Politics of Russia

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expenditures for a wide variety of interest groups, and campaign-sponsored concerts boosted Yeltsin to a 3 percent plurality over Zyuganov in the first round. The election campaign was largely sponsored by wealthy tycoons, for whom Yeltsin remaining at power was the key to protect their property acquired during the reforms of 1991-1996. After the first election round, Yeltsin took the tactically significant step of appointing first-round presidential candidate Aleksandr Lebed, who had placed third behind Yeltsin and Zyuganov, as head of the Security Council. Yeltsin followed the appointment of Lebed as the president's top adviser on national security by dismissing several top hard-line members of his entourage who were widely blamed for human rights violations in Chechnya and other mistakes. Despite his virtual disappearance from public view for health reasons shortly thereafter, Yeltsin was able to sustain his central message that Russia should move forward rather than return to its communist past. Zyuganov failed to mount an energetic or convincing second campaign, and three weeks after the first phase of the election, Yeltsin easily defeated his opponent, 54 percent to 40 percent.

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include managing municipal property, establishing and executing regional budgets, establishing and collecting regional taxes, and maintaining law and order. Some of the boundaries between joint and exclusively federal powers are vaguely prescribed; presumably, they would become clearer through the give and take of federal practice or through adjudication, as has occurred in other federal systems. Meanwhile, bilateral power-sharing treaties between the central government and the subunits have become an important means of clarifying the boundaries of shared powers. Many subnational jurisdictions have their own constitutions, however, and often those documents allocate powers to the jurisdiction inconsistent with provisions of the federal constitution. As of 1996, no process had been devised for adjudication of such conflicts.

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and most of the thirty-two ethnically based jurisdictions are demographically dominated by ethnic Russians, as are all of the territories and oblasts. Many of the subnational jurisdictions are in the interior of Russia, meaning that they could not break away without joining a bloc of seceding border areas, and the economies of all such jurisdictions were thoroughly integrated with the national economy in the Soviet system. The 1993 constitution strengthens the official status of the central government in relation to the various regions, although Moscow has made significant concessions in bilateral treaties. Finally, most of the differences at the base of separatist movements are economic and geographic rather than ethnic.

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sympathetic to the central government, and the legislatures (called soviets until late 1993, then called dumas or assemblies) have been the center of whatever separatist sentiment exists. Under the power given him in 1991 to appoint the chief executives of territories, oblasts, autonomous regions, and the autonomous oblast, Yeltsin had appointed virtually all of the sixty-six leaders of those jurisdictions. By contrast, republic presidents have been popularly elected since 1992. Some of Yeltsin's appointees have encountered strong opposition from their legislatures; in 1992 and 1993, in some cases, votes of no-confidence brought about popular elections for the position of chief executive.

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report on draft laws to their houses, conduct hearings, and oversee implementation of the laws. As of early 1996, there were twenty-eight committees and several ad hoc commissions in the State Duma, and twelve committees and two commissions in the Federation Council. The Federation Council has established fewer committees because of the part-time status of its members, who also hold political office in the subnational jurisdictions. In 1996 most of the committees in both houses were retained in basic form from the previous parliament. According to internal procedure, no deputy may sit on more than one committee. By 1996 many State Duma committees had established subcommittees.

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warning that many Russians were disillusioned with voting and would not turn out. To make voter participation more appealing, the law required one voting precinct for approximately every 3,000 voters, with voting allowed until late at night. The conditions for absentee voting were eased, and portable ballot boxes were to be made available on demand. Strict requirements were established for the presence of election observers, including emissaries from all participating parties, blocs, and groups, at polling places and local electoral commissions to guard against tampering and to ensure proper tabulation.

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the Central Russia Association; the Northwest Association; the Black Earth Association; the Cooperation Association of North Caucasus Republics, Territories, and Oblasts; the Greater Volga Association; the Ural Regional Association; and the Far East and Baikal Association. The Federation Council formally recognized these interjurisdictional organizations in 1994. Expansion of the organizations' activities is hampered by economic inequalities among their members and by inadequate interregional transportation infrastructure, but in 1996 they began increasing their influence in Moscow.

1979:, ratified in May 1995, establishes the legal basis for presidential elections. Based on a draft submitted by Yeltsin's office, the new law included many provisions already contained in the Russian Republic's 1990 election law; alterations included the reduction in the number of signatures required to register a candidate from 2 million to 1 million. The law, which set rigorous standards for fair campaign and election procedures, was hailed by international analysts as a major step toward democratization. Under the law, parties, blocs, and voters' groups register with the 496: 147: 3635: 1833: 3237: 2292:

and decrees of the president establishing martial law or states of emergency. As the upper chamber, it also has responsibilities in confirming and removing the procurator general and confirming justices of the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, and the High Court of Arbitration, upon the recommendation of the president. The Federation Council also is entrusted with the final decision if the State Duma recommends removing the president from office. The constitution also directs that the Federation Council examine bills passed by the lower chamber dealing with

2677:, the government intended to sign power-sharing agreements with all of Russia's 89 subjects. Following the election of Vladimir Putin on 26 March 2000 and his subsequent overhaul of the federal system, the power-sharing treaties began to be abolished. The vast majority of treaties were terminated between 2001 and 2002 while others were forcibly annulled on 4 July 2003. Bashkortostan, Moscow, and Tatarstan's treaties expired on their own individual dates. On 24 July 2017, Tatarstan's power-sharing treaty expired, making it the last subject to lose its autonomy. 2304:

Duma, the two chambers may form a conciliation commission to work out a compromise version of the legislation. The State Duma then votes on the compromise bill. If the State Duma objects to the proposals of the upper chamber in the conciliation process, it may vote by a two-thirds majority to send its version to the president for signature. The part-time character of the Federation Council's work, its less developed committee structure, and its lesser powers vis-à-vis the State Duma make it more a consultative and reviewing body than a law-making chamber.

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According to Prime Minister Chernomyrdin, the charter gave Orenburg full power over its budget and allowed the oblast to participate in privatization decisions. By early 1996, similar charters had been signed with Krasnodar Territory and Kaliningrad and Sverdlovsk oblasts. In the summer of 1996, Yeltsin wooed potential regional supporters of his reelection by signing charters with Perm', Rostov, Tver', and Leningrad oblasts and with the city of St. Petersburg, among others, granting these regions liberal tax treatment and other economic advantages.

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out that Russia has been supplying gas to the states in question at prices that were significantly below world market levels, and in most cases remain so even after the increases. Politicians in Russia argued that it is not obligated to effectively subsidize the economies of post-Soviet states by offering them resources at below-market prices. Regardless of alleged political motivation, observers have noted that charging market prices is Russia's legitimate right, and point out that Russia has raised the price even for its close ally, Belarus.

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other nations. However, as Yeltsin's standing with public opinion plummeted in 1995, Chernomyrdin became one of many Government officials who received public blame from the president for failures in the Yeltsin administration. As part of his presidential campaign, Yeltsin threatened to replace the Chernomyrdin Government if it failed to address pressing social welfare problems in Russia. After the mid-1996 presidential election, however, Yeltsin announced that he would nominate Chernomyrdin to head the new Government.

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adopted. Progressively, however, human rights violations in connection with religious groups labeled "extremist" by the government have been increasingly frequent. The right to a multiparty political system is upheld. The content of laws must be approved by the public before they take effect, and they must be formulated in accordance with international law and principles. Russian is proclaimed the state language, although the republics of the federation are allowed to establish their own state language.

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results of the first round are known, the runoff election must be held within fifteen days. A traditional provision allows voters to check off "none of the above," meaning that a candidate in a two-person runoff might win without attaining a majority. Another provision of the election law empowers the CEC to request that the Supreme Court ban a candidate from the election if that candidate advocates a violent transformation of the constitutional order or the integrity of the Russian Federation.

1662: 3352: 3338: 3250: 3209: 3029: 2917: 2880: 3140: 3099: 3057: 3015: 2852: 3223: 2973: 2931: 3043: 2959: 2866: 2023: 3568:, who are numerous in several regions, generally appear to be in the minority and are unevenly dispersed. Some regions have even advocated greater centralization on some matters. By 1996 most experts believed that the federation would hold together, although probably at the expense of additional concessions of power by the central government. The trend is not toward separatism so much as the devolution of central powers to the localities on trade, taxes, and other matters. 3126: 3154: 2773: 2690: 1620: 3001: 2320:, although it does not have the power to confirm Government ministers. The power to confirm or reject the prime minister is severely limited. According to the 1993 constitution, the State Duma must decide within one week to confirm or reject a candidate once the president has placed that person's name in nomination. If it rejects three candidates, the president is empowered to appoint a prime minister, dissolve the parliament, and schedule new legislative elections. 3686: 3437:, where the rebels were able to take more than 1,000 hostages. Dissatisfaction with Yeltsin's economic reforms also was a factor in the vote. A second motion of no confidence failed to carry in early July. In March 1996, the State Duma again incensed Yeltsin by voting to revoke the December 1991 resolution of the Russian Supreme Soviet abrogating the 1922 treaty under which the Soviet Union had been founded. That resolution had prepared the way for formation of the 2903: 2122:, submits it to the State Duma, and issues a report on its implementation. In late 1994, the parliament successfully demanded that the Government begin submitting quarterly reports on budget expenditures and adhere to other guidelines on budgetary matters, although the parliament's budgetary powers are limited. If the State Duma rejects a draft budget from the Government, the budget is submitted to a conciliation commission including members from both branches. 2073:

groups and some of his own officials to cancel or postpone the balloting because of the threat of violence. The high turnout indicated that voters had confidence that their ballots would count, and the election went forward without incident. The democratization process also was bolstered by Yeltsin's willingness to change key personnel and policies in response to public protests and by his unprecedented series of personal campaign appearances throughout Russia.

3195: 3085: 6212: 2838: 3287: 3113: 1315:(RSFSR). Nominally, the borders of each subunit incorporated the territory of a specific nationality. The constitution endowed the new republics with sovereignty, although they were said to have voluntarily delegated most of their sovereign powers to the Soviet center. Formal sovereignty was evidenced by the existence of flags, constitutions, and other state symbols, and by the republics' constitutionally guaranteed "right" to secede from the union. 2801: 2718: 6222: 2815: 2704: 2656:

sovereignty and accepted Russia's taxing authority, in return for Russia's acceptance of Tatar control over oil and other resources and the republic's right to sign economic agreements with other countries. This treaty has particular significance because Tatarstan was one of the two republics that did not sign the Federation Treaty in 1992. By mid-1996 almost one-third of the federal subunits had concluded power-sharing treaties or charters.

2185:(the upper house). Russia's legislative body was established by the constitution approved in the December 1993 referendum. The first elections to the Federal Assembly were held at the same time—a procedure criticized by some Russians as indicative of Yeltsin's lack of respect for constitutional niceties. Under the constitution, the deputies elected in December 1993 were termed "transitional" because they were to serve only a two-year term. 3273: 3879: 3500: 1234: 35: 3452:, and judicial reform. Yeltsin also was critical of legislation that he had been forced to return to the parliament because it contravened the constitution and existing law, and of legislative attempts to pass fiscal legislation in violation of the constitutional stricture that such bills must be preapproved by the Government. He noted that he would continue to use his veto power against ill-drafted bills and his power to issue 2787: 2746: 1073: 3480: 1851:(RCB) and may propose that the State Duma dismiss the chairman. In addition, the president submits candidates to the Federation Council for appointment as justices of the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, and the High Court of Arbitration, as well as candidates for the office of procurator general, Russia's chief law enforcement officer. The president also appoints justices of federal district courts. 1539:, whom the parliament approved because he was viewed as more economically conservative than Gaidar. After contentious negotiations between the parliament and Yeltsin, the two sides agreed to hold a national referendum to allow the population to determine the basic division of powers between the two branches of government. In the meantime, proposals for extreme limitation of Yeltsin's power were tabled. 1216:. However, with the ascent of Russian Federation President Vladimir Putin, reforms to strengthen federal control were implemented, rolling back regional power gains, including in the 22 Republics. He has later come to dominate Russia's political system, starting an economic reform and strong foreign involvement, having now become the longest Russian leader in power after Stalin. His policies are called 2624:

jurisdictions about their inferior status. In keeping with this new equality, republics no longer receive the epithet "sovereign," as they did in the 1978 constitution. Equal representation in the Federation Council for all eighty-nine jurisdictions furthers the equalization process by providing them meaningful input into legislative activities, particularly those of special local concern.

1983:(CEC) and designate their candidates. These organizations then are permitted to begin seeking the 1 million signatures needed to register their candidates; no more than 7 percent of the signatures may come from a single federal jurisdiction. The purpose of the 7 percent requirement is to promote candidacies with broad territorial bases and eliminate those supported by only one city or 5775: 2607:

powers, and residual powers to be exercised primarily by the subunits. Because Russia's new constitution remained in dispute in the Federal Assembly at the time of ratification, the Federation Treaty and provisions based on the treaty were incorporated as amendments to the 1978 constitution. A series of new conditions were established by the 1993 constitution and by bilateral agreements.

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house, the Federation Council. These charges must be confirmed by a ruling of the Supreme Court that the president's actions constitute a crime and by a ruling of the Constitutional Court that proper procedures in filing charges have been followed. The charges then must be adopted by a special commission of the State Duma and confirmed by at least two-thirds of State Duma deputies.

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shift the balance of power away from the president. Faced with these setbacks, Yeltsin addressed the nation directly to announce a "special regime", under which he would assume extraordinary executive power pending the results of a referendum on the timing of new legislative elections, on a new constitution, and on public confidence in the president and vice president. After the

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grant amnesty to the leaders of the 1991 Moscow coup. Yeltsin vehemently denounced this action, although it was within the constitutional purview of the State Duma. In October 1994, both legislative chambers passed a law over Yeltsin's veto requiring the Government to submit quarterly reports on budget expenditures to the State Duma and adhere to other budgetary guidelines.

1883:. Yegorov had been appointed in early 1996, when Yeltsin reacted to the strong showing of antireform factions in the legislative election by purging reformers from his administration. Yeltsin now ordered Chubais, who had been included in that purge, to reduce the size of the administration and the number of departments overseeing the functions of the ministerial apparatus. 3387:

1997. (In July 1996, the State Duma advanced these elections to late 1996.) Observers noted that by calling for most of these elections to take place after the presidential election, Yeltsin prevented unfavorable outcomes from possibly reducing his reelection chances—even though voter apathy after the presidential election had the potential to help opposition candidates.

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ratified, the Federation Treaty was demoted to the status of a subconstitutional document. A transitional provision of the constitution provided that in case of discrepancies between the federal constitution and the Federation Treaty, or between the constitution and other treaties involving a subnational jurisdiction, all other documents would defer to the constitution.

2091:(chairman of the Government), deputy prime ministers, and federal ministers and their ministries and departments. Within one week of appointment by the president and approval by the State Duma, the prime minister must submit to the president nominations for all subordinate Government positions, including deputy prime ministers and federal ministers. The 2628:

receive disproportionate representation in the lower house. (In the 1995 elections, Moscow Oblast received nearly 38 percent of the State Duma's seats based on the concentration of party-list candidates in the national capital.) Shumeyko contended that such misallocation fed potentially dangerous popular discontent with the parliament and politicians.

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years of age, and a resident of the country for at least ten years. If a president becomes unable to continue in office because of health problems, resignation, impeachment, or death, a presidential election is to be held not more than three months later. In such a situation, the Federation Council is empowered to set the election date.

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just-concluded attempt to overthrow his administration. Beginning in 1993, Zyuganov also led efforts by KPRF deputies to impeach Yeltsin. After the KPRF's triumph in the December 1995 legislative elections, Yeltsin announced that he would run for reelection with the main purpose of safeguarding Russia from a communist restoration.

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in the definitions of the five categories of subunit. On most details of the federal system, the constitution is vague, and clarifying legislation had not been passed by mid-1996. However, some analysts have pointed out that this vagueness facilitates the resolution of individual conflicts between the center and the regions.

1524:(CPD) retained its obvious power "to examine and resolve any matter within the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation". In 1992 the Congress was even further empowered, gaining the ability to suspend any articles of the Constitution, per amended article 185 of the 1978 Constitution (Basic Law) of the Russian Federation. 1566:

legislative-executive relations. The convention, which included delegates from major political and social organizations and the 89 subnational jurisdictions, approved a compromise draft constitution in July 1993, incorporating some aspects of the parliament's draft. The parliament failed to approve the draft, however.

3980:" regulations. Although the rules were touted as a notification device rather than a control system, their implementation has produced many of the same results as the propiska system. The freedom to travel abroad and emigrate is respected although restrictions may apply to those who have had access to state secrets. 2365:

Government at a later time, a power that provides a degree of traditional legislative control over the purse. The two chambers of the legislature also have the power to override a presidential veto of legislation. The constitution requires at least a two-thirds vote of the total number of members of both chambers.

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election directly to the body in December 1993. But the law of 1995 provided for popular elections of chief executives in all subnational jurisdictions, including those still governed by presidential appointees. The individuals chosen in those elections then would assume ex officio seats in the Federation Council.

3599:. Their differences with Moscow center on resource control and taxes rather than demands for outright independence. A third, mixed group consists of republics along the Volga River, which straddle strategic water, rail, and pipeline routes, possess resources such as oil, and include large numbers of Russia's 1323:

Russian branches of trade unions, for example. As the titular nationalities of the other fourteen union republics began to call for greater republic rights in the late 1980s, however, ethnic Russians also began to demand the creation or strengthening of various specifically Russian institutions in the RSFSR.

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does not allow the prime minister to be removed without firing the whole cabinet. Kasyanov later went on to become a stark Putin critic. Although Russia's regions enjoy a degree of autonomous self-government, the election of regional governors was substituted by direct appointment by the president in

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In the first half of the 1990s, observers speculated about the possibility that some of the jurisdictions in the federation might emulate the former Soviet republics and demand full independence. Several factors militate against such an outcome, however. Russia is more than 80 percent ethnic Russian,

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in late 1991. The parliament attempted several times during 1992-93 to repeal or curtail the activities of these appointees, whose powers are only alluded to in the constitution. The presence of Yeltsin's representatives helped bring out the local vote on his behalf in the 1996 presidential election.

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The president retains the power to appoint and remove presidential representatives, who act as direct emissaries to the jurisdictions in overseeing local administrations' implementation of presidential policies. The power to appoint these overseers was granted by the Russian Supreme Soviet to Yeltsin

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was signed in March 1992 by President Yeltsin and most leaders of the autonomous republics and other ethnic and geographical subunits. The treaty consisted of three separate documents, each pertaining to one type of regional jurisdiction. It outlined powers reserved for the central government, shared

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In the Soviet period, some of Russia's approximately 100 nationalities were granted their own ethnic enclaves, to which varying formal federal rights were attached. Other smaller or more dispersed nationalities did not receive such recognition. In most of these enclaves, ethnic Russians constituted a

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The Law on Presidential Elections requires that the winner receive more than 50 percent of the votes cast. If no candidate receives more than 50 percent of the vote (a highly probable result because of multiple candidacies), the top two vote-getters must face each other in a runoff election. Once the

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is composed of several competing, overlapping, and vaguely delineated hierarchies that historically have resisted efforts at consolidation. In early 1996, Russian sources reported the size of the presidential apparatus in Moscow and the localities at more than 75,000 people, most of them employees of

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In October 1991, during the "honeymoon" period after his resistance to the Soviet coup, Yeltsin had convinced the legislature to grant him special executive (and legislative) powers for one year so that he might implement his economic reforms. In November 1991 Yeltsin appointed a new government, with

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on charges of fraud, embezzlement and tax evasion was met with domestic and Western criticism that the arrest was political and that his trial was highly flawed. However, the move was met positively by the Russian public and has largely undeterred investment from the country, which continued to grow

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Election results in the subnational jurisdictions held great significance for the Yeltsin administration because the winners would fill the ex officio seats in the Federation Council, which until 1996 was a reliable bastion of support. The election of large numbers of opposition candidates would end

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After the Moscow confrontation of October 1993, Yeltsin sought to bolster his regional support by dissolving the legislatures of all federal subunits except the republics (which were advised to "reform" their political systems). Accordingly, in 1994 elections were held in all the jurisdictions whose

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Despite constitutional language equalizing the regional jurisdictions in their relations with the center, vestiges of Soviet-era multitiered federalism remain in a number of provisions, including those allowing for the use of non-Russian languages in the republics but not in other jurisdictions, and

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A constitutional provision dictating that draft laws dealing with revenues and expenditures may be considered "only when the Government's findings are known" substantially limits the Federal Assembly's control of state finances. However, the legislature may alter finance legislation submitted by the

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The two chambers of the Federal Assembly possess different powers and responsibilities, with the State Duma the more powerful. The Federation Council, as its name and composition implies, deals primarily with issues of concern to the subnational jurisdictions, such as adjustments to internal borders

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and commissions to deal with particular types of issues. Unlike committees and commissions in previous Russian and Soviet parliaments, those operating under the 1993 constitution have significant responsibilities in devising legislation and conducting oversight. They prepare and evaluate draft laws,

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Deputies of the State Duma work full-time on their legislative duties; they are not allowed to serve simultaneously in local legislatures or hold Government positions. A transitional clause in the constitution, however, allowed deputies elected in December 1993 to retain their Government employment,

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Most observers in Russia and elsewhere concurred that the election boosted democratization in Russia, and many asserted that reforms in Russia had become irreversible. Yeltsin had strengthened the institution of regularly contested elections when he rejected calls by business organizations and other

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had worked hard to gain its relegalization. Despite Yeltsin's objections, the Constitutional Court cleared the way for the Russian communists to reemerge as the KPRF, headed by Zyuganov, in February 1993. Yeltsin temporarily banned the party again in October 1993 for its role in the Supreme Soviet's

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and letters of recall of foreign representatives, conducts international talks, and signs international treaties. A special provision allowed Yeltsin to complete the term prescribed to end in June 1996 and to exercise the powers of the new constitution, although he had been elected under a different

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Despite Yeltsin's change of heart, a second extraordinary session of the CPD took up discussion of emergency measures to defend the constitution, including impeachment of the president. Although the impeachment vote failed, the CPD set new terms for a popular referendum. The legislature's version of

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that they believed would wreck the Soviet Union. Yeltsin defiantly opposed the coup plotters and called for Gorbachev's restoration, rallying the Russian public. Most importantly, Yeltsin's faction led elements in the "power ministries" that controlled the military, the police, and the KGB to refuse

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Some limited cooperation has occurred among Russia's regional jurisdictions, and experts believe there is potential for even greater coordination. Eight regional cooperation organizations have been established, covering all subnational jurisdictions except Chechnya: the Siberian Accord Association;

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Under the 1993 constitution, the republics, territories, oblasts, autonomous oblast, autonomous regions, and cities of federal designation are held to be "equal in their relations with the federal agencies of state power"; this language represents an attempt to end the complaints of the nonrepublic

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The 1993 constitution presents a daunting list of powers reserved to the center. Powers shared jointly between the federal and local authorities are less numerous. Regional jurisdictions are only allocated powers not specifically reserved to the federal government or exercised jointly. Those powers

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of criminal trials that protect the rights of defendants more adequately. In 2002, the introduction of the new code led to significant reductions in time spent in detention for new detainees, and the number of suspects placed in pretrial detention declined by 30%. Another significant advance in the

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Besides the ministries, in 1996 the executive branch included eleven state committees and 46 state services and agencies, ranging from the State Space Agency (Glavkosmos) to the State Committee for Statistics (Goskomstat). There were also myriad agencies, boards, centers, councils, commissions, and

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Another center of power in the presidential administration is the Security Council, which was created by statute in mid-1992. The 1993 constitution describes the council as formed and headed by the president and governed by statute. Since its formation, it apparently has gradually lost influence in

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A two-thirds vote of the Federation Council is required for removal of the president. If the Federation Council does not act within three months, the charges are dropped. If the president is removed from office or becomes unable to exercise power because of serious illness, the prime minister is to

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The executive-legislative crisis of the fall of 1993 prompted Yeltsin to emplace constitutional obstacles to legislative removal of the president. Under the 1993 constitution, if the president commits "grave crimes" or treason, the State Duma may file impeachment charges with the parliament's upper

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was obsolete and self-contradictory and that Russia required a new constitution granting the president greater power. This assertion led to the submission and advocacy of rival constitutional drafts drawn up by the legislative and executive branches. The parliament's failure to endorse a compromise

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In 2005, Russia started steadily increasing the price it sold heavily subsidized gas to ex-Soviet republics. Russia has recently been accused of using its natural resources as a political weapon. Russia, in turn, accuses the West of applying double standards relating to market principles, pointing

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on issues he deemed important, and that such decrees would remain in force until suitable laws were passed. The State Duma passed a resolution in March 1996 demanding that Yeltsin refrain from returning bills to the parliament for redrafting, arguing that the president was obligated either to sign

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Although the 1993 constitution weakened their standing vis-à-vis the presidency, the parliaments elected in 1993 and 1995 nonetheless used their powers to shape legislation according to their own precepts and to defy Yeltsin on some issues. An early example was the February 1994 State Duma vote to

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Formerly seats in Russia the Duma were elected half by proportional representation (with at least 5% of the vote to qualify for seats) and half by single member districts. However, President Putin passed a law that all seats are to be elected by proportional representation (with at least 7% of the

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Faced with an escalating number of requests for such elections, Yeltsin decreed December 1996 as the date for most gubernatorial and republic presidential elections. This date was confirmed by a 1995 Federation Council law. The decree also set subnational legislative elections for June or December

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in the Government by a majority vote of all members of the State Duma, but the president is allowed to disregard this vote. If, however, the State Duma repeats the no-confidence vote within three months, the president may dismiss the Government. But the likelihood of a second no-confidence vote is

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The Federal Assembly is prescribed as a permanently functioning body, meaning that it is in continuous session except for a regular break between the spring and fall sessions. This working schedule distinguishes the new parliament from Soviet-era "rubber-stamp" legislative bodies, which met only a

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Turnout in the first round was high, with about 70 percent of 108.5 million voters participating. Total turnout in the second round was nearly the same as in the first round. A contingent of almost 1,000 international observers judged the election to be largely fair and democratic, as did the

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The constitution sets few requirements for presidential elections, deferring in many matters to other provisions established by law. The presidential term is set at six years, and the president may only serve two consecutive terms. A candidate for president must be a citizen of Russia, at least 35

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The six administrative departments in existence at that time dealt with citizens' rights, domestic and foreign policy, state and legal matters, personnel, analysis, and oversight, and Chubais inherited a staff estimated at 2,000 employees. Chubais also received control over a presidential advisory

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In the 1996 presidential election campaign, some candidates called for eliminating the presidency, criticizing its powers as dictatorial. Yeltsin defended his presidential powers, claiming that Russians desire "a vertical power structure and a strong hand" and that a parliamentary government would

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of June 1991 conferred legitimacy on the office, whereas Gorbachev had eschewed such an election and had himself appointed by the Soviet parliament. Despite Gorbachev's attempts to discourage Russia's electorate from voting for him, Yeltsin won the popular election to become the president, handily

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Draft laws may originate in either legislative chamber, or they may be submitted by the president, the Government, local legislatures and the Supreme Court, the Constitutional Court, or the High Court of Arbitration within their respective competences. Draft laws are first considered in the State

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The president is empowered to appoint the prime minister to chair the Government (called the cabinet or the council of ministers in other countries), with the consent of the State Duma. The President of the Russian Federation chairs the meetings of the Government of the Russian Federation. He can

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Yeltsin then used his presidential powers to form a sympathetic constitutional assembly, which quickly produced a draft constitution providing for a strong executive, and to shape the outcome of the December 1993 referendum on Russia's new basic law. The turnout requirement for the referendum was

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activities were suspended. Most of the union republics quickly declared their independence, although many appeared willing to sign Gorbachev's vaguely-delineated confederation treaty. The Baltic states achieved full independence, and they quickly received diplomatic recognition from many nations.

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at the end of 1991, Russia has seen serious challenges in its efforts to forge a political system to follow nearly seventy-five years of Soviet governance. For instance, leading figures in the legislative and executive branches have put forth opposing views of Russia's political direction and the

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The governments of the republics include a president or prime minister (or both) and a regional council or legislature. The chief executives of lower jurisdictions are called governors or administrative heads. Generally, in jurisdictions other than republics the executive branches have been more

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The first power-sharing charter negotiated by the central government and an oblast was signed in December 1995 with Orenburg Oblast. The charter divided power in the areas of economic and agricultural policy, natural resources, international economic relations and trade, and military industries.

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Flexibility is a goal of the constitutional provision allowing bilateral treaties or charters between the central government and the regions on power sharing. For instance, in the bilateral treaty signed with the Russian government in February 1994, the Republic of Tatarstan gave up its claim to

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Duma. Upon adoption by a majority of the full State Duma membership, a draft law is considered by the Federation Council, which has fourteen days to place the bill on its calendar. Conciliation commissions are the prescribed procedure to work out differences in bills considered by both chambers.

2303:

In the consideration and disposition of most legislative matters, however, the Federation Council has less power than the State Duma. All bills, even those proposed by the Federation Council, must first be considered by the State Duma. If the Federation Council rejects a bill passed by the State

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In April 1994, legislators, Government officials, and many prominent businesspeople and religious leaders signed a "Civic Accord" proposed by Yeltsin, pledging during the two-year "transition period" to refrain from violence, calls for early presidential or legislative elections, and attempts to

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Chernomyrdin, who had been appointed prime minister in late 1992 to appease antireform factions, established a generally smooth working relationship with Yeltsin. Chernomyrdin proved adept at conciliating hostile domestic factions and at presenting a positive image of Russia in negotiations with

1990:

The law required that at least 50 percent of eligible voters participate in order for a presidential election to be valid. In State Duma debate over the legislation, some deputies had advocated a minimum of 25 percent (which was later incorporated into the electoral law covering the State Duma),

1950:

Vladimir Putin in 2002. The circumstances and procedures for the president to declare a state of emergency are more specifically outlined in federal law than in the constitution. In practice, the Constitutional Court ruled in 1995 that the president has wide leeway in responding to crises within

1688:

The 1993 constitution declares Russia a democratic, federative, law-based state with a republican form of government. State power is divided among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. Diversity of ideologies and religions is sanctioned, and a state or compulsory ideology may not be

1542:

However, early 1993 saw increasing tension between Yeltsin and the parliament over the referendum and over power-sharing. In mid-March 1993, an emergency session of the CPD rejected Yeltsin's proposals on power-sharing and canceled the referendum, again opening the door to legislation that would

1440:

In late 1991, the Yeltsin government assumed budgetary control over Gorbachev's rump government. Russia did not declare its independence, and Yeltsin continued to hope for the establishment of some form of confederation. In December, one week after the Ukrainian Republic approved independence by

1211:

With a new constitution and a new parliament representing diverse parties and factions, Russia's political structure subsequently showed signs of stabilization. As the transition period extended into the mid-1990s, the power of the national government continued to wane as Russia's regions gained

2663:

By the mid-1990s, regional jurisdictions also had become bolder in passing local legislation to fill gaps in federation statutes rather than waiting for the Federal Assembly to act. For example, Volgograd Oblast passed laws regulating local pensions, the issuance of promissory notes, and credit

2627:

However, Federation Council officials have criticized the State Duma for failing to represent regional interests adequately. In mid-1995 Vladimir Shumeyko, then speaker of the Federation Council, criticized the current electoral system's party-list provision for allowing some parts of Russia to

2581:

The cities of Moscow and St. Petersburg are independent of surrounding jurisdictions. Termed "cities of federal significance," they have the same status as the oblasts. The ten autonomous regions and Birobidzhan are part of larger jurisdictions, either an oblast or a territory. As the power and

2312:

to consider bills passed by the lower chamber resulted in its disapproval of about one-half of such bills, necessitating concessions by the State Duma or votes to override upper-chamber objections. In February 1996, the heads of the two chambers pledged to try to break this habit, but wrangling

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era (ca 1947-1991), because of the Russians' dominance in the affairs of the union, the RSFSR failed to develop some of the institutions of governance and administration that were typical of public life in the other republics: a republic-level communist party, a Russian academy of sciences, and

2258:

and administrations in each of the eighty-nine subnational jurisdictions, hence a total of 178 seats. As composed in 1996, the Federation Council included about fifty chief executives of subnational jurisdictions who had been appointed to their posts by Yeltsin during 1991-92, then won popular

2216:

Despite its "transitional" nature, the Federal Assembly of 1994-95 approved about 500 pieces of legislation in two years. When the new parliament convened in January 1996, deputies were provided with a catalog of these laws and were directed to work in their assigned committees to fill gaps in

2577:

The Russian Federation has made few changes in the Soviet pattern of regional jurisdictions. The 1993 constitution establishes a federal government and enumerates eighty-nine subnational jurisdictions, including twenty-one ethnic enclaves with the status of republics. There are ten autonomous

2253:

The composition of the Federation Council was a matter of debate until shortly before the 2000 elections. The legislation that emerged in December 1995 over Federation Council objections clarified the constitution's language on the subject by providing ex officio council seats to the heads of

2014:

Although there was speculation that losing parties in the December 1995 election might choose not to nominate presidential candidates, in fact dozens of citizens both prominent and obscure announced their candidacies. After the gathering and review of signature lists, the CEC validated eleven

2615:

The constitution of 1993 resolved many of the ambiguities and contradictions concerning the degree of decentralization under the much-amended 1978 constitution of the Russian Republic; most such solutions favored the concentration of power in the central government. When the constitution was

1527:

Although Yeltsin managed to beat back most challenges to his reform program when the CPD met in April 1992, in December he suffered a significant loss of his special executive powers. The CPD ordered him to halt appointments of administrators in the localities and also the practice of naming

2018:

In the opinion polls of early 1996, Yeltsin trailed far behind most of the other candidates; his popularity rating was below 10 percent for a prolonged period. However, a last-minute, intense campaign featuring heavy television exposure, speeches throughout Russia promising increased state

1899:

assigned the Security Council a wide variety of new missions. The decree's description of the Security Council's consultative functions was especially vague and wide-ranging, although it positioned the head of the Security Council directly subordinate to the president. As had been the case

3448:, Yeltsin commended the previous parliament for passing a number of significant laws, and he noted with relief the "civil" resolution of the June 1995 no-confidence conflict. He complained, however, that the Federal Assembly had not acted on issues such as the private ownership of land, a 2200:

and Chelyabinsk Oblast boycotted the voting; this action, along with other discrepancies, resulted in the election of only 170 members to the Federation Council. However, by mid-1994 all seats were filled except those of Chechnya, which continued to proclaim its independence. All federal

1565:

the creation of a special constitutional convention to examine the draft constitution that he had presented in April. This convention was designed to circumvent the parliament, which was working on its own draft constitution. As expected, the two main drafts contained contrary views of

1456:

At that meeting, all parties declared that the 1922 treaty of union, which had established the Soviet Union, annulled and that the Soviet Union had ceased to exist. Gorbachev announced the decision officially on 25 December 1991. Russia gained international recognition as the principal

1375:

During 1990-1991, the RSFSR enhanced its sovereignty by establishing republic branches of organizations such as the Communist Party, the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union, radio and television broadcasting facilities, and the Committee for State Security (Komitet gosudarstvennoy

2574:

majority of the population, although the titular nationalities usually enjoyed disproportionate representation in local government bodies. Relations between the central government and the subordinate jurisdictions, and among those jurisdictions, became a political issue in the 1990s.

2672:

During Boris Yeltin's presidency, he signed a total of 46 power-sharing treaties with Russia's various subjects starting with Tatarstan on 15 February 1994 and ending with Moscow on 16 June 1998, giving them greater autonomy from the federal government. According to Prime Minister

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rather than the Government in such a situation. The Government's position is further buttressed by another constitutional provision that allows the Government at any time to demand a vote of confidence from the State Duma; refusal is grounds for the president to dissolve the Duma.

2006:(KPRF), which sought to oust Yeltsin from office and return to power. Yeltsin had banned the Communist Party of the Russian Republic for its central role in the August 1991 coup against the Gorbachev government. As a member of the Politburo and the Secretariat of the banned party, 1558:, Russians failed to provide this level of approval, but a majority of voters approved Yeltsin's policies and called for new legislative elections. Yeltsin termed the results, which delivered a serious blow to the prestige of the parliament, a mandate for him to continue in power. 1569:

In late September 1993, Yeltsin responded to the impasse in legislative-executive relations by repeating his announcement of a constitutional referendum, but this time he followed the announcement by dissolving the parliament and announcing new legislative elections for December

3676:

have been joined in supporting this proposal by some officials of the national Government and oblast and territory leaders who resent the privileges of the republics. Some have called for these new subunits to be based on the eight interregional economic associations.

1903:

Other presidential support services include the Control Directorate (in charge of investigating official corruption), the Administrative Affairs Directorate, the Presidential Press Service, and the Protocol Directorate. The Administrative Affairs Directorate controls

1829:

temporarily assume the president's duties; a presidential election then must be held within three months. The constitution does not provide for a vice president, and there is no specific procedure for determining whether the president is able to carry out his duties.

3829:" (with "some form of democratic government" in place) as late as 2007. The Russian Federation states that Russia is a democratic federal law-bound state with a republican form of government, which has been proven of not being acted upon today. Political scientist 2578:

regions, or okruga (sing., okrug ), and the Jewish Autonomous Oblast (Yevreyskaya avtonomnaya oblast', also known as Birobidzhan). Besides the ethnically identified jurisdictions, there are six territories (kraya; sing., kray ) and forty-nine oblasts (provinces).

2213:

a provision that allowed many officials of the Yeltsin administration to serve in the parliament. After the December 1995 legislative elections, nineteen Government officials were forced to resign their offices in order to take up their legislative duties.

1593:), but 180 delegates refused to leave the building. After a two-week standoff, Rutskoy urged supporters outside the legislative building to overcome Yeltsin's military forces. Firefights and destruction of property resulted at several locations in Moscow. 3383:

the Federation Council's usefulness as a balance against the anti-Yeltsin State Duma and further impede Yeltsin's agenda. In 1995 some regions held gubernatorial elections to fill the administrative posts originally granted to Yeltsin appointees in 1991.

3848:

Maybe the Central Election Commission would find a problem with the signatures that the candidate collected in order to register, or maybe the candidate would be charged with a crime based on questionable evidence, but something would always happen ...

2274:

Committee positions are allocated when new parliaments are seated. The general policy calls for allocation of committee chairmanships and memberships among parties and factions roughly in proportion to the size of their representation. In 1994, however,

2307:

Because the Federation Council initially included many regional administrators appointed by Yeltsin, that body often supported the president and objected to bills approved by the State Duma, which had more anti-Yeltsin deputies. The power of the

3975:

The constitution guarantees citizens the right to choose their place of residence and to travel abroad. Some big-city governments, however, have restricted this right through residential registration rules that closely resemble the Soviet-era

3844:

Political actors who support the president are permitted to put their name on the ballot and to nominally run against him, but whenever a person arose who actually wanted to challenge the system, they always ran into bureaucratic barriers.

2501:, and for housing they must depend on local authorities in the jurisdiction where they sit. In 1995 the average salary for a judge was US$ 160 per month, substantially less than the earnings associated with more menial positions in 3432:

In the most significant executive-legislative clash since 1993, the State Duma overwhelmingly voted no confidence in the Government in June 1995. The vote was triggered by a Chechen rebel raid into the neighboring Russian town of

2527:. The 1993 constitution empowers the court to arbitrate disputes between the executive and legislative branches and between Moscow and the regional and local governments. The court also is authorized to rule on violations of 5015:

During a campaign swing through Perm Oblast late last week, President Yeltsin signed a power-sharing agreement with the oblast and Komi-Permyak Autonomous Okrug, which is situated within the oblast, ITAR-TASS reported on 31

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At a Kremlin ceremony on 27 May, President Yeltsin signed two power-sharing agreements: one with Irkutsk Oblast and the Ust-Orda Buryat Autonomous Okrug (AO), and another with the Republic of Chuvashiya, Russian media

2283:(Liberal'no-demokraticheskaya partiya Rossii—LDPR), which had won the second largest number of seats in the recent election, was denied all but one key chairmanship, that of the State Duma's Committee on Geopolitics. 1919:, the president approves defense doctrine, appoints and removes the high command of the armed forces, and confers higher military ranks and awards. The president is empowered to declare national or regional states of 2245:. Work on several bills that had been in committee or in floor debate in the previous legislature resumed in the new body. Similarly, several bills that Yeltsin had vetoed were taken up again by the new legislature. 1364:, a onetime Gorbachev protégé who had resigned/been exiled from the top party echelons because of his radical reform proposals and erratic personality, as president of the congress's permanent working body, the 3809:

has listed Russia as being "not free" since 2005. In 2004, Freedom House warned that Russia's "retreat from freedom marks a low point not registered since 1989, when the country was part of the Soviet Union."

1528:

additional local oversight emissaries (termed "presidential representatives"). Yeltsin also lost the power to issue special decrees concerning the economy, while retaining his constitutional power to issue

2189:

amend the constitution. This accord, and memories of the violent confrontation of the previous parliament with Government forces, had some effect in softening political rhetoric during the next two years.

4208: 4869:"Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the administration of the Irkutsk Region on the delimitation of powers in the field of notaries, advocacy and training of legal personnel" 2505:. These circumstances, combined with irregularities in the appointment process and the continued strong position of the procurators, deprived judges in the lower jurisdictions of independent authority. 1596:

The next day, on 3 October 1993 Yeltsin chose a radical solution to settle his dispute with parliament: he called up tanks to shell the parliament building. Under the direction of Minister of Defense

2460: 5092:"Agreement on the delimitation of the subjects of jurisdiction and powers between the state authorities of the Russian Federation and the state authorities of the city of federal significance Moscow" 1754:

The 1993 constitution created a dual executive consisting of a president and prime minister, with the president as the dominant figure. Russia's strong presidency sometimes is compared with that of

3379:

legislatures had been dismissed. In some cases, that process placed local executives at the head of legislative bodies, eliminating checks and balances between the branches at the regional level.

3798:—scored a landslide victory. According to analysts, the country was now effectively ruled by a "tandem", with a constitutionally powerful President and an influential and popular Prime Minister. 2539:

proceedings against the president. The July 1994 Law on the Constitutional Court prohibits the court from examining cases on its own initiative and limits the scope of issues the court can hear.

1916: 3414:

vote to qualify for seats) to take effect in the December 2007 elections. By doing this Putin has eliminated independents and made it more difficult for small parties to be elected to the Duma.

2554:

more compatible with its Western counterparts and are seen by most as an accomplishment in human rights. The reforms have reintroduced jury trials in certain criminal cases and created a more

5448: 5151: 4270: 3445: 1887:

group with input on the economy, national security, and other matters. Reportedly that group had competed with Korzhakov's security service for influence in the Yeltsin administration.

1554:

Under the CPD's terms, Yeltsin would need the support of 50 percent of eligible voters, rather than 50 percent of those actually voting, to avoid an early presidential election. In the

3650:, which in 1993 proclaimed itself an autonomous republic as a protest against receiving fewer privileges in taxation and resource control than the republics, and strategically vital 7202: 3672:, or large province, which would incorporate several smaller subunits on the basis of geography and population rather than ethnic considerations. Russian ultranationalists such as 5058: 4994: 2452: 4804: 5797: 1976: 1685:

changed from 50 percent of the electorate to simply 50 percent of participating voters. The referendum vote resulted in approval by 58.4 percent of Russia's registered voters.

3766:

and his cabinet were dismissed by Putin. Pundits in Russia believed this not to be due to the president's displeasure with the government, but with Kasyanov himself, as the

4724:"Agreements on the distribution of powers between public authorities of the Russian Federation and public authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation" 3747:

and following Yeltsin's resignation was acting president of Russia, won in the first round with 53% of the vote in what were judged generally free and fair elections. (See

1844:

also dismiss the government entirely. Upon the advice of the prime minister, the president can appoint or remove Government members, including the deputy prime ministers.

1336: 4754: 3818:

human rights division) stated in 2004 that "the fledgling Russian democracy is still, of course, far from perfect, but its existence and its successes cannot be denied."

3759:

reported that the elections were generally organized professionally, there was criticism of unequal treatment of candidates by State-controlled media among other issues.

1420:

control of much of a sometimes recalcitrant Soviet administrative apparatus. Although Gorbachev returned to his position as Soviet president, events began to bypass him.

4843: 3575:

pressing claims for greater subunit rights fall into three groups. The first is composed of those jurisdictions most vociferous in pressing ethnic separatism, including

2444: 1912:, has been described as a "government within a government". Also attached to the presidency are more than two dozen consultative commissions and extrabudgetary "funds". 5606: 1413:

to obey the orders of the coup plotters. The opposition led by Yeltsin, combined with the irresolution of the plotters, caused the coup to collapse after three days.

1400:

Yeltsin used his role as president of Russia to trumpet Russian sovereignty and patriotism, and his legitimacy as president was a major cause of the collapse of the

5724: 1864:

state-owned enterprises directly under presidential control. This structure is similar to, but several times larger than, the top-level apparatus of the Soviet-era

920: 2201:

jurisdictions participated in the December 1995 legislative elections, although the fairness of voting in Chechnya was compromised by the ongoing conflict there.

5314: 4659: 4198: 5079:

During a 16 June meeting in the Kremlin, Yeltsin and Moscow Mayor Yurii Luzhkov signed a power-sharing agreement on behalf of the federal and city authorities.

3655: 3646:

In addition to the republics, several other jurisdictions have lobbied for greater rights, mainly on questions of resource control and taxation. These include

1891:

competition with other power centers in the presidential administration. However, the June 1996 appointment of former army general and presidential candidate

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influence of the central government have become diluted, governors and mayors have become the only relevant government authorities in many jurisdictions.

2115:. If the Government issues implementing decrees and directives that are at odds with legislation or presidential decrees, the president may rescind them. 2030:

It was argued Yeltsin won the 1996 Russian presidential election thanks to the extensive assistance provided by the team of media and PR experts from the

7419: 5798:

Roderic Lyne, Strobe Talbott, Koji Watanabe: Engaging With Russia – The Next Phase, A Report to The Trilateral Commission; Washington, Paris, Tokyo; 2006

2456: 1339:

from 1985 to 1991) also encouraged nationalities in the union republics, including the Russian Republic, to assert their rights. These policies included

4415: 1497:, and from others calling for reform to be slowed or even halted in Russia. A locus of this opposition was increasingly the two-chamber parliament, the 7036: 5671: 5254: 5232: 1955:, and that Yeltsin's action in Chechnya did not require a formal declaration of a state of emergency. In 1994 Yeltsin declared a state of emergency in 1506: 653: 2217:

existing legislation as well as to draft new laws. A major accomplishment of the 1994-95 legislative sessions was passage of the first two parts of a

1551:

the referendum asked whether citizens had confidence in Yeltsin, approved of his reforms, and supported early presidential and legislative elections.

2502: 1774:

Russia's president determines the basic direction of Russia's domestic and foreign policy and represents the Russian state within the country and in

5440: 4262: 2050:

magazine in 1996 about their adventures working as political consultants in Russia. They also detailed the extent of their collaboration with the

1349:

also brought constitutional reforms that led to the election of new republic legislatures with substantial blocs of pro-reform representatives.

8035: 6177: 5378: 8103: 2519:

Numerous matters which are dealt with by administrative authority in European countries remain subject to political influence in Russia. The

1345:(literally, public "voicing"), which made possible open discussion of democratic reforms and long-ignored public problems such as pollution. 679: 5415: 5206: 5125: 4587: 6824: 6258: 4237: 1308: 1113: 2664:

unions. The constitution upholds regional legislative authority to pass laws that accord with the constitution and existing federal laws.

6916: 4292: 2494:" and had become accustomed to basing their verdicts on telephone calls from local CPSU bosses rather than on the legal merits of cases. 1798:, although the constitution notes that they must not contravene that document or other laws. Under certain conditions, the president may 1312: 821: 659: 228: 5066: 5002: 1581:

as president, and voted to impeach Yeltsin. On 27 September, military units surrounded the legislative building (popularly known as the

1185:

governmental instruments that should be used to follow it. That conflict reached a climax in September and October 1993, when President

6876: 5284: 4796: 1521: 1353: 1177: 5548: 4457: 3729: 2003: 4723: 7801: 1859:

Many of the president's powers are related to the incumbent's undisputed leeway in forming an administration and hiring staff. The

1790:

Several prescribed powers put the president in a superior position vis-à-vis the legislature. The president has broad authority to

1535:

When the CPD rejected Yeltsin's attempt to secure the confirmation of Gaidar as prime minister (December 1992), Yeltsin appointed

1520:

After Russia added the office of president in 1991, the division of powers between the two branches remained ambiguous, while the

1469:

and positions in other international and regional organizations. The CIS states also agreed that Russia initially would take over

7338: 7243: 7158: 6685: 6187: 6126: 3943: 1056: 1036: 99: 8042: 7459: 4762: 3915: 1980: 1848: 1836: 892: 71: 4835: 1086: 7554: 7217: 6896: 5746: 5598: 5575: 4352: 3836:

Natalia Arno, former head of the International Republican Institute's operations in Russia, describes elections in Russia's "

3423: 2524: 1574: 1470: 1193: 874: 870: 755: 620: 607: 568: 373: 7938: 5180: 4775:

On 1 November 1997 he is to sign a power-sharing agreement with Krasnoyarsk Krai and the Taymyr and Evenk Autonomous Okrugs.

4170: 2087:

The constitution prescribes that the Government of Russia, which corresponds to the Western cabinet structure, consist of a

7888: 7600: 6853: 6101: 5851: 5698: 4979:

On 30 January 1996 Yelagin and Yeltsin signed a power-sharing agreement between Orenburg Oblast and the Russian Federation.

4495:"We Never Said We're Independent": Natural Resources, Nationalism, and the Fight for Political Autonomy in Russia's Regions 2221:, desperately needed to update antiquated Soviet-era provisions. The new code included provisions on contract obligations, 2082: 1610: 857: 851: 783: 3922: 78: 7831: 6775: 6386: 5720: 4053: 4036: 3896: 3521: 2432: 2388: 1865: 1860: 1490: 1462: 1421: 1255: 998: 52: 4185:"'It's a remarkable feat.' in power since 1999, how Vladimir Putin became a Russian leader rivaled only by Josef Stalin" 1449:(CIS). In response to calls by the Central Asian and other union republics for admission, another meeting took place in 7333: 6952: 6316: 6146: 5349: 4069: 3752: 3748: 3733: 3701: 3438: 3404: 2392: 2280: 1999: 1678: 1555: 1446: 1393: 1304: 1026: 973: 940: 17: 5322: 4651: 1762:. The constitution spells out many prerogatives specifically, but some powers enjoyed by Yeltsin were developed in an 7766: 7655: 7590: 6891: 6750: 5809: 4972: 4327: 3962: 3717: 3547: 3408: 2206: 2099:. The ministries of the Government, which numbered 24 in mid-1996, execute credit and monetary policies and defense, 2096: 1896: 1791: 1562: 1529: 1357: 1281: 955: 945: 118: 5099: 4171:"On First Person this week, New Yorker staff writer Masha Gessen on how Vladimir Putin plans to rule Russia forever" 3929: 3529: 1263: 85: 7514: 7497: 7163: 6251: 4876: 3320: 1106: 5036: 4941: 4911: 4698: 4625: 4381: 1416:

Following the failed August coup, Gorbachev found a fundamentally changed constellation of power, with Yeltsin in

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open to the public, although joint meetings are held for important speeches by the president or foreign leaders.

1466: 915: 5514: 2559:

new Code is the transfer from the Procuracy to the courts of the authority to issue search and arrest warrants.

7913: 7539: 6972: 6652: 6523: 6336: 3911: 3900: 3525: 2520: 2424: 2404: 2255: 1544: 1259: 826: 778: 763: 715: 431: 311: 67: 56: 1778:. The president appoints and recalls Russia's ambassadors upon consultation with the legislature, accepts the 7709: 7424: 7248: 7208: 6962: 6886: 6881: 6785: 6611: 6361: 5936: 4407: 4059: 4047: 4041: 4014: 3989: 3292: 2568: 1494: 910: 791: 768: 730: 509: 5663: 5262: 5228: 2329: 2126:

committees. Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin's personal staff was reported to number about 2,000 in 1995.

1196:). This event marked the end of Russia's first constitutional period, which was defined by the much-amended 7995: 7975: 7878: 7529: 7479: 7343: 7188: 7153: 6836: 6533: 6182: 3994: 3977: 3665:

Regional and ethnic conflicts have encouraged proposals to abolish the existing subunits and resurrect the

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The first legislative elections under the new constitution included a few irregularities. The republics of

2182: 2134: 1673: 1514: 1197: 1180:, while the President and the government issue numerous legally binding by-laws. Since the collapse of the 993: 978: 725: 560: 5824: 4231:"TIME: Yanks to the rescue. The secret story of how American advisers helped Yeltsin win. (July 15, 1996)" 4184: 1489:

During 1992 Yeltsin and his reforms came under increasing attack from former members and officials of the

8098: 7893: 7630: 7502: 7409: 7363: 7353: 7318: 7198: 7073: 7058: 6712: 6678: 6626: 6578: 6448: 6443: 6244: 6141: 6046: 3999: 3822: 3396: 2100: 1775: 1631: 1372:

over its natural resources and the primacy of Russia's laws over those of the central Soviet government.

1099: 844: 796: 647: 214: 5346:"Report by Mr Alvaro Gil-Robles, Commissioner for Human Rights, on his visits to the Russian Federation" 2324: 2300:, and other fiscal measures, as well as issues dealing with war and peace and with treaty ratification. 2153: 7953: 7786: 7568: 7549: 7449: 7439: 7434: 7026: 6906: 2170: 2051: 1932: 1875:

was appointed chief of the presidential administration (chief of staff) in July 1996. Chubais replaced

1807: 1134: 1041: 988: 983: 831: 816: 690: 639: 573: 267: 5810:

Heiko Pleines (ed.): How to explain Russia's post-Soviet Political and Economic System, September 2005

4118:

Krasnoyarsk, Evenk, and Taymyr had the same treaty as the latter two were administered by Krasnoyarsk.

3782: 8005: 7985: 7958: 7714: 7474: 7233: 7112: 7041: 6921: 6583: 6408: 6151: 5790: 2436: 1003: 735: 531: 177: 1799: 7519: 7358: 7328: 7193: 7107: 7016: 6979: 6588: 6550: 6096: 6061: 6016: 5868: 5844: 5371: 4024: 3744: 3720:, United Russia reduced all other parties to minority status. Other parties retaining seats in the 3510: 2778: 2341:

The legislative process in Russia includes three hearings in the State Duma, then approvals by the

2323:

The State Duma's power to force the resignation of the Government also is severely limited. It may

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The first presidential elections were held on 26 March 2000. Putin, who had previously been made

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to head the Security Council improved prospects for the organization's standing. In July 1996, a

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The Republics and Regions of the Russian Federation: A Guide to Politics, Policies, and Leaders

4004: 3802: 3767: 3278: 3076: 2416: 2108: 1666: 1656: 1502: 1318:

Russia was the largest of the Union republics in terms of territory and population. During the

1205: 1145: 1051: 901: 578: 516: 274: 160: 4577:"The Rise and Fall of Power-Sharing Treaties Between Center and Regions in Post-Soviet Russia" 4296: 2435:

at the apex. As of 2014, the High Court of Arbitration has merged with the Supreme Court. The

1814:(a power previously reserved to the parliament), submitting draft laws to the State Duma, and 7990: 7731: 7704: 7665: 7605: 7404: 7373: 7283: 7031: 6967: 6616: 6413: 6192: 6071: 6066: 5946: 3825:

has rated Russia as "authoritarian" since 2011, whereas it had previously been considered a "

3689:

Vladimir Putin laid flowers at a memorial to the victims of Soviet-era political repression,

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few days each year. The new constitution also directs that the two houses meet separately in

1759: 897: 882: 521: 5540: 5292: 4199:"The Guardian: Americans can spot election meddling because they've been doing it for years" 1408:. The coup leaders had attempted to overthrow Gorbachev in order to halt his plan to sign a 8020: 7928: 7923: 7675: 7610: 7368: 7303: 7298: 7288: 7258: 7253: 7213: 6720: 6636: 6621: 6568: 6538: 6493: 6488: 6463: 6321: 6136: 6086: 6041: 6021: 6011: 5911: 4468: 4009: 3857: 3673: 3466: 2528: 2468: 2276: 2263: 2218: 1832: 1582: 1458: 1031: 664: 615: 495: 363: 353: 224: 146: 6606: 2046:, "and Steven Moore (who came on later as a PR specialist) gave an exclusive interview to 1384:, following the example of Gorbachev, who had created such an office for himself in 1990. 8: 8015: 7771: 7721: 7640: 7544: 7378: 7323: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7223: 7183: 7148: 7090: 7004: 6935: 6797: 6528: 6518: 6468: 6428: 6381: 6376: 6366: 6351: 6346: 6341: 6326: 6311: 6306: 6296: 6291: 6286: 6281: 6166: 6111: 6026: 6006: 5891: 5881: 5837: 4727: 3572: 3400: 2674: 2412: 2374: 2354: 1947: 1880: 1717: 1536: 1405: 1381: 1189:

used military force to dissolve the parliament and called for new legislative elections (

1149: 748: 708: 551: 424: 291: 3833:, writing in 2015, stated "no serious scholar would consider Russia today a democracy". 3658:, defied central economic and political policies on a number of well-publicized issues. 3634: 7943: 7918: 7908: 7898: 7883: 7868: 7826: 7756: 7741: 7680: 7660: 7650: 7620: 7595: 7580: 7524: 7464: 7454: 7313: 7122: 7117: 7063: 6999: 6809: 6631: 6573: 6513: 6503: 6483: 6458: 6453: 6433: 6403: 6371: 6356: 6331: 6267: 6156: 6091: 5991: 5971: 5961: 5921: 5906: 5901: 5495: 3474: 3449: 2992: 2950: 2737: 2555: 2490:(in office 1982-84) remained in place in the mid-1990s. Such arbiters were trained in " 2297: 2162: 1924: 1661: 1510: 1157: 1046: 695: 526: 318: 263: 2523:

was reconvened in March 1995 following its suspension by President Yeltsin during the

1900:

previously, the Security Council was required to hold meetings at least once a month.

8061: 7813: 7781: 7776: 7761: 7736: 7585: 7534: 7484: 7414: 7392: 7237: 7021: 6957: 6947: 6911: 6814: 6780: 6758: 6703: 6543: 6498: 6423: 6393: 6221: 6197: 6116: 6076: 6051: 6031: 5966: 5941: 5931: 5916: 5637: 5487: 4968: 4934:"Newsline - May 20, 1996 Yeltsin Promises to Maintain Stability, Plays Regional Card" 4348: 4323: 4074: 4019: 3837: 3815: 3811: 3713: 3647: 3470: 3186: 2603: 2384: 2379: 1755: 1740: 1578: 1442: 1332: 1169: 773: 603: 338: 5499: 1360:

in a largely free and competitive vote. Upon convening in May, the congress elected

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Irkutsk and Ust-Orda had the same treaty as the latter was administered by Irkutsk.

3854: 3763: 3357: 3255: 3214: 3034: 2922: 2885: 2459:, and its management is aided by the Judicial Department of the Supreme Court, the 2234: 2007: 1847:

The president submits candidates to the State Duma for the post of chairman of the

1586: 1409: 960: 887: 5571: 4691:"Newsline - May 22, 1998 Yeltsin Signs More Power-Sharing Agreements with Regions" 2508: 8070: 8030: 7933: 7873: 7863: 7851: 7796: 7615: 7009: 6984: 6763: 5804: 5176: 4203: 4127:

Perm and Komi-Permyak had the same treaty as the latter was administered by Perm.

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and other judicial reforms during its 2001 session. These reforms help make the

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Terminated on the basis of Article 5 of the Federal Law passed on 4 July 2003.

3654:("Maritime Territory") on the Pacific coast, whose governor in the mid-1990s, 2640: 2328:

virtually precluded by the constitutional provision allowing the president to

466: 8092: 8075: 7980: 7489: 7228: 6819: 6215: 5779: 5641: 5491: 5029:"Newsline - August 4, 1997 Power-Sharing Agreement Signed with Samara Oblast" 3830: 3826: 3806: 3776: 3737: 3709: 3608: 3592: 3159: 3131: 2751: 2695: 2644: 2491: 2487: 2420: 2400: 2350: 2039: 2031: 1960: 1815: 1598: 1361: 1208:, creating a strong presidency, was approved by referendum in December 1993. 1186: 1153: 1077: 862: 441: 281: 5345: 7856: 6841: 6831: 5470:

Diamond, Larry (January 1, 2015). "Facing Up to the Democratic Recession".

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2005. In September 2007, Putin accepted the resignation of Prime minister

2497:

For court infrastructure and financial support, judges must depend on the

2241:, as well as other legal standards essential to support the creation of a 1477:

himself as acting prime minister, a post he held until the appointment of

7051: 6858: 6735: 6225: 5784: 5630:"Why US double standards on Israel and Russia play into a dangerous game" 5091: 3725: 3587:. The second group consists of large, resource-rich republics, including 3200: 3117: 3090: 2908: 2440: 2346: 2309: 2238: 2158: 2104: 2043: 1936: 1920: 1818: 1803: 930: 243: 204: 167: 5177:"Mikhail Kasyanov: Russia labels ex-PM and Putin critic 'foreign agent'" 5059:"F&P RFE/RL Archive - Yeltsin, Luzhkov Sign Power-Sharing Agreement" 1917:

Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation

1619: 7080: 6740: 6730: 5028: 4933: 4903: 4868: 4797:"Yeltsin Signs Power-Sharing Agreements With Five More Russian Regions" 4690: 4617: 4373: 3721: 2843: 2543: 2472: 2178: 1956: 1879:, a hard-line associate of deposed Presidential Security Service chief 1811: 1779: 1397:

defeating five other candidates with more than 57 percent of the vote.

1131: 673: 253: 5441:"The Death of Russian Democracy Under Putin by Jordan Nakdimon @ UCLA" 4904:"Newsline - June 14, 1996 Yeltsin Signs More Power-Sharing Agreements" 4345:

The NEBI Yearbook 2001/2002: North European and Baltic Sea Integration

2266:

to control the internal procedures of the house. The houses also form

2095:

carries out administration in line with the constitution and laws and

1942:

The regime of martial law is defined by federal law "On Martial law",

6725: 6236: 5819: 4263:"Spinning Hillary: a history of America and Russia's mutual meddling" 3669: 3624: 3565: 3434: 2806: 2723: 2226: 2193: 1915:

The president also has extensive powers over military policy. As the

1672:

During 1992-93 Yeltsin had argued that the existing, heavily amended

1434: 414: 5515:"Putin Is Losing the War in Ukraine, But Winning the Battle at Home" 4151:

Politics for Profit: Business, Elections, and Policymaking in Russia

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remains the most powerful component of the Russian judicial system.

1577:). The CPD again met in emergency session, confirmed Vice President 1233: 1168:, who is appointed by the President with the parliament's approval. 34: 5829: 4408:"Tatarstan, the Last Region to Lose Its Special Status Under Putin" 3690: 3628: 3620: 3612: 3604: 3576: 3487: 3417: 2820: 2709: 2197: 1952: 1905: 1450: 1404:

by hard-line government and party officials against Gorbachev, the

1341: 1319: 1217: 1137: 6663: 5825:

Erik Herron's Guide to Politics of East Central Europe and Eurasia

3794:—whose nomination was supported by the popular outgoing President 1484: 1202:

Supreme Soviet of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic

7203:

Foreign Relations of Russia since the Russian invasion of Ukraine

7085: 5778:

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

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declared his announcement unconstitutional, Yeltsin backed down.

1426: 474:

has been the central location of Russian political affairs since

4322:. Manchester, United Kingdom: Manchester University. p. 9. 3479: 6694: 3600: 3343: 2532: 1430: 1213: 1141: 399: 5541:"In Russia, Khodorkovsky Case Drawing Comparisons to Sakharov" 4995:"F&P RFE/RL Archive - Another Power-Sharing Treaty Signed" 4836:"Moscow Signs Power-Sharing Agreements With Five More Regions" 4618:"Newsline - May 28, 1996 More Power-Sharing Agreements Signed" 2111:

and civil rights; protect property; and take measures against

4963:

Orttung, Robert; Lussier, Danielle; Paretskaya, Anna (2000).

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Boris Yeltsin campaigning in the Moscow-region on May 7, 1996

950: 5152:"Putin Fires Premier, Cabinet In Surprise Pre-Election Move" 4967:. New York, United States: EastWest Institute. p. 415. 2002:

was a major episode in the struggle between Yeltsin and the

1337:

General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

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Some experts observe that the Russia's ethnically distinct

2585: 2230: 1517:, the parliament was the supreme organ of power in Russia. 1441:

referendum, Yeltsin and the leaders of Ukraine and Belarus

1425:

Gorbachev's rump government recognized the independence of

1401: 4465:

The National Council for Soviet and East European Research

3751:.) Putin won a second full term without difficulty in the 1935:

must be notified immediately. The Federation Council, the

5203:"St. Petersburg Times: Zubkov's Rating Rise After a Week" 1377: 965: 5122:""OSCE/ODIHR Election Observation Mission Final Report"" 4962: 3762:

After the election, on 24 February 2004, Prime Minister

1650: 1307:

between various Soviet republics. Under the treaty, the

5285:"Russia | Country report | Freedom in the World | 2005" 2467:, and the various courts' chairpersons. There are many 2383:

President Putin meeting Russia's highest courts heads (

1963:, two republics beset by intermittent ethnic conflict. 5372:"Democracy Index 2015: Democracy in an age of anxiety" 4652:"Russia Signs Power-Sharing Treaty with Komi Republic" 1380:). In 1991 Russia created a new executive office, the 5150:

Baker, Peter; Glasser, Susan B. (February 25, 2005).

5721:"Belarus: What Does Future Hold For Gazprom's Deal?" 3757:

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

3365: 2248: 2064: 1939:, has the power to confirm or reject such a decree. 1854: 5405:"Index of democracy by Economist Intelligence Unit" 4570: 4568: 4566: 4564: 4562: 4560: 4558: 4556: 4554: 4552: 4550: 4548: 4546: 4544: 4542: 4540: 4538: 4536: 4534: 4532: 4530: 4528: 4526: 4524: 3903:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 3786:

Anti-Putin protesters march in Moscow, 13 June 2012

2313:appeared to intensify in the months that followed. 1810:. The president has the prerogatives of scheduling 59:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 4522: 4520: 4518: 4516: 4514: 4512: 4510: 4508: 4506: 4504: 4347:. New York, United States: Springer. p. 307. 4342: 3390: 1513:, became Yeltsin's most vocal opponent. Under the 5820:Deputy prime ministers & Ministries of Russia 5315:"Russia Downgraded to "Not Free" | Freedom House" 2667: 1223: 8090: 3418:Executive-legislative power struggles, 1993–1996 2594:Russian President Putin with local residents in 2562: 5599:"Rice tells Russia not to use energy as weapon" 5512: 5255:"New Russian president: I will work with Putin" 4501: 2316:The State Duma confirms the appointment of the 1485:Post-Soviet development under Yeltsin 1991-1993 5815:Library of Congress: Russian Political Profile 5195: 4458:"Asymmetries in Russian Federation Bargaining" 4451: 4449: 4447: 4445: 4443: 4441: 4439: 4437: 4435: 4433: 4114: 4112: 1951:Russia, such as lawlessness in the separatist 1787:result in indecisive talk rather than action. 6679: 6252: 5845: 4830: 4828: 4826: 4824: 4822: 4791: 4789: 4787: 4785: 4783: 4102: 4100: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4092: 4090: 1107: 5149: 4726:(in Russian). Politika. 2002. Archived from 4685: 4683: 4681: 4679: 4677: 4612: 4610: 4608: 1309:Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic 4989: 4987: 4898: 4896: 4894: 4718: 4716: 4430: 4368: 4366: 4364: 4343:Hedegaard, Lars; Lindström, Bjarne (2002). 4109: 3790:In the 2008 Russian Presidential election, 3528:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2535:from various bodies, and to participate in 2103:, and state security functions; ensure the 2015:candidates, one of whom later dropped out. 1453:, on 21 December, to form an expanded CIS. 1352:In the RSFSR a new legislature, called the 1313:Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic 1262:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1164:exercised by the government, headed by the 6686: 6672: 6259: 6245: 5852: 5838: 4819: 4780: 4749: 4747: 4745: 4644: 4087: 3490:and a leader of the Chechen rebel movement 2611:Local jurisdictions under the constitution 2336: 1178:Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation 1114: 1100: 139:Государственный строй Российской Федерации 5396: 4674: 4605: 4401: 4399: 3963:Learn how and when to remove this message 3730:Communist Party of the Russian Federation 3548:Learn how and when to remove this message 2004:Communist Party of the Russian Federation 1966: 1604: 1326: 1303:, as promulgated in 1924, incorporated a 1294: 1282:Learn how and when to remove this message 119:Learn how and when to remove this message 4984: 4891: 4863: 4861: 4713: 4405: 4361: 3781: 3684: 3633: 3478: 2639: 2589: 2586:The Federation Treaty and regional power 2507: 2482:Many judges appointed by the regimes of 2378: 2152: 2042:, Richard Dresner, a close associate of 2021: 1831: 1660: 1212:political and economic concessions from 465: 7339:Collective Security Treaty Organization 5692: 5627: 5609:from the original on September 13, 2012 5596: 5469: 4742: 4455: 3805:during Putin's and Medvedev's tenures. 3704:Russian politics has been dominated by 3680: 2423:with a hierarchical structure with the 2076: 1522:Congress of People's Deputies of Russia 1481:as acting prime minister in June 1992. 633: 14: 8091: 6266: 5628:Wintour, Patrick (December 26, 2023). 5572:"Why business is still wary of Russia" 5569: 5551:from the original on December 31, 2016 5421:from the original on September 7, 2019 5343: 5128:from the original on December 20, 2016 4492: 4486: 4418:from the original on December 29, 2018 4396: 4211:from the original on February 12, 2022 2169:The 616-member parliament, termed the 1981:Central Electoral Commission of Russia 1849:Central Bank of the Russian Federation 1769: 1301:first constitution of the Soviet Union 151:Coat of Arms of the Russian Federation 6897:Judicial system of the Russian Empire 6667: 6240: 5833: 5578:from the original on January 22, 2008 5451:from the original on January 24, 2021 5209:from the original on October 25, 2007 5183:from the original on January 25, 2024 5145: 5143: 5102:from the original on October 28, 2020 4858: 4701:from the original on November 5, 2021 4662:from the original on October 28, 2020 4273:from the original on December 2, 2018 4243:from the original on November 7, 2021 3607:populations. These republics include 3424:Russian constitutional crisis of 1993 2286: 2181:(the lower house) and the 166-member 2143: 1677:was an important factor in Yeltsin's 1651:Constitution and government structure 1575:Russian constitutional crisis of 1993 1194:Russian constitutional crisis of 1993 591: 8036:Unified Sports Classification System 5859: 5727:from the original on January 9, 2008 5513:MICHAEL WASIURA (January 25, 2023). 5229:"Russia votes for Putin's successor" 4317: 3901:adding citations to reliable sources 3872: 3526:adding citations to reliable sources 3493: 3263: 2083:Government of the Russian Federation 1614: 1260:adding citations to reliable sources 1227: 229:Chairwoman of the Federation Council 57:adding citations to reliable sources 28: 6693: 5693:Simpson, Emma (February 14, 2006). 5661: 4879:from the original on March 27, 2022 4037:Russian presidential administration 3579:and perhaps other republics of the 2512:An arbitration court of appeals in 2451:. The judiciary is governed by the 1871:Former first deputy prime minister 1866:Communist Party of the Soviet Union 1794:that have the force of law without 1692: 1509:. The Chair of the Supreme Soviet, 1491:Communist Party of the Soviet Union 1461:to the Soviet Union, receiving the 1130:take place in the framework of the 24: 7334:Commonwealth of Independent States 5701:from the original on March 8, 2008 5674:from the original on July 25, 2008 5384:from the original on March 5, 2016 5352:from the original on March 4, 2016 5235:from the original on March 5, 2008 5140: 4761:. October 31, 1997. Archived from 4593:from the original on March 8, 2019 4574: 4143: 3749:2000 Russian presidential election 3734:Liberal Democratic Party of Russia 3439:Commonwealth of Independent States 3405:2018 Russian presidential election 3217:30 October 1997 – 31 December 2001 2925:30 October 1997 – 21 December 2001 2525:October 1993 constitutional crisis 2368: 2281:Liberal Democratic Party of Russia 1532:in accordance with existing laws. 1447:Commonwealth of Independent States 1331:Certain policies of Soviet leader 374:Mikhail Mishustin's Second Cabinet 135:Politics of the Russian Federation 25: 8115: 5767: 5751:United States Department of State 5695:"Russia wields the energy weapon" 5597:Pleming, Sue (October 22, 2007). 5521:from the original on May 10, 2023 5402: 3409:2016 Russian legislative election 3366:Presidential power in the regions 3328: 3009:30 October 1997 – 24 January 2002 2249:Structure of the Federal Assembly 1855:Informal powers and power centers 8104:History of Russia (1991–present) 6220: 6211: 6210: 5773: 5664:"Russia, Ukraine argue over gas" 5039:from the original on May 3, 2019 4944:from the original on May 3, 2019 4914:from the original on May 3, 2019 4846:from the original on May 2, 2019 4807:from the original on May 2, 2019 4628:from the original on May 3, 2019 4456:Solnick, Steven (May 29, 1996). 4406:Smirnova, Lena (July 24, 2017). 4384:from the original on May 3, 2019 4054:Mikhail Fradkov's Second Cabinet 3877: 3753:March 2004 presidential election 3498: 3350: 3336: 3321:Ust-Orda Buryat Autonomous Okrug 3313: 3299: 3285: 3271: 3248: 3235: 3221: 3207: 3193: 3179: 3166: 3162:1 August 1997 – 22 February 2002 3152: 3138: 3124: 3111: 3097: 3083: 3069: 3055: 3041: 3027: 3013: 2999: 2985: 2971: 2957: 2943: 2929: 2915: 2901: 2878: 2864: 2850: 2846:29 November 1996 – 15 March 2002 2836: 2813: 2799: 2785: 2781:23 March 1995 – 2 September 2002 2771: 2758: 2744: 2730: 2716: 2702: 2688: 2635: 1681:of that body in September 1993. 1618: 1611:History of Russia (1991–present) 1387: 1232: 1071: 494: 145: 33: 5739: 5713: 5686: 5655: 5621: 5590: 5563: 5533: 5506: 5463: 5433: 5364: 5337: 5307: 5277: 5247: 5221: 5169: 5114: 5084: 5065:. June 16, 1998. Archived from 5051: 5033:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 5021: 4956: 4938:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 4926: 4908:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 4695:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 4622:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 4378:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 4293:"Legislative process in Russia" 4130: 4121: 3888:needs additional citations for 3868: 3391:Political parties and elections 3258:30 October 1997 – 15 March 2002 3203:13 June 1996 – 19 February 2002 2874:30 January 1996 – 12 April 2002 2809:15 February 1994 – 24 July 2017 2712:11 July 1995 – 15 February 2002 2461:Judicial Qualification Collegia 2325:express a vote of no-confidence 1839:protest in Moscow, 1 March 2015 1467:United Nations Security Council 1368:. The next month, the Congress 916:United Nations Security Council 44:needs additional citations for 6178:British Indian Ocean Territory 5570:Arnold, James (May 31, 2005). 5001:. June 3, 1996. Archived from 4493:Turner, Cassandra (May 2018). 4336: 4311: 4285: 4255: 4223: 4191: 4177: 4163: 4070:Post–World War II anti-fascism 3295:31 May 1996 – 21 December 2001 3244:21 May 1998 – 22 February 2002 3120:31 May 1996 – 21 December 2001 3107:30 January 1996 – 4 April 2002 3093:19 May 1996 – 21 December 2001 3023:21 May 1998 – 19 February 2002 2967:21 May 1998 – 26 February 2002 2860:24 April 1996 – 12 August 2002 2767:21 May 1998 – 31 December 2001 2668:List of power-sharing treaties 2651:, a federal subject of Russia. 2521:Constitutional Court of Russia 2453:All-Russian Congress of Judges 2118:The Government formulates the 1437:in August and September 1991. 1224:Historical background, 1924-93 544: 13: 1: 7244:Political abuse of psychiatry 4157: 4153:. Cambridge University Press. 4060:Electoral geography of Russia 4015:History of post-Soviet Russia 3990:Law of the Russian Federation 3642:, the former separatist rebel 3460: 3309:1 November 1997 – 4 July 2003 3293:Komi-Permyak Autonomous Okrug 3281:1 November 1997 – 4 July 2003 3189:12 January 1996 – 4 July 2003 3175:4 July 1997 – 9 February 2002 3065:30 October 1997 – 20 May 2003 3051:4 July 1997 – 30 January 2002 2995:12 January 1996 – 31 May 2002 2953:4 July 1997 – 2 February 2002 2888:1 November 1997 – 4 July 2003 2823:17 October 1995 – 4 July 2003 2569:Political divisions of Russia 2563:Local and regional government 2148: 2000:presidential election of 1996 1977:Law on Presidential Elections 1665:The Presidential copy of the 1473:and other properties abroad. 1463:Soviet Union's permanent seat 1394:Russian presidential election 1370:declared Russia's sovereignty 1354:Congress of People's Deputies 1057:Political abuse of psychiatry 911:Russia and the United Nations 7889:Traditions and superstitions 5603:International Business Times 3995:Federation Council of Russia 3728:of the legislature, are the 3037:13 June 1996 – 18 April 2002 2680: 2135:Russian Council of Ministers 2067:for a summary of the results 1792:issue decrees and directives 7: 7555:Water supply and sanitation 4320:Regional Politics in Russia 4000:Foreign relations of Russia 3983: 3823:Economist Intelligence Unit 3397:Political parties in Russia 3360:13 June 1996 – 4 April 2002 3346:16 June 1998 – 16 June 2008 3231:4 July 1997 – 15 March 2002 3134:29 May 1996 – 15 March 2002 2939:4 July 1997 – 9 August 2002 2911:21 May 1998 – 18 March 2002 2754:20 March 1996 – 20 May 2002 2740:1 July 1994 – 8 August 2002 2698:3 August 1994 – 7 July 2005 2038:reported that Joe Shumate, 1861:presidential administration 1758:(in office 1958-69) in the 1674:1978 constitution of Russia 852:Ministry of Foreign Affairs 756:Central Election Commission 569:Presidential Administration 10: 8120: 5445:www.democratic-erosion.com 4048:Yevgeny Primakov's Cabinet 4042:Sergei Kiriyenko's Cabinet 3779:as the new Prime minister. 3718:2003 legislative elections 3712:party, and Prime Minister 3702:2000 presidential election 3464: 3421: 3394: 3148:29 May 1996 – 4 March 2002 3079:8 June 1996 – 6 April 2002 2893: 2795:29 June 1995 – 4 July 2003 2566: 2372: 2132: 2080: 1654: 1608: 268:Chairman of the State Duma 8055: 7812: 7576: 7567: 7400: 7391: 7144: 7135: 6943: 6934: 6869: 6711: 6702: 6645: 6597: 6559: 6274: 6206: 6165: 6125: 5867: 5791:Federal Research Division 3446:State of the Union speech 3323:27 May 1996 – 6 July 2002 2981:27 May 1996 – 6 July 2002 2726:27 May 1996 – 4 July 2003 2439:are the primary criminal 2433:High Court of Arbitration 2389:High Court of Arbitration 1711: 1708: 1705: 1702: 1590: 822:Heads of federal subjects 454: 447: 437: 430: 420: 413: 405: 395: 387: 379: 369: 359: 352: 344: 334: 324: 317: 307: 297: 287: 280: 273: 259: 249: 242: 234: 220: 210: 203: 193: 183: 173: 166: 156: 144: 133: 7329:Prime Minister of Russia 5927:East Timor (Timor-Leste) 4080: 4025:Public Chamber of Russia 3853:The arrest of prominent 3745:Prime Minister of Russia 2828: 2486:(in office 1964-82) and 2268:Parliamentary committees 2139:Prime Minister of Russia 1499:Supreme Soviet of Russia 1027:Administrative divisions 7767:Social entrepreneurship 7656:Forced public apologies 7591:Anti-American sentiment 6188:Cocos (Keeling) Islands 5803:March 27, 2009, at the 5786:Russia: A Country Study 5156:The Wall Street Journal 3861:at double digit rates. 3457:bills or to veto them. 3307:Taymyr Autonomous Okrug 2552:Russian judicial system 2548:Criminal Procedure Code 2337:The legislative process 2330:dissolve the State Duma 2157:South Korean President 1800:dissolve the State Duma 1507:Soviet of Nationalities 774:Gubernatorial elections 7515:Social security system 7498:Science and technology 7164:Classified information 6990:Central Russian Upland 6317:Bosnia and Herzegovina 5231:. CNN. March 2, 2008. 5063:Friends & Partners 4999:Friends & Partners 4759:Friends & Partners 4318:Ross, Cameron (2002). 4149:David Szakonyi. 2020. 4005:Human rights in Russia 3851: 3803:democratic backsliding 3787: 3697: 3643: 3583:, and the Republic of 3491: 3279:Evenk Autonomous Okrug 3077:Nizhny Novgorod Oblast 2652: 2599: 2516: 2408: 2166: 2027: 1967:Presidential elections 1840: 1783:constitutional order. 1669: 1657:Constitution of Russia 1605:Development since 1993 1503:Soviet of the Republic 1327:Gorbachev, 1985 - 1991 1295:The Soviet inheritance 1146:Constitution of Russia 871:Diplomatic missions of 764:Presidential elections 479: 161:Constitution of Russia 7976:Russian tsars regalia 7309:Intelligence agencies 7032:Great Russian Regions 6776:Expansion (1500-1800) 5723:. Radio Free Europe. 5484:10.1353/jod.2015.0009 5348:. Council of Europe. 5179:. November 25, 2023. 3842: 3785: 3688: 3637: 3482: 3444:In his February 1996 2643: 2593: 2529:constitutional rights 2511: 2469:officers of the court 2415:is defined under the 2382: 2156: 2025: 1835: 1760:French Fifth Republic 1664: 1561:In June 1993 Yeltsin 1358:elected in March 1990 769:Legislative elections 522:Russian Criminal Code 469: 8043:World Heritage sites 7420:Droughts and famines 6973:Environmental issues 6721:Proto-Indo-Europeans 6102:United Arab Emirates 5472:Journal of Democracy 5344:Gil-Robles, Alvaro. 5295:on December 31, 2016 4803:. November 3, 1997. 4730:on February 25, 2005 4467:: 12. Archived from 4010:Corruption in Russia 3912:"Politics of Russia" 3897:improve this article 3858:Mikhail Khodorkovsky 3801:Russia has suffered 3768:Russian constitution 3681:Putin administration 3674:Vladimir Zhirinovsky 3656:Yevgeniy Nazdratenko 3522:improve this section 3467:Separatism in Russia 2779:North Ossetia–Alania 2425:Constitutional Court 2405:Constitutional Court 2277:Vladimir Zhirinovsky 2262:Each house elects a 2097:presidential decrees 2077:Government (cabinet) 1953:Republic of Chechnya 1698:Main office-holders 1667:Russian Constitution 1545:Constitutional Court 1495:extreme nationalists 1311:became known as the 1256:improve this section 827:Regional parliaments 716:Constitutional Court 665:Valentina Matviyenko 432:Constitutional Court 364:Government of Russia 225:Valentina Matviyenko 68:"Politics of Russia" 53:improve this article 7894:Forms of addressing 7503:Academy of Sciences 7460:Financial districts 7324:President of Russia 7249:Political divisions 7209:Freedom of assembly 7091:West Siberian Plain 6837:Great Patriotic War 6798:February Revolution 6560:States with limited 6268:Politics of Europe 6129:limited recognition 4207:. January 5, 2017. 3486:, Chechen militant 3401:Elections in Russia 2675:Viktor Chernomyrdin 2647:, president of the 2499:Ministry of Justice 2465:Ministry of Justice 2413:Judiciary of Russia 2375:Judiciary of Russia 2237:, partnership, and 2052:Clinton White House 1897:presidential decree 1881:Alexander Korzhakov 1806:of parliament, the 1770:Presidential powers 1699: 1537:Viktor Chernomyrdin 1406:August coup of 1991 1150:President of Russia 1144:. According to the 792:Electoral geography 425:Judiciary of Russia 312:Direct popular vote 8099:Politics of Russia 7944:Russian given name 7530:Telecommunications 7480:Petroleum industry 7344:State of emergency 7189:Far-right politics 7154:Capital punishment 7000:Meshchera Lowlands 6854:Russian Federation 6810:October Revolution 5447:. March 14, 2018. 5325:on January 1, 2017 5035:. August 1, 1997. 4658:. March 21, 1996. 4474:on August 28, 2017 4269:. August 3, 2016. 3814:(then head of the 3788: 3698: 3644: 3638:Chechen President 3492: 3475:Second Chechen War 2993:Kaliningrad Oblast 2951:Chelyabinsk Oblast 2738:Kabardino-Balkaria 2653: 2600: 2556:adversarial system 2517: 2477:Prosecutor General 2409: 2393:Vyacheslav Lebedev 2343:Federation Council 2287:Legislative Powers 2256:local legislatures 2183:Federation Council 2167: 2163:Russian State Duma 2144:Legislative branch 2028: 1925:state of emergency 1841: 1837:Russian opposition 1697: 1670: 1630:. You can help by 1511:Ruslan Khasbulatov 1206:A new constitution 1158:multi-party system 1128:politics of Russia 779:Regional elections 726:Prosecutor General 696:Vyacheslav Volodin 648:Federation Council 487:Politics of Russia 480: 319:Head of government 264:Vyacheslav Volodin 238:Indirect elections 215:Federation Council 168:Legislative branch 18:Russian politician 8084: 8083: 8051: 8050: 7631:Domestic violence 7563: 7562: 7485:Russian oligarchs 7410:Aircraft industry 7387: 7386: 7364:Mass surveillance 7354:Search and rescue 7319:Political parties 7199:Foreign relations 7131: 7130: 6930: 6929: 6922:Historical cities 6781:Tsardom of Russia 6661: 6660: 6234: 6233: 6171:other territories 5861:Politics of Asia 4910:. June 14, 1996. 4697:. June 20, 2008. 4354:978-3-642-07700-5 4075:Tsarist autocracy 4020:Economy of Russia 3973: 3972: 3965: 3947: 3838:managed democracy 3816:Council of Europe 3812:Alvaro Gil-Robles 3714:Mikhail Mishustin 3648:Sverdlovsk Oblast 3558: 3557: 3550: 3471:First Chechen War 3264:Autonomous Okrugs 3187:Sverdlovsk Oblast 2604:Federation Treaty 2457:Council of Judges 2385:Veniamin Yakovlev 2177:, the 450-member 1927:. In both cases, 1756:Charles de Gaulle 1752: 1751: 1741:Mikhail Mishustin 1648: 1647: 1579:Aleksandr Rutskoy 1515:1978 constitution 1501:, comprising the 1333:Mikhail Gorbachev 1292: 1291: 1284: 1172:is vested in the 1170:Legislative power 1135:semi-presidential 1124: 1123: 1078:Russia portal 893:Visa requirements 845:Foreign relations 797:Political parties 604:Mikhail Mishustin 532:Mental Health Law 464: 463: 339:Mikhail Mishustin 260:Presiding officer 221:Presiding officer 129: 128: 121: 103: 16:(Redirected from 8111: 8064: 8011:Russian language 7954:National symbols 7574: 7573: 7493: 7450:Fishing industry 7440:Economic regions 7435:Defence industry 7398: 7397: 7142: 7141: 7096:Russian Far East 6995:Northwest Russia 6953:Cities and towns 6941: 6940: 6803:Russian Republic 6709: 6708: 6688: 6681: 6674: 6665: 6664: 6598:Dependencies and 6534:Northern Ireland 6275:Sovereign states 6261: 6254: 6247: 6238: 6237: 6224: 6214: 6213: 6183:Christmas Island 5869:Sovereign states 5854: 5847: 5840: 5831: 5830: 5794: 5777: 5776: 5762: 5761: 5759: 5757: 5743: 5737: 5736: 5734: 5732: 5717: 5711: 5710: 5708: 5706: 5690: 5684: 5683: 5681: 5679: 5659: 5653: 5652: 5650: 5648: 5625: 5619: 5618: 5616: 5614: 5594: 5588: 5587: 5585: 5583: 5567: 5561: 5560: 5558: 5556: 5537: 5531: 5530: 5528: 5526: 5510: 5504: 5503: 5467: 5461: 5460: 5458: 5456: 5437: 5431: 5430: 5428: 5426: 5420: 5409: 5400: 5394: 5393: 5391: 5389: 5383: 5376: 5368: 5362: 5361: 5359: 5357: 5341: 5335: 5334: 5332: 5330: 5321:. Archived from 5319:freedomhouse.org 5311: 5305: 5304: 5302: 5300: 5291:. Archived from 5289:freedomhouse.org 5281: 5275: 5274: 5272: 5270: 5265:on March 5, 2008 5261:. Archived from 5251: 5245: 5244: 5242: 5240: 5225: 5219: 5218: 5216: 5214: 5199: 5193: 5192: 5190: 5188: 5173: 5167: 5166: 5164: 5162: 5147: 5138: 5137: 5135: 5133: 5118: 5112: 5111: 5109: 5107: 5088: 5082: 5081: 5076: 5074: 5055: 5049: 5048: 5046: 5044: 5025: 5019: 5018: 5012: 5010: 4991: 4982: 4981: 4960: 4954: 4953: 4951: 4949: 4940:. May 20, 1996. 4930: 4924: 4923: 4921: 4919: 4900: 4889: 4888: 4886: 4884: 4865: 4856: 4855: 4853: 4851: 4842:. July 7, 1997. 4832: 4817: 4816: 4814: 4812: 4793: 4778: 4777: 4772: 4770: 4751: 4740: 4739: 4737: 4735: 4720: 4711: 4710: 4708: 4706: 4687: 4672: 4671: 4669: 4667: 4648: 4642: 4641: 4635: 4633: 4624:. May 28, 1996. 4614: 4603: 4602: 4600: 4598: 4592: 4584:Demokratizatsiya 4581: 4575:Chuman, Mizuki. 4572: 4499: 4498: 4490: 4484: 4483: 4481: 4479: 4473: 4462: 4453: 4428: 4427: 4425: 4423: 4412:The Moscow Times 4403: 4394: 4393: 4391: 4389: 4380:. May 30, 1996. 4370: 4359: 4358: 4340: 4334: 4333: 4315: 4309: 4308: 4306: 4304: 4299:on July 15, 2011 4295:. 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2886:Krasnoyarsk Krai 2884: 2882: 2881: 2870: 2868: 2867: 2856: 2854: 2853: 2842: 2840: 2839: 2819: 2817: 2816: 2805: 2803: 2802: 2791: 2789: 2788: 2777: 2775: 2774: 2763: 2762: 2761: 2750: 2748: 2747: 2736: 2734: 2733: 2722: 2720: 2719: 2708: 2706: 2705: 2694: 2692: 2691: 2598:, Sakha Republic 2449:appellate courts 2447:are the primary 2171:Federal Assembly 2161:speaking in the 2107:and respect for 2008:Gennady Zyuganov 1808:Federal Assembly 1748:16 January 2020 1700: 1696: 1693:Executive branch 1643: 1640: 1622: 1615: 1592: 1556:vote on 25 April 1471:Soviet embassies 1410:New Union Treaty 1287: 1280: 1276: 1273: 1267: 1236: 1228: 1116: 1109: 1102: 1076: 1075: 1074: 1042:Accounts Chamber 832:Local government 817:Federal subjects 640:Federal Assembly 574:Security Council 498: 482: 481: 275:Executive branch 178:Federal Assembly 149: 131: 130: 124: 117: 113: 110: 104: 102: 61: 37: 29: 21: 8119: 8118: 8114: 8113: 8112: 8110: 8109: 8108: 8089: 8088: 8085: 8080: 8067: 8060: 8047: 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7412: 7407: 7401: 7395: 7389: 7388: 7385: 7384: 7382: 7381: 7376: 7371: 7366: 7361: 7359:Urban planning 7356: 7351: 7346: 7341: 7336: 7331: 7326: 7321: 7316: 7311: 7306: 7301: 7296: 7291: 7286: 7281: 7276: 7271: 7266: 7261: 7256: 7251: 7246: 7241: 7231: 7226: 7221: 7211: 7206: 7196: 7194:Federal budget 7191: 7186: 7181: 7176: 7171: 7166: 7161: 7156: 7151: 7145: 7139: 7133: 7132: 7129: 7128: 7126: 7125: 7120: 7115: 7110: 7105: 7103:North Caucasus 7100: 7099: 7098: 7093: 7088: 7078: 7077: 7076: 7071: 7066: 7056: 7055: 7054: 7044: 7039: 7037:Highest points 7034: 7029: 7024: 7019: 7014: 7013: 7012: 7007: 7002: 6997: 6992: 6982: 6980:Extreme points 6977: 6976: 6975: 6965: 6960: 6955: 6950: 6944: 6938: 6932: 6931: 6928: 6927: 6925: 6924: 6919: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6894: 6889: 6884: 6879: 6873: 6871: 6867: 6866: 6864: 6863: 6862: 6861: 6851: 6850: 6849: 6844: 6839: 6829: 6828: 6827: 6822: 6812: 6807: 6806: 6805: 6795: 6793:Russian Empire 6790: 6789: 6788: 6778: 6773: 6772: 6771: 6766: 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4045: 4039: 4034: 4031:Project Russia 4027: 4022: 4017: 4012: 4007: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3985: 3982: 3971: 3970: 3885: 3883: 3876: 3870: 3867: 3796:Vladimir Putin 3682: 3679: 3652:Primorsky Krai 3640:Ramzan Kadyrov 3581:North Caucasus 3556: 3555: 3506: 3504: 3497: 3484:Shamil Basayev 3462: 3459: 3422:Main article: 3419: 3416: 3392: 3389: 3367: 3364: 3362: 3361: 3358:St. Petersburg 3347: 3332: 3330: 3329:Federal Cities 3327: 3325: 3324: 3310: 3296: 3282: 3267: 3265: 3262: 3260: 3259: 3245: 3232: 3229:Vologda Oblast 3218: 3204: 3190: 3176: 3173:Saratov Oblast 3163: 3149: 3135: 3121: 3108: 3094: 3080: 3066: 3052: 3049:Magadan Oblast 3038: 3024: 3010: 2996: 2982: 2979:Irkutsk Oblast 2968: 2965:Ivanovo Oblast 2954: 2940: 2937:Bryansk Oblast 2926: 2912: 2897: 2895: 2892: 2890: 2889: 2875: 2872:Krasnodar Krai 2861: 2847: 2832: 2830: 2827: 2825: 2824: 2810: 2796: 2793:Sakha Republic 2782: 2768: 2755: 2741: 2727: 2713: 2699: 2684: 2682: 2679: 2669: 2666: 2649:Sakha Republic 2637: 2634: 2612: 2609: 2587: 2584: 2567:Main article: 2564: 2561: 2373:Main article: 2370: 2367: 2338: 2335: 2318:prime minister 2288: 2285: 2250: 2247: 2243:market economy 2219:new civil code 2173:, consists of 2150: 2147: 2145: 2142: 2120:federal budget 2101:foreign policy 2093:prime minister 2089:prime minister 2081:Main article: 2078: 2075: 2070: 2069: 1985:ethnic enclave 1968: 1965: 1910:Oleg Soskovets 1856: 1853: 1771: 1768: 1750: 1749: 1746: 1743: 1738: 1736:Prime Minister 1732: 1731: 1728: 1725: 1723:Vladimir Putin 1720: 1714: 1713: 1710: 1707: 1704: 1694: 1691: 1655:Main article: 1652: 1649: 1646: 1645: 1625: 1623: 1609:Main article: 1606: 1603: 1486: 1483: 1389: 1386: 1366:Supreme Soviet 1335:(in office as 1328: 1325: 1296: 1293: 1290: 1289: 1240: 1238: 1231: 1225: 1222: 1166:Prime Minister 1122: 1121: 1119: 1118: 1111: 1104: 1096: 1093: 1092: 1090: 1089: 1083: 1081: 1080: 1067: 1064: 1063: 1060: 1059: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1039: 1034: 1029: 1023: 1021:Related topics 1020: 1019: 1016: 1015: 1012: 1011: 1006: 1001: 996: 991: 986: 981: 976: 969: 968: 963: 958: 953: 948: 943: 938: 933: 926: 925: 924: 923: 918: 906: 905: 895: 890: 885: 878: 877: 866: 865: 854: 848: 843: 842: 839: 838: 835: 834: 829: 824: 819: 813: 808: 807: 804: 803: 800: 799: 794: 787: 786: 781: 776: 771: 766: 759: 758: 752: 747: 746: 743: 742: 739: 738: 733: 728: 723: 718: 712: 707: 706: 703: 702: 699: 698: 687: 677: 668: 667: 656: 651: 637: 632: 631: 628: 627: 624: 623: 621:Cabinet (57th) 618: 599:Prime Minister 596: 595: 590: 589: 586: 585: 582: 581: 576: 571: 557:Vladimir Putin 549: 548: 543: 542: 539: 538: 535: 534: 529: 524: 519: 513: 508: 507: 504: 503: 500: 499: 491: 490: 485: 472:Moscow Kremlin 462: 461: 456: 452: 451: 445: 444: 439: 435: 434: 428: 427: 422: 418: 417: 411: 410: 407: 403: 402: 397: 393: 392: 389: 385: 384: 383:Prime Minister 381: 377: 376: 371: 367: 366: 361: 357: 356: 350: 349: 346: 342: 341: 336: 332: 331: 329:Prime Minister 326: 322: 321: 315: 314: 309: 305: 304: 302:Vladimir Putin 299: 295: 294: 289: 285: 284: 278: 277: 271: 270: 261: 257: 256: 251: 247: 246: 240: 239: 236: 232: 231: 222: 218: 217: 212: 208: 207: 201: 200: 198:Moscow Kremlin 195: 191: 190: 185: 181: 180: 175: 171: 170: 164: 163: 158: 154: 153: 150: 142: 141: 138: 134: 127: 126: 41: 39: 32: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8116: 8105: 8102: 8100: 8097: 8096: 8094: 8087: 8077: 8074: 8072: 8069: 8068: 8063: 8059: 8058: 8054: 8044: 8041: 8037: 8034: 8033: 8032: 8029: 8027: 8026:Seven Wonders 8024: 8022: 8019: 8017: 8014: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8004: 8002: 7999: 7997: 7994: 7992: 7991:Playing cards 7989: 7987: 7984: 7982: 7979: 7977: 7974: 7970: 7967: 7965: 7962: 7960: 7957: 7956: 7955: 7952: 7950: 7947: 7945: 7942: 7940: 7937: 7935: 7932: 7930: 7927: 7925: 7922: 7920: 7917: 7915: 7912: 7910: 7907: 7905: 7902: 7900: 7897: 7895: 7892: 7890: 7887: 7885: 7882: 7880: 7877: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7858: 7855: 7854: 7853: 7850: 7848: 7845: 7843: 7840: 7838: 7835: 7833: 7830: 7828: 7825: 7823: 7820: 7819: 7817: 7815: 7811: 7803: 7800: 7799: 7798: 7795: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7780: 7778: 7775: 7773: 7770: 7768: 7765: 7763: 7760: 7758: 7755: 7753: 7750: 7748: 7745: 7743: 7740: 7738: 7735: 7733: 7730: 7728: 7725: 7723: 7720: 7716: 7713: 7711: 7708: 7707: 7706: 7703: 7699: 7696: 7695: 7694: 7691: 7687: 7686:Mental health 7684: 7682: 7679: 7677: 7674: 7673: 7672: 7669: 7667: 7664: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7649: 7647: 7646:Ethnic groups 7644: 7642: 7639: 7637: 7634: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7612: 7609: 7607: 7604: 7602: 7599: 7597: 7594: 7592: 7589: 7587: 7584: 7582: 7579: 7578: 7575: 7572: 7570: 7566: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7548: 7546: 7543: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7518: 7516: 7513: 7511: 7508: 7504: 7501: 7500: 7499: 7496: 7494: 7488: 7486: 7483: 7481: 7478: 7476: 7473: 7471: 7468: 7466: 7463: 7461: 7458: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7448: 7446: 7443: 7441: 7438: 7436: 7433: 7431: 7428: 7426: 7423: 7421: 7418: 7416: 7413: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7403: 7402: 7399: 7396: 7394: 7390: 7380: 7377: 7375: 7372: 7370: 7367: 7365: 7362: 7360: 7357: 7355: 7352: 7350: 7349:Civil defense 7347: 7345: 7342: 7340: 7337: 7335: 7332: 7330: 7327: 7325: 7322: 7320: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7310: 7307: 7305: 7302: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7294:Media freedom 7292: 7290: 7287: 7285: 7282: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7270: 7267: 7265: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7255: 7252: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7242: 7239: 7235: 7232: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7222: 7219: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7204: 7200: 7197: 7195: 7192: 7190: 7187: 7185: 7182: 7180: 7179:Criminal code 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7159:Civil Service 7157: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7146: 7143: 7140: 7138: 7134: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7114: 7111: 7109: 7106: 7104: 7101: 7097: 7094: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7084: 7083: 7082: 7079: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7067: 7065: 7062: 7061: 7060: 7057: 7053: 7050: 7049: 7048: 7045: 7043: 7040: 7038: 7035: 7033: 7030: 7028: 7025: 7023: 7020: 7018: 7015: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6988: 6987: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6974: 6971: 6970: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6945: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6933: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6888: 6885: 6883: 6880: 6878: 6875: 6874: 6872: 6868: 6860: 6857: 6856: 6855: 6852: 6848: 6845: 6843: 6840: 6838: 6835: 6834: 6833: 6830: 6826: 6823: 6821: 6820:Russian state 6818: 6817: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6808: 6804: 6801: 6800: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6791: 6787: 6784: 6783: 6782: 6779: 6777: 6774: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6756: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6747: 6744: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6718: 6716: 6714: 6710: 6707: 6705: 6701: 6696: 6689: 6684: 6682: 6677: 6675: 6670: 6669: 6666: 6654: 6651: 6650: 6648: 6644: 6638: 6635: 6633: 6630: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6612:Faroe Islands 6610: 6608: 6605: 6604: 6602: 6596: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6584:South Ossetia 6582: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6566: 6564: 6558: 6552: 6549: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6526: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6510: 6507: 6505: 6502: 6500: 6497: 6495: 6492: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6455: 6452: 6450: 6447: 6445: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6409:Liechtenstein 6407: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6279: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6262: 6257: 6255: 6250: 6248: 6243: 6242: 6239: 6227: 6223: 6219: 6217: 6209: 6208: 6205: 6199: 6196: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6175: 6173: 6168: 6164: 6158: 6155: 6153: 6152:South Ossetia 6150: 6148: 6145: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6135: 6134: 6132: 6130: 6124: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6078: 6075: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6065: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6008: 6005: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5928: 5925: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5874: 5872: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5855: 5850: 5848: 5843: 5841: 5836: 5835: 5832: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5802: 5799: 5796: 5792: 5788: 5787: 5781: 5780:public domain 5772: 5771: 5752: 5748: 5742: 5726: 5722: 5716: 5700: 5696: 5689: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5658: 5643: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5624: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5593: 5577: 5573: 5566: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5536: 5520: 5516: 5509: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5473: 5466: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5436: 5417: 5413: 5412:The Economist 5406: 5403:Kekic, Laza. 5399: 5380: 5373: 5367: 5351: 5347: 5340: 5324: 5320: 5316: 5310: 5294: 5290: 5286: 5280: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5250: 5234: 5230: 5224: 5213:September 25, 5208: 5204: 5198: 5182: 5178: 5172: 5157: 5153: 5146: 5144: 5127: 5123: 5117: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5087: 5080: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5054: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5024: 5017: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4990: 4988: 4980: 4976: 4974:0-7656-0559-7 4970: 4966: 4959: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4929: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4899: 4897: 4895: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4864: 4862: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4831: 4829: 4827: 4825: 4823: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4792: 4790: 4788: 4786: 4784: 4776: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4750: 4748: 4746: 4734:September 24, 4729: 4725: 4719: 4717: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4686: 4684: 4682: 4680: 4678: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4647: 4640: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4613: 4611: 4609: 4589: 4585: 4578: 4571: 4569: 4567: 4565: 4563: 4561: 4559: 4557: 4555: 4553: 4551: 4549: 4547: 4545: 4543: 4541: 4539: 4537: 4535: 4533: 4531: 4529: 4527: 4525: 4523: 4521: 4519: 4517: 4515: 4513: 4511: 4509: 4507: 4505: 4497:. p. 49. 4496: 4489: 4470: 4466: 4459: 4452: 4450: 4448: 4446: 4444: 4442: 4440: 4438: 4436: 4434: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4402: 4400: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4369: 4367: 4365: 4356: 4350: 4346: 4339: 4331: 4329:0-7190-5890-2 4325: 4321: 4314: 4298: 4294: 4288: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4258: 4239: 4232: 4226: 4210: 4206: 4205: 4200: 4194: 4186: 4180: 4172: 4166: 4162: 4152: 4148: 4147: 4133: 4124: 4115: 4113: 4103: 4101: 4099: 4097: 4095: 4093: 4091: 4086: 4076: 4073: 4071: 4068: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4055: 4052: 4049: 4046: 4043: 4040: 4038: 4035: 4033: 4032: 4028: 4026: 4023: 4021: 4018: 4016: 4013: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4001: 3998: 3996: 3993: 3991: 3988: 3987: 3981: 3979: 3967: 3964: 3956: 3945: 3942: 3938: 3935: 3931: 3928: 3924: 3921: 3917: 3914: – 3913: 3909: 3908:Find sources: 3902: 3898: 3892: 3891: 3886:This article 3884: 3880: 3875: 3874: 3866: 3862: 3859: 3856: 3850: 3846: 3841: 3839: 3834: 3832: 3831:Larry Diamond 3828: 3827:hybrid regime 3824: 3819: 3817: 3813: 3808: 3807:Freedom House 3804: 3799: 3797: 3793: 3784: 3780: 3778: 3777:Viktor Zubkov 3775:, appointing 3774: 3769: 3765: 3760: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3741: 3739: 3738:A Just Russia 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3710:United Russia 3707: 3703: 3695: 3692: 3687: 3678: 3675: 3671: 3668: 3663: 3659: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3641: 3636: 3632: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3609:Bashkortostan 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3593:Komi Republic 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3569: 3567: 3564:Advocates of 3562: 3552: 3549: 3541: 3538:December 2016 3531: 3527: 3523: 3517: 3516: 3512: 3507:This section 3505: 3501: 3496: 3495: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3458: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3442: 3440: 3436: 3430: 3425: 3415: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3359: 3348: 3345: 3334: 3333: 3322: 3311: 3308: 3297: 3294: 3283: 3280: 3269: 3268: 3257: 3246: 3243: 3233: 3230: 3219: 3216: 3205: 3202: 3191: 3188: 3177: 3174: 3164: 3161: 3160:Samara Oblast 3150: 3147: 3136: 3133: 3132:Rostov Oblast 3122: 3119: 3109: 3106: 3095: 3092: 3081: 3078: 3067: 3064: 3053: 3050: 3039: 3036: 3025: 3022: 3011: 3008: 2997: 2994: 2983: 2980: 2969: 2966: 2955: 2952: 2941: 2938: 2927: 2924: 2913: 2910: 2899: 2898: 2887: 2876: 2873: 2862: 2859: 2848: 2845: 2834: 2833: 2822: 2811: 2808: 2797: 2794: 2783: 2780: 2769: 2766: 2756: 2753: 2752:Komi Republic 2742: 2739: 2728: 2725: 2714: 2711: 2700: 2697: 2696:Bashkortostan 2686: 2685: 2678: 2676: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2650: 2646: 2645:Yegor Borisov 2642: 2636:Power sharing 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2608: 2605: 2597: 2592: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2570: 2560: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2540: 2538: 2534: 2531:, to examine 2530: 2526: 2522: 2515: 2510: 2506: 2504: 2500: 2495: 2493: 2492:socialist law 2489: 2488:Yuri Andropov 2485: 2480: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2429:Supreme Court 2426: 2422: 2421:law of Russia 2418: 2414: 2406: 2402: 2401:Valery Zorkin 2398: 2397:Supreme Court 2394: 2390: 2386: 2381: 2376: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2356: 2352: 2351:sign into law 2348: 2344: 2334: 2331: 2326: 2321: 2319: 2314: 2311: 2305: 2301: 2299: 2295: 2284: 2282: 2278: 2272: 2269: 2265: 2260: 2257: 2246: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2214: 2210: 2208: 2202: 2199: 2195: 2190: 2186: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2164: 2160: 2155: 2140: 2136: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2121: 2116: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2084: 2074: 2068: 2066: 2061: 2060: 2059: 2055: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2040:George Gorton 2037: 2033: 2032:United States 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1973: 1964: 1962: 1961:North Ossetia 1958: 1954: 1949: 1945: 1940: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1923:, as well as 1922: 1918: 1913: 1911: 1907: 1901: 1898: 1894: 1888: 1884: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1869: 1867: 1862: 1852: 1850: 1845: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1820: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1788: 1784: 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