as
2604:
A Squid-Based
Microwave Cavity Search For Axions By ADMX; SJ Sztalos, G Carlos, C Hagman, D Kinion, K van Bibber, M Hotz, L Rosenberg, G Rybka, J Hoskins, J Hwang, P Sikivie, DB Tanner, R Bradley, J Clarke; Phys.Rev.Lett. 104:041301;
1318:
at Ford. It is based on the AC Josephson effect and uses only one
Josephson junction. It is less sensitive compared to DC SQUID but is cheaper and easier to manufacture in smaller quantities. Most fundamental measurements in
2018:
Nisenoff, M.; Wolf, S. (1 September 1975). "Observation of a $ cos\ensuremath{\varphi}$ term in the current-phase relation for "Dayem"-type weak link contained in an rf-biased superconducting quantum interference device".
1098:
1167:
1246:
822:, and again reverses direction as the external field is further increased. Thus, the current changes direction periodically, every time the flux increases by additional half-integer multiple of
2697:
De Haro, Leyma P.; Karaulanov, Todor; Vreeland, Erika C.; Anderson, Bill; Hathaway, Helen J.; Huber, Dale L.; Matlashov, Andrei N.; Nettles, Christopher P.; Price, Andrew D. (1 October 2015).
1496:
surveying is becoming more widespread as superconductor technology develops; they are also used as precision movement sensors in a variety of scientific applications, such as the detection of
415:
2762:
Hathaway, Helen J.; Butler, Kimberly S.; Adolphi, Natalie L.; Lovato, Debbie M.; Belfon, Robert; Fegan, Danielle; Monson, Todd C.; Trujillo, Jason E.; Tessier, Trace E. (1 January 2011).
2580:
464:
in 1963. It has two
Josephson junctions in parallel in a superconducting loop. It is based on the DC Josephson effect. In the absence of any external magnetic field, the input current
1042:
706:. Since the flux enclosed by the superconducting loop must be an integer number of flux quanta, instead of screening the flux the SQUID now energetically prefers to increase it to
369:
2261:
PortolĂ©s, ElĂas; Iwakiri, Shuichi; Zheng, Giulia; Rickhaus, Peter; Taniguchi, Takashi; Watanabe, Kenji; Ihn, Thomas; Ensslin, Klaus; de Vries, Folkert K. (24 October 2022).
978:
793:
700:
1810:"The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. III Ch. 21: The Schrödinger Equation in a Classical Context: A Seminar on Superconductivity, Section 21–9: The Josephson junction"
1348:
931:
874:
847:
820:
758:
731:
631:
590:
442:
1296:
1001:
1397:
which is cheaper and more easily handled than liquid helium. They are less sensitive than conventional low temperature SQUIDs but good enough for many applications.
1276:
904:
658:
509:
304:
284:
257:
222:
202:
175:
1374:, as pure lead is unstable when its temperature is repeatedly changed. To maintain superconductivity, the entire device needs to operate within a few degrees of
1191:
1118:
951:
549:
529:
482:
324:
148:
906:, then the SQUID always operates in the resistive mode. The voltage, in this case, is thus a function of the applied magnetic field and the period equal to
1683:
957:
the junction's own intrinsic resistance is usually sufficient). The screening current is the applied flux divided by the self-inductance of the ring. Thus
1865:
1665:
3194:
2569:
2360:
Kleiner, R.; Koelle, D.; Ludwig, F.; Clarke, J. (2004). "Superconducting quantum interference devices: State of the art and applications".
2334:
1601:(SPMR), a technology that utilizes the high magnetic field sensitivity of SQUID sensors and the superparamagnetic properties of magnetite
2864:
2927:
2140:
M.S. Colclough, C.E. Gough et al, Radiofrequency SQUID operation usinga ceramic high temperature superconductor, Nature 328, 47 (1987)
1050:
484:
splits into the two branches equally. If a small external magnetic field is applied to the superconducting loop, a screening current,
1897:
A.TH.A.M. de Waele & R. de Bruyn
Ouboter (1969). "Quantum-interference phenomena in point contacts between two superconductors".
448:
The DC SQUID was invented in 1964 by Robert
Jaklevic, John J. Lambe, James Mercereau, and Arnold Silver of Ford Research Labs after
2473:"Superconducting Transducer for Gravitational-Wave Detectors" in "The SQUID Handbook: Applications of SQUIDs and SQUID Systems"
1127:
2833:
1404:
Josephson junction. The sensors are a few 100 nm in size and operate at 1K or below. Such sensors allow to count spins.
1739:
R. C. Jaklevic; J. Lambe; A. H. Silver & J. E. Mercereau (1964). "Quantum
Interference Effects in Josephson Tunneling".
3286:
3024:
2902:
2616:
1551:
1542:. Hundreds of thousands of multiplexed SQUIDs coupled to transition-edge sensors are presently being deployed to study the
1199:
417:
respectively. Right: Periodic voltage response due to flux through a SQUID. The periodicity is equal to one flux quantum,
1463:
probe. Such device allows simultaneous measurement of roughness of the surface of a sample and the local magnetic flux.
3134:
1386:
3222:
374:
83:
produces 0.01 tesla (10 T), and some processes in animals produce very small magnetic fields between 10 T and 10 T.
2943:
2764:"Detection of breast cancer cells using targeted magnetic nanoparticles and ultra-sensitive magnetic field sensors"
954:
204:. The thin barriers on each path are Josephson junctions, which together separate the two superconducting regions.
1439:, which is concerned with recording the weak magnetic fields of the stomach. A novel application of SQUIDs is the
3139:
2857:
115:
1722:
1454:
Probably the most common commercial use of SQUIDs is in magnetic property measurement systems (MPMS). These are
1443:
method, which is used to trace the path of orally applied drugs. In the clinical environment SQUIDs are used in
3322:
2922:
2892:
1009:
3263:
3115:
3059:
3034:
1629:
1598:
1400:
In 2006, A proof of concept was shown for CNT-SQUID sensors built with an aluminium loop and a single walled
94:
but are orders of magnitude larger in size (~1 cm) and must be operated in a near-zero magnetic field.
3317:
3165:
3094:
1774:
Anderson, P.; Rowell, J. (1963). "Probable
Observation of the Josephson Superconducting Tunneling Effect".
1567:
3110:
3029:
1543:
1390:
2159:
Cleuziou, J.-P.; Wernsdorfer, W. (2006). "Carbon nanotube superconducting quantum interference device".
1652:
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3212:
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1440:
1836:
341:
3332:
3170:
2917:
1587:
1555:
1474:
733:. The current now flows in the opposite direction, opposing the difference between the admitted flux
87:
atomic magnetometers, invented in the early 2000s are potentially more sensitive and do not require
2953:
2048:"Theory of the RF biased Superconducting Quantum Interference Device for the non-hysteretic regime"
1614:
1591:
1512:
2508:
Wilson, C. M. (2011). "Observation of the
Dynamical Casimir Effect in a Superconducting Circuit".
960:
3296:
3155:
3087:
3004:
1460:
763:
670:
953:
is connected across the junction to eliminate the hysteresis (in the case of copper oxide based
3337:
3207:
3180:
3160:
3082:
1975:
Sternickel, K.; Braginski, A. I. (2006). "Biomagnetism using SQUIDs: Status and perspectives".
1583:
1539:
1448:
1427:
1326:
1315:
909:
852:
825:
798:
736:
709:
595:
554:
457:
420:
20:
1858:
1281:
983:
933:. Since the current-voltage characteristic of the DC SQUID is hysteretic, a shunt resistance,
3077:
795:. The current decreases as the external field is increased, is zero when the flux is exactly
703:
2149:
LP Lee et al., Monolithic 77K DC SQUID magnetometer, Applied
Physics Letters 59, 3051 (1991)
1451:(MFI), which detects the magnetic field of the heart for diagnosis and risk stratification.
3281:
3237:
2653:
2527:
2284:
2219:
2168:
2100:
2059:
1984:
1941:
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1748:
1698:
1254:
882:
636:
487:
289:
262:
235:
207:
180:
153:
1193:
of the loop is not so large. The general case can be evaluated by introducing a parameter
8:
1682:
D. Drung; C. Assmann; J. Beyer; A. Kirste; M. Peters; F. Ruede & Th. Schurig (2007).
1489:
1436:
80:
64:
2657:
2531:
2288:
2223:
2172:
2104:
2063:
1988:
1945:
1910:
1787:
1752:
1702:
1314:
The RF SQUID was invented in 1967 by Robert
Jaklevic, John J. Lambe, Arnold Silver, and
3268:
3019:
2979:
2798:
2763:
2744:
2674:
2641:
2551:
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2192:
2116:
2000:
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1714:
1505:
1497:
1430:(MEG), for example, uses measurements from an array of SQUIDs to make inferences about
1176:
1103:
936:
661:
534:
514:
467:
327:
309:
133:
111:
57:
2436:(2004). "GETMAG—A SQUID magnetic tensor gradiometer for mineral and oil exploration".
2395:
2112:
3044:
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2736:
2728:
2720:
2679:
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2320:
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2300:
2262:
2247:
2235:
2184:
2004:
1996:
1957:
1932:
Romani, G. L.; Williamson, S. J.; Kaufman, L. (1982). "Biomagnetic instrumentation".
1918:
1493:
53:
2748:
2623:
2490:
2457:
2381:
1718:
1350:. For a precise mathematical description refer to the original paper by Erné et al.
633:
in the other. As soon as the current in either branch exceeds the critical current,
338:
Left: Plot of current vs. voltage for a SQUID. Upper and lower curves correspond to
3253:
3227:
2999:
2974:
2907:
2793:
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2710:
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2067:
2028:
1992:
1949:
1914:
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Advanced SQUIDS called near quantum-limited SQUID amplifiers form the basis of the
1527:
453:
2555:
1809:
1385:
High-temperature SQUID sensors were developed in the late 1980s. They are made of
3276:
3009:
1738:
1547:
1501:
1401:
1394:
1359:
449:
107:
2699:"Magnetic relaxometry as applied to sensitive cancer detection and localization"
3014:
2958:
2948:
2912:
2296:
1837:
E. du Trémolet de Lacheisserie, D. Gignoux, and M. Schlenker (editors) (2005).
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1523:
103:
49:
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2032:
1710:
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91:
71:
with a few days of averaged measurements. Their noise levels are as low as 3
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2989:
2807:
2740:
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2547:
2312:
2239:
2188:
1602:
1426:
The extreme sensitivity of SQUIDs makes them ideal for studies in biology.
1320:
68:
45:
2715:
2231:
2180:
1961:
3175:
2984:
2433:
1570:(ADMX) at the University of Washington. Axions are a prime candidate for
1485:
1408:
2539:
2415:
Nuclear Magnetic and Quadrupole Resonance and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
2120:
2088:
849:, with a change at maximum amperage every half-plus-integer multiple of
2887:
1624:
1444:
531:
in one of the branches of the superconducting loop, and is opposite to
2732:
2698:
1953:
456:
in 1962, and the first Josephson junction was made by John Rowell and
2072:
2047:
1896:
1482:
461:
118:), which might make them cheaper to produce, but are less sensitive.
88:
2842:
2780:
2449:
1881:
667:
Now suppose the external flux is further increased until it exceeds
3202:
2279:
1681:
1500:. A SQUID is the sensor in each of the four gyroscopes employed on
1306:
2522:
2431:
1418:
28:
2696:
1538:
One of the largest uses of SQUIDs is to read out superconducting
1519:
1455:
1363:
2045:
1093:{\displaystyle 2\cdot \Delta I=2\cdot {\frac {\Delta \Phi }{L}}}
2413:
Clarke, J.; Lee, A.T.; MĂĽck, M.; Richards, P.L. "Chapter 8.3".
1478:
1431:
1371:
72:
1654:
Gravity Probe B: Exploring Einstein's Universe with Gyroscopes
326:
is the voltage response to that flux. The X-symbols represent
3258:
1367:
76:
2826:
The SQUID Handbook: Applications of SQUIDs and SQUID Systems
2432:
P. Schmidt; D. Clark; K. Leslie; M. Bick; D. Tilbrook &
2260:
3291:
2761:
1661:
1466:
For example, SQUIDs are being used as detectors to perform
334:
228:
126:
84:
2359:
1162:{\displaystyle \Delta V={\frac {R}{L}}\cdot \Delta \Phi }
224:
represents the magnetic flux threading the DC SQUID loop.
150:
enters and splits into the two paths, each with currents
2263:"A tunable monolithic SQUID in twisted bilayer graphene"
2210:
Aprili, Marco (2006). "The nanoSQUID makes its debut".
1931:
2622:. The Industrial Physicist. p. 22. Archived from
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1284:
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1202:
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265:
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210:
183:
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136:
1241:{\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {i_{c}L}{\Phi _{0}}}}
2491:"First Observation of the Dynamical Casimir Effect"
2158:
1974:
1582:A potential military application exists for use in
1342:
1290:
1270:
1240:
1185:
1161:
1120:is the self inductance of the superconducting ring
1112:
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1036:
995:
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2642:"A biomagnetic system for in vivo cancer imaging"
2412:
3309:
2703:Biomedical Engineering / Biomedizinische Technik
1684:"Highly sensitive and easy-to-use SQUID sensors"
1422:The inner workings of an early SQUID, circa 1990
2824:Clarke, John; Braginski, Alex I., eds. (2006).
2823:
2478:
2420:
551:in the other branch; the total current becomes
410:{\displaystyle n+{\frac {1}{2}}\cdot \Phi _{0}}
1773:
1691:IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity
1278:is the critical current of the SQUID. Usually
2858:
2046:S.N. Erné; H.-D. Hahlbohm; H. Lübbig (1976).
1882:J. Clarke and A. I. Braginski (Eds.) (2004).
1504:in order to test the limits of the theory of
2335:"A new quantum component made from graphene"
2017:
1511:A modified RF SQUID was used to observe the
1409:magic angle twisted bilayer graphene (MATBG)
2639:
42:superconducting quantum interference device
2865:
2851:
2396:"Microscopie à microsquid - Institut NÉEL"
1533:
2797:
2779:
2714:
2673:
2521:
2278:
2071:
1864:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1732:
876:and at zero amps every integer multiple.
664:, a voltage appears across the junction.
1877:
1875:
1477:, which uses a SQUID immersed in liquid
1417:
1305:
1037:{\displaystyle \Delta V=R\cdot \Delta I}
1003:(flux to voltage converter) as follows:
333:
227:
125:
27:
1646:
1644:
1550:, to search for dark matter made up of
110:(RF). RF SQUIDs can work with only one
63:SQUIDs are sensitive enough to measure
3310:
2507:
2209:
2086:
286:is the critical current of the SQUID,
232:Electrical schematic of a SQUID where
2872:
2846:
2617:"SQUID Sensors Penetrate New Markets"
2614:
1977:Superconductor Science and Technology
1872:
1839:Magnetism: Materials and Applications
1522:wire loops are used as the basis for
1518:SQUIDs constructed from super-cooled
97:
1832:
1830:
1641:
1552:Weakly interacting massive particles
980:can be estimated as the function of
760:and the external field of just over
306:is the flux threading the SQUID and
1650:
1561:
1481:as the probe. The use of SQUIDs in
1407:In 2022 a SQUID was constructed on
130:Diagram of a DC SQUID. The current
102:There are two main types of SQUID:
13:
1331:
1227:
1156:
1153:
1131:
1081:
1078:
1060:
1028:
1013:
987:
967:
964:
914:
879:If the input current is more than
857:
830:
803:
768:
741:
714:
675:
425:
398:
352:
293:
211:
14:
3349:
2586:from the original on 29 July 2016
2113:10.1038/scientificamerican0894-46
1827:
1671:from the original on 16 May 2008.
1353:
2640:Flynn, E R; Bryant, H C (2005).
2470:
1934:Review of Scientific Instruments
1577:
1387:high-temperature superconductors
955:high-temperature superconductors
364:{\displaystyle n\cdot \Phi _{0}}
32:Sensing element of a SQUID, 2008
2755:
2690:
2646:Physics in Medicine and Biology
2633:
2608:
2598:
2562:
2501:
2483:
2464:
2425:
2406:
2388:
2353:
2327:
2254:
2203:
2152:
2143:
2134:
2080:
2039:
2011:
1968:
116:superconducting tunnel junction
48:used to measure extremely weak
1925:
1890:
1802:
1767:
1675:
1362:materials for SQUIDs are pure
1:
2817:
1630:Macroscopic quantum phenomena
1599:superparamagnetic relaxometry
2471:Paik, Ho J. "Chapter 15.2".
2087:Clarke, John (August 1994).
1919:10.1016/0031-8914(69)90116-5
1651:Ran, Shannon K’doah (2004).
1568:Axion Dark Matter Experiment
1492:, earthquake prediction and
973:{\displaystyle \Delta \Phi }
79:. For comparison, a typical
7:
2479:Clarke & Braginski 2006
2421:Clarke & Braginski 2006
1814:feynmanlectures.caltech.edu
1608:
1544:Cosmic microwave background
1473:Another application is the
1301:
788:{\displaystyle \Phi _{0}/2}
695:{\displaystyle \Phi _{0}/2}
121:
10:
3354:
3195:Technological applications
2828:. Vol. 2. Wiley-VCH.
2666:10.1088/0031-9155/50/6/016
2297:10.1038/s41565-022-01222-0
1997:10.1088/0953-2048/19/3/024
1796:10.1103/PhysRevLett.10.230
1761:10.1103/PhysRevLett.12.159
1554:, and for spectroscopy at
1468:magnetic resonance imaging
1441:magnetic marker monitoring
18:
3246:
3193:
3148:
3124:
3103:
3067:
3058:
2967:
2937:Characteristic parameters
2936:
2880:
2374:10.1109/JPROC.2004.833655
1886:. Vol. 1. Wiley-Vch.
1588:magnetic anomaly detector
1556:Synchrotron light sources
1475:scanning SQUID microscope
1343:{\displaystyle \Phi _{0}}
926:{\displaystyle \Phi _{0}}
869:{\displaystyle \Phi _{0}}
842:{\displaystyle \Phi _{0}}
815:{\displaystyle \Phi _{0}}
753:{\displaystyle \Phi _{0}}
726:{\displaystyle \Phi _{0}}
626:{\displaystyle I/2-I_{s}}
585:{\displaystyle I/2+I_{s}}
437:{\displaystyle \Phi _{0}}
2954:London penetration depth
2033:10.1103/PhysRevB.12.1712
1841:. Vol. 2. Springer.
1711:10.1109/TASC.2007.897403
1635:
1592:maritime patrol aircraft
1513:dynamical Casimir effect
1291:{\displaystyle \lambda }
996:{\displaystyle \Delta V}
3247:List of superconductors
3125:By critical temperature
2362:Proceedings of the IEEE
1776:Physical Review Letters
1741:Physical Review Letters
1540:Transition-edge sensors
1534:Transition-edge sensors
1413:
2768:Breast Cancer Research
2438:Exploration Geophysics
1584:anti-submarine warfare
1449:magnetic field imaging
1428:Magnetoencephalography
1423:
1344:
1316:James Edward Zimmerman
1311:
1292:
1272:
1242:
1187:
1163:
1114:
1094:
1038:
997:
974:
947:
927:
900:
870:
843:
816:
789:
754:
727:
696:
654:
627:
586:
545:
525:
505:
478:
445:
438:
411:
365:
331:
320:
300:
280:
253:
225:
218:
198:
171:
144:
44:) is a very sensitive
33:
21:Squid (disambiguation)
3323:Measuring instruments
2893:Bean's critical state
2716:10.1515/bmt-2015-0053
2615:Ouellette, Jennifer.
2267:Nature Nanotechnology
2232:10.1038/nnano.2006.78
2212:Nature Nanotechnology
2181:10.1038/nnano.2006.54
2161:Nature Nanotechnology
1421:
1345:
1309:
1293:
1273:
1271:{\displaystyle i_{c}}
1243:
1188:
1164:
1115:
1095:
1039:
998:
975:
948:
928:
901:
899:{\displaystyle I_{c}}
871:
844:
817:
790:
755:
728:
704:magnetic flux quantum
697:
655:
653:{\displaystyle I_{c}}
628:
587:
546:
526:
506:
504:{\displaystyle I_{s}}
479:
439:
412:
366:
337:
321:
301:
299:{\displaystyle \Phi }
281:
279:{\displaystyle I_{0}}
259:is the bias current,
254:
252:{\displaystyle I_{b}}
231:
219:
217:{\displaystyle \Phi }
199:
197:{\displaystyle I_{b}}
172:
170:{\displaystyle I_{a}}
145:
129:
31:
3068:By magnetic response
1615:Aharonov–Bohm effect
1515:for the first time.
1393:, and are cooled by
1327:
1282:
1255:
1200:
1177:
1128:
1104:
1051:
1010:
984:
961:
937:
910:
883:
853:
826:
799:
764:
737:
710:
671:
637:
596:
555:
535:
515:
488:
468:
421:
375:
342:
310:
290:
263:
236:
208:
181:
154:
134:
19:For other uses, see
16:Type of magnetometer
3318:American inventions
3020:persistent currents
3005:Little–Parks effect
2658:2005PMB....50.1273F
2570:"Not Magic Quantum"
2540:10.1038/nature10561
2532:2011Natur.479..376W
2475:. pp. 548–554.
2289:2022NatNa..17.1159P
2224:2006NatNa...1...15A
2173:2006NatNa...1...53C
2105:1994SciAm.271b..46C
2093:Scientific American
2064:1976JAP....47.5440E
1989:2006SuScT..19S.160S
1946:1982RScI...53.1815R
1911:1969Phy....41..225D
1788:1963PhRvL..10..230A
1753:1964PhRvL..12..159J
1703:2007ITAS...17..699D
1597:SQUIDs are used in
1498:gravitational waves
1490:mineral exploration
1437:magnetogastrography
328:Josephson junctions
81:refrigerator magnet
58:Josephson junctions
2980:Andreev reflection
2975:Abrikosov vortices
2218:(October): 15–16.
2167:(October): 53–59.
1884:The SQUID handbook
1857:has generic name (
1506:general relativity
1424:
1340:
1312:
1288:
1268:
1238:
1183:
1159:
1110:
1090:
1034:
993:
970:
943:
923:
896:
866:
839:
812:
785:
750:
723:
692:
662:Josephson junction
650:
623:
592:in one branch and
582:
541:
521:
501:
474:
446:
434:
407:
361:
332:
316:
296:
276:
249:
226:
214:
194:
167:
140:
112:Josephson junction
98:History and design
34:
3328:Superconductivity
3305:
3304:
3223:quantum computing
3189:
3188:
3045:superdiamagnetism
2874:Superconductivity
2835:978-3-527-40408-7
2516:(7373): 376–379.
2495:Technology Review
2417:. pp. 56–81.
2368:(10): 1534–1548.
2341:. 3 November 2022
2273:(11): 1159–1164.
2058:(12): 5440–5442.
2021:Physical Review B
1954:10.1063/1.1136907
1940:(12): 1815–1845.
1494:geothermal energy
1370:with 10% gold or
1310:A prototype SQUID
1298:is of order one.
1236:
1186:{\displaystyle L}
1148:
1113:{\displaystyle L}
1088:
946:{\displaystyle R}
544:{\displaystyle I}
524:{\displaystyle I}
477:{\displaystyle I}
392:
319:{\displaystyle V}
143:{\displaystyle I}
56:loops containing
3345:
3333:Josephson effect
3254:bilayer graphene
3228:Rutherford cable
3140:room temperature
3135:high temperature
3065:
3064:
3025:proximity effect
3000:Josephson effect
2944:coherence length
2867:
2860:
2853:
2844:
2843:
2839:
2812:
2811:
2801:
2783:
2759:
2753:
2752:
2718:
2694:
2688:
2687:
2677:
2652:(6): 1273–1293.
2637:
2631:
2630:
2628:
2621:
2612:
2606:
2602:
2596:
2595:
2593:
2591:
2585:
2574:
2566:
2560:
2559:
2525:
2505:
2499:
2498:
2487:
2481:
2476:
2468:
2462:
2461:
2429:
2423:
2418:
2410:
2404:
2403:
2392:
2386:
2385:
2357:
2351:
2350:
2348:
2346:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2282:
2258:
2252:
2251:
2207:
2201:
2200:
2156:
2150:
2147:
2141:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2084:
2078:
2077:
2075:
2073:10.1063/1.322574
2043:
2037:
2036:
2027:(5): 1712–1714.
2015:
2009:
2008:
1972:
1966:
1965:
1929:
1923:
1922:
1894:
1888:
1887:
1879:
1870:
1869:
1862:
1856:
1852:
1850:
1842:
1834:
1825:
1824:
1822:
1820:
1806:
1800:
1799:
1771:
1765:
1764:
1736:
1730:
1729:
1728:on 19 July 2011.
1727:
1721:. Archived from
1688:
1679:
1673:
1672:
1670:
1659:
1648:
1620:Electromagnetism
1590:(MAD) fitted to
1572:cold dark matter
1562:Cold dark matter
1528:quantum computer
1358:The traditional
1349:
1347:
1346:
1341:
1339:
1338:
1297:
1295:
1294:
1289:
1277:
1275:
1274:
1269:
1267:
1266:
1247:
1245:
1244:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1234:
1225:
1221:
1220:
1210:
1192:
1190:
1189:
1184:
1168:
1166:
1165:
1160:
1149:
1141:
1119:
1117:
1116:
1111:
1099:
1097:
1096:
1091:
1089:
1084:
1076:
1043:
1041:
1040:
1035:
1002:
1000:
999:
994:
979:
977:
976:
971:
952:
950:
949:
944:
932:
930:
929:
924:
922:
921:
905:
903:
902:
897:
895:
894:
875:
873:
872:
867:
865:
864:
848:
846:
845:
840:
838:
837:
821:
819:
818:
813:
811:
810:
794:
792:
791:
786:
781:
776:
775:
759:
757:
756:
751:
749:
748:
732:
730:
729:
724:
722:
721:
701:
699:
698:
693:
688:
683:
682:
659:
657:
656:
651:
649:
648:
632:
630:
629:
624:
622:
621:
606:
591:
589:
588:
583:
581:
580:
565:
550:
548:
547:
542:
530:
528:
527:
522:
510:
508:
507:
502:
500:
499:
483:
481:
480:
475:
454:Josephson effect
443:
441:
440:
435:
433:
432:
416:
414:
413:
408:
406:
405:
393:
385:
370:
368:
367:
362:
360:
359:
325:
323:
322:
317:
305:
303:
302:
297:
285:
283:
282:
277:
275:
274:
258:
256:
255:
250:
248:
247:
223:
221:
220:
215:
203:
201:
200:
195:
193:
192:
176:
174:
173:
168:
166:
165:
149:
147:
146:
141:
3353:
3352:
3348:
3347:
3346:
3344:
3343:
3342:
3308:
3307:
3306:
3301:
3272:
3242:
3185:
3144:
3131:low temperature
3120:
3099:
3054:
3010:Meissner effect
2963:
2959:Silsbee current
2932:
2898:Ginzburg–Landau
2876:
2871:
2836:
2820:
2815:
2781:10.1186/bcr3050
2760:
2756:
2695:
2691:
2638:
2634:
2629:on 18 May 2008.
2626:
2619:
2613:
2609:
2603:
2599:
2589:
2587:
2583:
2572:
2568:
2567:
2563:
2506:
2502:
2489:
2488:
2484:
2469:
2465:
2450:10.1071/eg04297
2430:
2426:
2411:
2407:
2394:
2393:
2389:
2358:
2354:
2344:
2342:
2333:
2332:
2328:
2259:
2255:
2208:
2204:
2157:
2153:
2148:
2144:
2139:
2135:
2125:
2123:
2085:
2081:
2044:
2040:
2016:
2012:
1973:
1969:
1930:
1926:
1895:
1891:
1880:
1873:
1863:
1854:
1853:
1844:
1843:
1835:
1828:
1818:
1816:
1808:
1807:
1803:
1772:
1768:
1737:
1733:
1725:
1686:
1680:
1676:
1668:
1657:
1649:
1642:
1638:
1611:
1580:
1564:
1548:X-ray astronomy
1536:
1502:Gravity Probe B
1416:
1402:carbon nanotube
1395:liquid nitrogen
1389:, particularly
1360:superconducting
1356:
1334:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1324:
1304:
1283:
1280:
1279:
1262:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1252:
1230:
1226:
1216:
1212:
1211:
1209:
1201:
1198:
1197:
1178:
1175:
1174:
1140:
1129:
1126:
1125:
1105:
1102:
1101:
1077:
1075:
1052:
1049:
1048:
1011:
1008:
1007:
985:
982:
981:
962:
959:
958:
938:
935:
934:
917:
913:
911:
908:
907:
890:
886:
884:
881:
880:
860:
856:
854:
851:
850:
833:
829:
827:
824:
823:
806:
802:
800:
797:
796:
777:
771:
767:
765:
762:
761:
744:
740:
738:
735:
734:
717:
713:
711:
708:
707:
684:
678:
674:
672:
669:
668:
644:
640:
638:
635:
634:
617:
613:
602:
597:
594:
593:
576:
572:
561:
556:
553:
552:
536:
533:
532:
516:
513:
512:
495:
491:
489:
486:
485:
469:
466:
465:
458:Philip Anderson
452:postulated the
450:Brian Josephson
428:
424:
422:
419:
418:
401:
397:
384:
376:
373:
372:
355:
351:
343:
340:
339:
311:
308:
307:
291:
288:
287:
270:
266:
264:
261:
260:
243:
239:
237:
234:
233:
209:
206:
205:
188:
184:
182:
179:
178:
161:
157:
155:
152:
151:
135:
132:
131:
124:
108:radio frequency
100:
67:as low as 5Ă—10
54:superconducting
50:magnetic fields
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3351:
3341:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3303:
3302:
3300:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3261:
3256:
3250:
3248:
3244:
3243:
3241:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3208:electromagnets
3205:
3199:
3197:
3191:
3190:
3187:
3186:
3184:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3152:
3150:
3149:By composition
3146:
3145:
3143:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3128:
3126:
3122:
3121:
3119:
3118:
3116:unconventional
3113:
3107:
3105:
3104:By explanation
3101:
3100:
3098:
3097:
3092:
3091:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3071:
3069:
3062:
3060:Classification
3056:
3055:
3053:
3052:
3047:
3042:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2971:
2969:
2965:
2964:
2962:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2949:critical field
2946:
2940:
2938:
2934:
2933:
2931:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2918:Mattis–Bardeen
2915:
2910:
2905:
2903:Kohn–Luttinger
2900:
2895:
2890:
2884:
2882:
2878:
2877:
2870:
2869:
2862:
2855:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2834:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2813:
2754:
2709:(5): 445–455.
2689:
2632:
2607:
2597:
2561:
2500:
2482:
2463:
2444:(4): 297–305.
2424:
2405:
2387:
2352:
2326:
2253:
2202:
2151:
2142:
2133:
2079:
2038:
2010:
1967:
1924:
1905:(2): 225–254.
1889:
1871:
1826:
1801:
1782:(6): 230–232.
1766:
1747:(7): 159–160.
1731:
1697:(2): 699–704.
1674:
1664:. p. 26.
1639:
1637:
1634:
1633:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1610:
1607:
1579:
1576:
1563:
1560:
1535:
1532:
1524:D-Wave Systems
1415:
1412:
1378:, cooled with
1355:
1354:Materials used
1352:
1337:
1333:
1303:
1300:
1287:
1265:
1261:
1249:
1248:
1233:
1229:
1224:
1219:
1215:
1208:
1205:
1182:
1170:
1169:
1158:
1155:
1152:
1147:
1144:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1122:
1121:
1109:
1087:
1083:
1080:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1045:
1044:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1015:
992:
989:
969:
966:
942:
920:
916:
893:
889:
863:
859:
836:
832:
809:
805:
784:
780:
774:
770:
747:
743:
720:
716:
691:
687:
681:
677:
647:
643:
620:
616:
612:
609:
605:
601:
579:
575:
571:
568:
564:
560:
540:
520:
498:
494:
473:
431:
427:
404:
400:
396:
391:
388:
383:
380:
358:
354:
350:
347:
315:
295:
273:
269:
246:
242:
213:
191:
187:
164:
160:
139:
123:
120:
104:direct current
99:
96:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3350:
3339:
3338:Magnetometers
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3315:
3313:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3251:
3249:
3245:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3200:
3198:
3196:
3192:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3166:heavy fermion
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3153:
3151:
3147:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3130:
3129:
3127:
3123:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3108:
3106:
3102:
3096:
3095:ferromagnetic
3093:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3075:
3073:
3072:
3070:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3057:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3040:supercurrents
3038:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2972:
2970:
2966:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2941:
2939:
2935:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2885:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2868:
2863:
2861:
2856:
2854:
2849:
2848:
2845:
2837:
2831:
2827:
2822:
2821:
2809:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2758:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2693:
2685:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2636:
2625:
2618:
2611:
2601:
2582:
2579:. July 2016.
2578:
2571:
2565:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2504:
2496:
2492:
2486:
2480:
2474:
2467:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2428:
2422:
2416:
2409:
2401:
2397:
2391:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2356:
2340:
2336:
2330:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2257:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2206:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2155:
2146:
2137:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2083:
2074:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2052:J. Appl. Phys
2049:
2042:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2014:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1971:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1928:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1893:
1885:
1878:
1876:
1867:
1860:
1855:|author=
1848:
1840:
1833:
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