664:
1097:) were either iron or bronze, or even alternating metals on the same shirt. They could be tinned as well, one surviving fragment showing bronze scales that were alternately tinned and plain. The metal was generally not very thick, 0.5 mm to 0.8 mm (0.02 to 0.032 in) perhaps being a common range. Since the scales overlapped in every direction, however, the multiple layers gave good protection. The size ranged from as small as 6 mm (0.25 in) wide by 1.2 cm tall up to about 5 cm (2 in) wide by 8 cm (3 in) tall, with the most common sizes being roughly 1.25 by 2.5 cm (0.5 by 1 in). Many had rounded bottoms, while others were pointed or had flat bottoms with the corners clipped off at an angle. The scales could be flat, slightly domed, or have a raised midrib or edge. All the scales in a shirt were generally of the same size; however, scales from different shirts varied significantly.
917:
downwards, and they surrounded the torso in two halves, being fastened at the front and back by means of brass hooks, which were joined by leather laces. The upper body and shoulders were protected by additional strips ('shoulder guards') and breast- and backplates. The form of the armour allowed it to be stored very compactly, since it was possible to separate it into four sections. During the time of its use, it was modified several times, the currently recognised types being the
Kalkriese (c. 20 BC to 50), Corbridge (c. 40 to 120), and Newstead (c. 120 to possibly the early 4th century) types. There is also a little-known fourth type, known only from a statue found at Alba Julia in Romania, where there appears to have been a hybrid form, the shoulders being protected by scale armour and the torso hoops being fewer in number and deeper.
992:
1229:
656:
895:
750:
250:
1054:
1062:
1713:
falls into the enemy's hands. The Roman soldiers rendered them useless chiefly by the following contrivance: at the instant the engagement began, they strewed the field of battle with caltrops, and the horses that drew the chariots, running full speed on them, were infallibly destroyed. A caltrop is a machine composed of four spikes or points arranged so that in whatever manner it is thrown on the ground, it rests on three and presents the fourth upright.
1465:
1555:
803:
556:
1565:
118:
2426:
185:
1137:
Originally it was oblong and convex, but by the first century BC it had developed into the rectangular, semi-cylindrical shield that is popularly associated with the scutum in modern times. This was not the only kind the Romans used; Roman shields were of varying types depending on the role of the soldier who carried it. Oval, circular and rectangular shapes were used throughout Roman history.
174:
20:
1010:). They were mostly manufactured out of iron, though sometimes bronze was used instead. The rings were linked together, alternating closed washer-like rings with riveted rings. This produced a very flexible, reliable and strong armour. Each ring had an inside diameter of between 5 and 7 mm, and an outside diameter of 7 to 9 mm. The shoulders of the
66:
produce, which may have been a deciding factor at times of financial crisis, or where large bodies of men were required to be mobilized at short notice, possibly reflected in the poor-quality, mass produced iron helmets of
Imperial Italic type C, as found, for example, in the River Po at Cremona, associated with the Civil Wars of AD 69 AD;
1329:: a basic garment worn under the armour by all soldiers in the republic and early empire. Normally made of wool. Tunics originally consisted simply of a piece of rectangular cloth sewed to an identical piece, with holes for the arms and head left unsewn. Later, it became fashionable for tunics to be produced with sleeves, and worn with
1583:
The ballista was a powerful catapult, consisting of a beam with a frame at the end, mounting two rigid arms powered by torsion in bundles of sinew at each side, which would pull a bowstring between them propelling the projectile. It launched heavy darts called bolts, or spherical stone projectiles of
440:
in ancient times. It was generally somewhat less than two metres (6 ft 7 in) long overall, consisting of a wooden shaft from which projected an iron shank about 7 mm (0.28 inches) in diameter and 60 cm (23.6 in) long with a pyramidal head. The iron shank was socketed or, more
1161:
across. It was smaller than most shields, but was strongly made and regarded as effective protection. Its strength came from its design of gluing multiple layers of wood together while stretching leather across it to eliminate the shields' vulnerability to water. This may have been due to the use of
493:
as spears or pikes. In the "Life of Pompey" and "Life of Antony", Plutarch describes Caesar's men at
Pharsalus jabbing upwards at the faces of Pompey's cavalry with their javelins and Marc Antony's men stabbing at Parthian cavalry with theirs. In Arrian in Array against the Alans, Arrian writes that
59:
The production of these kinds of helmets of Italic tradition decreased in quality because of the demands of equipping huge armies, especially during civil wars...The bad quality of these helmets is recorded by the sources describing how sometimes they were covered by wicker protections (viminea
1424:
was hooded in colder climates. Since every common soldier slept in the open, it was important that he have a warm full-length wrap, but necessary that he carry it with him each day regardless of his activities. This was accomplished by a cloak of more than body length, double-folded so that it did
75:
Up until then, the quality of helmets had been fairly consistent and the bowls well decorated and finished. However, after the Marian
Reforms, with their resultant influx of the poorest citizens into the army, there must inevitably have been a massive demand for cheaper equipment, a situation which
1712:
The scythed chariots used in war by
Antiochus and Mithridates at first terrified the Romans, but they afterwards made a jest of them. As a chariot of this sort does not always meet with plain and level ground, the least obstruction stops it. And if one of the horses be either killed or wounded, it
145:
equipment, the dagger underwent some changes during the 1st century. Generally, it had a large, leaf-shaped blade 18 to 28 cm long and 5 cm or more in width. A raised midrib ran the length of each side, either simply standing out from the face or defined by grooves on either side. It was
65:
It would appear that armour quality suffered at times when mass production methods were being used to meet the increased demand which was very high (from the Civil and Social Wars, and following the Marian and
Augustan reforms) the reduced size cuirasses would also have been quicker and cheaper to
1136:
The Romans adopted it when they switched from the military formation of the hoplite phalanx of the Greeks to the formation with maniples (Latin: manipuli). In the former, the soldiers carried a round shield, which the Romans called a clipeus. In the latter, they used the scutum, which was larger.
1100:
The scales were wired together in horizontal rows that were then laced or sewn to the backing. Therefore, each scale had from four to 12 holes: two or more at each side for wiring to the next in the row, one or two at the top for fastening to the backing, and sometimes one or two at the bottom to
1646:
A brass instrument used in the ancient Roman army. It was originally designed as a tube measuring some 11 to 12 feet in length, of narrow cylindrical bore, and played by means of a cup-shaped mouthpiece. The tube was bent around upon itself from the mouthpiece to the bell in the shape of a broad
270:
could be any sword (in late Latin), but most often one of the longer swords characteristic of the middle and late Roman Empire. In the 1st century, Roman cavalry started using these longer swords, and in the late 2nd or early 3rd century, Roman infantry also switched to longer swords, as well as
156:
Throughout the period, the outline of the hilt remained approximately the same. It was made with two layers of horn, wood or bone sandwiching the tang, each overlaid with a thin metal plate. Often the hilt was decorated with inlaid silver. The hilt was 10–12 cm long overall and the grip was
50:
a very distinct advantage over their barbarian enemies, especially so in the case of armour. This does not mean that every Roman soldier had better equipment than the richer men among his opponents. Roman equipment was not of a better quality than that used by the majority of Rome's adversaries.
916:
primarily used in the early Roman Empire, but the Latin name was first used in the 16th century (the ancient form is unknown). The armour itself consisted of broad ferrous strips ('girth hoops') fastened to internal leather straps. The strips were arranged horizontally on the body, overlapping
1433:: military boots worn by legionaries and auxiliaries throughout the history of the Roman Republic and Empire. The boots were made from leather and laced up the centre of the foot and onto the top of the ankle. Iron hobnails were hammered into the sole for added strength. Similar to the modern
205:(Spanish sword) referred (and still refers) specifically to the short sword, 60 cm (24 inches) long, used by Roman legionaries from the 3rd century BC. It is considered to be the primary weapon used by soldiers in war. Several different better-known designs followed; among collectors and
1260:
was used from the late 1st century BC to the late 2nd century AD and it drew influence from the Gallic tribes to the north, hence its name. Roman helmets usually featured a bowl protecting the head, an extension at the back with a neck guard, a ridge above the forehead for additional impact
730:
A mattock /ˈmætək/ is a hand tool used for digging, prying, and chopping. Similar to the pickaxe, it has a long handle and a stout head which combines either a vertical axe blade with a horizontal adze (cutter mattock), or a pick and an adze (pick mattock). A cutter mattock is similar to a
1629:
The onager was a torsion-powered siege engine in which a sinew or horse hair spring mounted on a wooden frame swung an arm vertically against a stop, hurling projectiles in a high arc. It launched stones from a cup or sling, and it was named after a species of
Asiatic ass due to its kick.
1606:
The scorpio was a torsion-powered catapult-type weapon, similar to a smaller ballista, which fired bolts capable of piercing enemy shields and armour. The Roman army supplied 60 to each legion and they were used both offensively during sieges and defensively as part of the
924:
being worn is around 9 BC (Dangstetten), and the armour was evidently quite common in service until the 2nd century AD, judging from the number of finds throughout this period (over 100 sites are known, many of them in
Britain). However, even during the 2nd century AD, the
864:(arms factories) were producing mail armour at the end of the 4th century. Actual examples of both scale armour and quite large sections of mail have been recovered, at Trier and Weiler-La-Tour respectively, within 4th-century contexts. Officers generally seem to have worn
1104:
It is possible that the shirt could be opened either at the back or down one side so that it was easier to put on, the opening being closed by ties. Much has been written about scale armour's supposed vulnerability to an upward thrust, but this is probably exaggerated.
1316:
Greaves, sheet metal protecting the legs, were widely used in the early republic, and by some troops in the imperial army. Early Roman legionaries would wear a single greave on the left leg which was more exposed under the shield, as it was fashion in Italic cultures.
451:
were designed to penetrate both shield and armour, wounding the wearer; but, if they simply stuck in a shield, they could not easily be removed. Some believed that the iron shank would bend upon impact, weighing down the enemy's shield and also preventing the
1514:
Food: each legionary would carry some of his food. Although a Roman army on the move would typically have a baggage train of mules or similar to carry supplies such as food, legionaries were required to carry about 15 days worth of basic food supplies with
839:). The testing of modern replicas has demonstrated that this kind of armour was impenetrable to most direct hits and missile strikes. It was, however, uncomfortable without padding: re-enactors have confirmed that wearing a padded undergarment known as a
280:
or half-swords. A large 3rd-century hoard from Künzing included one triangular-bladed short sword and several narrow-bladed short swords (with 23–39 cm blades). Bishop and
Coulston suggest that some or all were made from broken
220:
which follows the Mainz type, which had itself followed the
Hispaniensis (these names refer to where or how the canonical example was found). More recent archaeological finds have confirmed the appearance of the earlier version, the
146:
changed by making the blade a little thinner, about 3 mm, and the handle was also made out of metal. The tang was wide and flat initially, and the grip was riveted through it, as well as through the shoulders of the blade.
460:
did not bend at all, but reduced the effectiveness of enemy shields by simply getting stuck due to the shape of its larger head and thin shank. In fact, there were many cases where the whole shank was hardened, making the
974:
may account for the reversion to ring-mail after the 3rd to 4th century. Alternatively, all forms of armour may have fallen into disuse as the need for heavy infantry waned in favour of the speed of mounted troops.
476:
are "unlikely to bend under their own weight when thrown and striking a target or ground" - rather, it is human intervention that is responsible in some way, and that Caesar's writings should be interpreted as the
1018:; they ran from about mid-back to the front of the torso, and were connected by brass or iron hooks which connected to studs riveted through the ends of the flaps. Several thousand rings would have gone into one
1073:
was a type of scale armour used during the Roman Republic and at later periods. It was made from small metal scales sewn to a fabric backing. It is typically seen on depictions of standard bearers, musicians,
1065:
Detail of a fragment. Each plate has six holes and the scales are linked in rows. Only the lower most holes are visible on most scales, while a few show the pair above and the ring fastener passing through
843:
relieves the wearer from bruising both from prolonged wear and from shock produced by weapon blows against the armour. It was also expensive to produce and difficult to maintain. In the 3rd century, the
1025:
Although labour-intensive to manufacture, it is thought that, with good maintenance, they could be continually used for several decades. Its utility was such that the later appearance of the famous
96:
based on the Carthaginian model. Once a weapon was adopted, it became standard. The standard weapons varied somewhat during Rome's long history, but the equipment and its use were never individual.
456:
from being immediately re-used. Some versions of the shaft may have fallen off on impact, leaving the enemy with a bent shank in their shield. However, recent evidence suggests that many types of
1445:: leather or fabric strips that formed a skirt or sleeves to protect limbs while maintaining mobility and ventilation. They were usually part of a padding coat worn under the armour, such as the
937:
mail was still standard issue for both heavy infantry and auxiliaries alike. The last recorded use of this armour seems to have been for the last quarter of the 3rd century AD (Leon, Spain).
1006:
was a type of mail armour used during the Roman Republic continuing throughout the Roman Empire as a standard-issue armour for the primary heavy infantry legionaries and secondary troops (
599:. While most scholars agree that one or more of these terms refer to handheld mechanical weapons, there is disagreement whether these were flexion bows or torsion powered like the recent
1133:
The scutum (Classical Latin: ; plural scuta) was a type of shield used among Italic peoples in antiquity, most notably by the army of ancient Rome starting about the fourth century BC.
827:
or laminated-strip cuirass. This last type was a complex piece of armour which in certain circumstances provided superior protection to the other types of Roman armour, mail armour (
810:
Metal torso armour was always heavy and expensive, and it was not always available; not all troops wore it. In the early republic few men wore more than a small breastplate, and
2094:
2052:
Coulston, J.C. "Roman Archery Equipment. The Production and Distribution of Roman Military Equipment". Ed. M.C. Bishop. Oxford: B.A.R. International Series, 1985. pp. 202-366.
1029:—which afforded greater protection for a third of the weight—never led to the disappearance of the ubiquitous mail, and, in fact, the army of the late empire reverted to the
1651:
and was strengthened by means of a bar across the curve, which the performer grasped while playing, in order to steady the instrument; the curves over his head or shoulder.
1425:
not fall beneath the knees when worn. An excellent illustration of this is the statue of Caesar Augustus atop the theater in the Roman city of Orange, in what is now France.
1112:
have been found, but there have been several archaeological finds of fragments of such shirts and individual scales are quite common finds—even in non-military contexts.
60:
tegimenta), like those of Pompeius' soldiers during the siege of Dyrrachium in 48 BC, which were seriously damaged by the missiles of Caesar's slingers and archers.
541:", with wooden bows. The reinforcing laths for the composite bows were found throughout the empire, even in the western provinces where wooden bows were traditional.
1492:
2582:
149:
Around 50 AD, a rod tang was introduced, and the hilt was no longer riveted through the shoulders of the blade. This in itself caused no great change to the
1261:
protection and decoration, and hinged cheek guards which left the ears exposed for better hearing in the battlefield. They were eventually replaced by the
2430:
1687:) was a weapon made up of four sharp nails or spines arranged in such a manner that one of them always pointed upward from a stable base (for example, a
1909:
Esposito, Gabriele (2018). I guerrieri dell'Italia antica. Gli eserciti italici dalla fondazione di Roma ad Annibale, Storia antica, Libri LEG Edizioni.
153:
appearance, but some of these later blades were narrower (under 3.5 cm wide), and had little or no waisting, and had reduced or vestigial midribs.
1592:
The Romans would develop an improved version with inward facing arms in the 3rd century, the remains of such were found in the town of Hatra in Iraq.
856:. The artistic record shows that most late soldiers wore metal armour, despite Vegetius' statement to the contrary. For example, illustrations in the
647:, meaning "lead"), with an effective range of c. 30 m, well beyond that of a javelin. The darts were carried clipped to the back of the shield.
1527:
Entrenching tools: Carried by legionaries to construct fortifications and dig latrines etc. Each legionary would typically carry either a shovel (
1785:, JHUP, 1979, Luttwak states that "Roman weapons, far from being universally more advanced, were frequently inferior to those used by... enemies"
671:
iron heads of three early Roman tools. Top, an axe with a straight spike ending in a vertical chisel-like point, and bottom, two cutter mattocks
445:
usually weighed between two and four kilograms (4.4 and 8.8 lb), with the versions produced during the empire era being somewhat lighter.
358:
was about 1.8 metres (six feet) in length. The shaft was generally made from ash while the head was usually of iron, although early republican
679:, documented the use of spades and other digging implements as important tools of war. A Roman legion when on the march would dig a ditch and
2469:
1511:: Roman camps would typically be built near water sources, but each soldier would have to carry his water for the day's march in a waterskin.
3011:
2309:
276:
51:
Other historians and writers have stated that the Roman army's need for large quantities of "mass produced" equipment after the so-called "
30:
was produced in large numbers to established patterns, and used in an established manner. These standard patterns and uses were called the
1294:
was first used by gladiators and it was made either from padded cloth or overlapping metal sheets. Roman legionaries are depicted wearing
3053:
3041:
1750:
821:
Legionary soldiers of the 1st and 2nd centuries used a variety of armour types. Some wore mail shirts, while others wore scale armour or
157:
quite narrow; which produced a very secure grip. An expansion or lump in the middle of the handle made the user's grip even more secure.
3100:
384:
also means specifically the heavy Roman throwing javelin of the legions. Lighter, shorter javelins existed, such as those used by the
4414:
991:
3016:
940:
There are two opinions as to who used this form of armour. One is that only legionaries (heavy infantry of the Roman legions) and
4388:
3026:
575:
that was occasionally used by the Romans. The ancient world knew a variety of mechanical hand-held weapons similar to the later
4333:
3021:
2755:
2412:
The Production and Distribution of Roman Military Equipment Proceedings of the Second Roman Military Equipment Research Seminar
1355:: a scarf worn by legionaries to protect the neck from chafing caused by constant contact with the soldier's armour (typically
489:
was often used as a weapon in melee combat: For example, in "The Gallic Wars" Caesar writes that at Alesia his troops used the
1290:
From early imperial times to after the fall of the Western Empire, some troops wore segmented armour on one or both arms. The
437:
4303:
3128:
2655:
1932:
2029:
Roman Military Equipment from the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome (Paperback). M.C. Bishop, J.C. Coulston. Oxbow Books 2005.
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4268:
3421:
1589:
2974:
55:" and subsequent civil wars led to a decline in the quality of Roman equipment compared to the earlier Republican era:
2645:
2400:
2041:
1964:
233:
blacksmiths used harder steels on the outer layers of the sword while using softer steels in the centre of the blade.
4313:
2640:
2635:
2611:
2462:
2034:
1414:. Both were made from wool, which insulated and also contained natural oil to repel water. They were fastened with a
1228:
4328:
3001:
2650:
2577:
2016:
2203:
2185:
2594:
2527:
1998:
1980:
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for about half of the weight, but was also more difficult to produce and repair. The expenses attributed to the
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3031:
1174:
81:
3844:
683:
around their camps every night where established camps were not available. They were also useful as weapons.
618:
depict the use of crossbows in hunting scenes. These are remarkably similar to the later medieval crossbow.
614:
Roman cavalry training for shooting some mechanical handheld weapon from horseback. Sculptural reliefs from
3684:
3288:
2740:
2455:
485:
that does not bend upon impact would be in line with the numerous historical Roman writings that state the
4383:
4308:
4067:
3123:
3006:
2552:
1256:, which "raised the neck peak to eye level and set a sturdy frontal peak to the brow of the helmet". The
4343:
4007:
3899:
3669:
3441:
3263:
3171:
3036:
2979:
2437:
4363:
3456:
3411:
3338:
3258:
3206:
3196:
3148:
2495:
1834:
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3964:
3874:
3383:
3363:
3358:
3343:
3296:
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3191:
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2336:
1745:
1723:
1661:
The instrument is the ancestor of both the trumpet and the trombone. The German word for trombone,
4373:
4353:
4293:
4283:
4273:
3679:
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3268:
3248:
3163:
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2438:
Roman military equipment in the British Museum, Hunterian Museum and National Museum of Scotland
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4112:
4087:
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206:
1695:, and human troops. It was said to be particularly effective against the soft feet of camels.
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4102:
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3649:
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1920:
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A military pack carried by legionaries. The pack included a number of items suspended from a
1658:
was used for the announcement of night watches and various other announcements in the camp.
321:); in particular, they were carried by and gave their name to those Roman soldiers known as
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3879:
3779:
3704:
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armour and this latter view is supported, to some degree, by archaeological findings. The
19:
8:
4288:
4137:
3939:
3809:
3759:
3078:
2675:
2344:
Baatz, Dietwulf (1999), "Katapulte und mechanische Handwaffen des spätrömischen Heeres",
1249:
67:
2253:
1252:
used by the Republic armies up to the 1st century BC. This was replaced directly by the
229:
on their right hips. In order to craft a sword with the strength and flexibility of the
4338:
4062:
3869:
3724:
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3584:
3527:
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2725:
2396:
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1501:
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823:
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Arms and Armour of the Imperial Roman Soldier From Marius to Commodus, 112 BC–AD 192
1339:: A padded jacket made out of linen or leather, worn underneath armours such as the
4037:
3997:
3929:
3864:
3789:
3784:
3556:
3479:
3426:
3221:
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3105:
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2823:
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2685:
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could be fitted with small metal studs and plates to provide additional protection.
433:
89:
4132:
3944:
3924:
3884:
3819:
3769:
3764:
3639:
3589:
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3331:
3311:
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2505:
1624:
1416:
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1128:
1048:
835:
634:
550:
397:
249:
1537:(mattock) for digging, a turf cutting tool or a wicker basket for hauling earth.
958:. The second viewpoint is that both legionaries and auxiliary soldiers used the
791:
4187:
3829:
3564:
3512:
3484:
3431:
3416:
3396:
3211:
3186:
3143:
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2294:
The Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient Eastern World, Vol 6. (of 7): Parthia
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to provide impact protection as well as better weight distribution and comfort.
1223:
1148:
865:
815:
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198:
52:
39:
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1053:
4408:
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3115:
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2161:
1612:
1541:
1253:
986:
849:
829:
811:
676:
579:
crossbow. The exact terminology is a subject of continuing scholarly debate.
522:
305:
210:
2236:
1061:
587:(fl. 4th century) note repeatedly the use of arrow shooting weapons such as
274:
Shorter weapons (short swords and possibly sometimes daggers) were known as
4197:
4057:
3502:
3451:
3406:
3401:
3253:
3063:
2949:
2893:
2888:
2660:
2544:
2478:
1692:
1434:
1391:
580:
466:
396:. Other types of javelins were adopted by the late Roman army, such as the
138:
47:
43:
1232:
Cavalry parade helmet, latter half of the 2nd century AD, from the German
3992:
3614:
3436:
3326:
2720:
2311:
The Military Institutions of the Romans Book III: Dispositions for Action
2186:"LacusCurtius • The Roman Shield called Parma (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)"
1688:
1266:
942:
913:
735:
used in fighting fires. It is also commonly known in North America as a "
576:
2443:
For images of authentic Roman military equipment see www.romancoins.info
2087:
533:), made of horn, wood, and sinew held together with hide glue. However,
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4122:
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142:
1554:
4207:
4192:
4182:
4167:
4082:
4072:
4042:
4032:
4027:
4017:
3919:
3834:
3714:
3699:
3629:
3609:
3599:
3594:
3574:
3373:
2954:
2918:
2808:
2735:
2567:
1728:
1699:
1578:
1529:
1441:
1207:
A light shield of steel and leather, the name from Greek (καίτρεα,
999:, and alternation of rows of solid rings with rows of riveted rings
874:
802:
736:
639:
629:
584:
572:
534:
408:, which were heavily influenced by the weapons of Italic warriors.
404:
254:
1082:
troops, and even auxiliary infantry, but could be worn by regular
4227:
4222:
4212:
4177:
4172:
4162:
4107:
4092:
3909:
3904:
3889:
3859:
3814:
3794:
3774:
3729:
3461:
3316:
3095:
2903:
2898:
2788:
1898:
Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome
1872:
Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome
1684:
1641:
1485:
1429:
1410:
1383:
1086:
as well. A shirt of scale armour was shaped in the same way as a
1079:
761:
720:
714:
694:
668:
655:
555:
392:
386:
371:
343:
323:
193:
168:
1564:
1211:.). Used by tribesmen from Hispania, Mauretania, and Britannia.
4237:
4117:
4047:
3987:
3982:
3949:
3709:
3694:
3644:
3624:
3046:
2923:
2818:
2425:
2073:
1608:
1585:
1520:
1351:
1311:
787:
783:
782:
was a curved blade that was sharp on the inside edge such as a
765:
637:
often carried a half-dozen lead-weighted throwing-darts called
607:
600:
266:
244:
134:
117:
46:
led to military excellence and victory. The equipment gave the
995:
Detail of mail (replica) with 4-in-1 scheme, typical of Roman
184:
88:, they based new varieties on Celtic equipment. To defeat the
4022:
3744:
3471:
2763:
1404:
1326:
848:
appears to have been dropped and troops are depicted wearing
498:
like spearmen, while the rest should use them like javelins.
419:
333:
112:
85:
1248:, varied greatly in form. One of the earliest types was the
173:
4232:
3799:
3739:
3321:
2697:
2214:
773:
755:
271:
mostly changing from carrying javelins to carrying spears.
1395:: underpants. Their existence was confirmed by one of the
852:(mainly) or scale, the standard armour of the 2nd-century
188:
The Mainz Gladius on display at the British Museum, London
2793:
1090:, mid-thigh length with the shoulder doublings or cape.
1800:
1691:). Caltrops served to slow down the advance of horses,
749:
494:
the first four ranks of the formation should use their
1835:"Roman Weapons, Armour and Clothing - Know the Romans"
1496:
or carrying pole. Items carried in the pack included:
1162:
iron in its frame. It had a handle and a shield boss (
764:
as a weapon against the Romans, drawing based on the
2222:
Soldiers, Emperors and Civilians in the Roman Empire
1812:
1829:
1827:
1101:secure the scales to the backing or to each other.
469:, while also rendering it usable by enemy soldiers.
209:, the two primary kinds of swords are known as the
141:soldiers, likely as a sidearm. Like other items of
76:
can only have been exacerbated by the Civil Wars...
2237:"The Hatra ballista: a secret weapon of the past?"
2235:
2093:Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques et romaines:
1788:
1014:had flaps that were similar to those of the Greek
481:bent when soldiers tried to remove them. A sturdy
2204:"LacusCurtius • Cetra (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)"
1874:, Oxbow Books, pp. 82-83, 130, 154-157 & 202.
1177:, by the lowest class division of the army — the
4406:
1824:
950:. Auxiliary forces would more commonly wear the
80:Initially, they used weapons based on Greek and
288:
99:
1611:defenses. They were also mounted on ships and
1468:Marching packs of two soldiers illustrated on
197:is the general Latin word for 'sword'. In the
2463:
659:3- to 4th-century Roman pickaxe, copper alloy
2390:
1806:
727:, with a blade perpendicular to the handle.
2372:
2346:Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies
2234:Hart, V. G.; Lewis, M. J. T. (2010-07-01).
2156:
2154:
2152:
2150:
1751:Technological history of the Roman military
753:
703:was a pickaxe used as an entrenching tool.
472:Newer work by M. C. Bishop states that the
313:is a Latin word meaning a thrusting spear.
2470:
2456:
2308:Vegetius. "ARMED CHARIOTS AND ELEPHANTS".
1885:Roman Infantry Equipment: The Later Empire
1859:Roman Infantry Equipment: The Later Empire
1402:Cloak: two types of cloaks were used, the
380:to refer to all thrown javelins, the term
125:: a Roman soldier from a northern province
2360:(1986), "Auxiliary Artillery Revisited",
2233:
1912:
1896:M.C. Bishop & J.C.N. Coulston, 2006,
1870:M.C. Bishop & J.C.N. Coulston, 2006,
317:were carried by early Roman legionaries (
2356:
2147:
2081:
1563:
1553:
1463:
1379:: a type of decorated belt denoting rank
1227:
1189:, javelin, sword and helmet. Later, the
1060:
1052:
990:
893:
801:
748:
662:
654:
554:
327:. However, during republican times, the
248:
183:
172:
116:
18:
2477:
2381:
1794:
1584:various sizes. Ballistas were fit with
23:Roman ensigns, standards, trumpets etc.
4407:
2409:
1954:
1818:
1783:The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire
818:wore little or no armour at any time.
2451:
2391:Travis, Hilary; Travis, John (2014).
2343:
2290:
2077:
1927:. Osprey Publishing. pp. 25–26.
1918:
501:
2307:
966:offered greater protection than the
881:
650:
376:Although Romans often used the word
1770:Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350-425
441:usually, widened to a flat tang. A
92:, they constructed an entire fleet
13:
2431:Military equipment of ancient Rome
2242:Journal of Engineering Mathematics
2105:Goldsworthy (2000) 167; (2003) 205
2017:"Arrian's Array Against the Alans"
1957:The Pilum: The Roman Heavy Javelin
1588:to seize enemy vessels during the
1545:: stakes for construction of camps
1040:
465:more suitable as a close quarters
38:. Its regular practice during the
14:
4426:
2419:
1480:, cooking pot and "netted object"
1269:during the late imperial period.
28:Roman military personal equipment
16:Ancient Roman soldier's equipment
4415:Ancient Roman military equipment
2424:
1717:
1615:to provide support to infantry.
978:
2301:
2284:
2227:
2196:
2178:
2138:
2129:
2117:
2108:
2099:
2067:
2055:
2046:
2023:
2009:
1991:
1973:
1948:
1903:
1890:
1518:Cooking equipment: including a
797:
537:recommended training recruits "
2135:Bishop and Coulston (2006) 208
2063:Manuballista found near Xanten
1925:Roman legionary: 58 BC - AD 69
1877:
1864:
1851:
1775:
1762:
1272:
1175:Roman army of the mid-Republic
902:dressed as a Roman soldier in
390:and the early legions, called
362:also had tips made of bronze.
253:Roman era reenactor holding a
1:
2325:
1861:, Tempus, pp. 58 & 60-75.
1157:was a circular shield, three
920:The earliest evidence of the
225:. The legionaries wore their
177:Re-enactor with Pompeii-type
3042:Frontiers and fortifications
2373:Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003).
872:, together with traditional
621:
100:Weapons of a Roman legionary
84:models. On encountering the
7:
3101:Decorations and punishments
1999:"Plutarch • Life of Antony"
1981:"Plutarch • Life of Pompey"
1739:
1672:
1572:
1320:
1057:Roman scale armour fragment
1037:had fallen out of fashion.
675:Ancient writers, including
544:
10:
4431:
4008:Dionysius of Halicarnassus
2583:historiography of the fall
2382:D’Amato, Raffaele (2009).
2095:Arcuballista, Manuballista
1639:
1633:
1622:
1599:
1595:
1576:
1483:
1457:
1309:
1283:
1221:
1214:
1146:
1126:
1115:
1046:
984:
887:
771:
712:
692:
686:
627:
548:
510:
417:
369:
365:
303:
242:
166:
160:
110:
4389:External wars and battles
4256:
4150:
3963:
3555:
3548:
3470:
3382:
3287:
3162:
3114:
2992:
2942:
2881:
2872:
2754:
2706:
2626:
2543:
2513:
2504:
2486:
2262:10.1007/s10665-009-9317-8
1618:
1524:, cooking pot and skewer.
1305:
1277:
1200:
1185:equipment consisted of a
1120:
1108:No examples of an entire
236:
1883:Stephenson, I.P., 2001,
1857:Stephenson, I.P., 2001,
1807:Travis & Travis 2014
1756:
1746:Military of ancient Rome
1724:Roman military standards
1549:
1140:
868:, as in the days of the
866:bronze or iron cuirasses
411:
297:
104:
4384:Roman–Iranian relations
2859:Optimates and populares
2224:, Westview, 2001, p.131
1093:The individual scales (
790:. It was used to clear
742:
706:
4394:Civil wars and revolts
3660:Sextus Pompeius Festus
3307:Conflict of the Orders
2666:Legislative assemblies
2114:Goldsworthy (2003) 129
1900:, Oxbow Books, p. 157.
1715:
1698:The late-Roman writer
1569:
1561:
1481:
1237:
1067:
1058:
1000:
906:
807:
769:
754:
672:
660:
560:
529:), shooting an arrow (
506:
261:
189:
181:
126:
78:
72:
62:
24:
4103:Simplicius of Cilicia
3855:Quintus Curtius Rufus
3084:Siege in Ancient Rome
2693:Executive magistrates
2433:at Wikimedia Commons
2410:Bishop, M.C. (1985).
2208:penelope.uchicago.edu
2190:penelope.uchicago.edu
2003:penelope.uchicago.edu
1985:penelope.uchicago.edu
1959:. Osprey Publishing.
1955:Bishop, M.C. (2017).
1839:www.knowtheromans.com
1710:
1567:
1557:
1467:
1298:in engravings of the
1231:
1064:
1056:
994:
897:
860:show that the army's
805:
752:
666:
658:
558:
436:commonly used by the
289:Spears and javelins (
252:
207:historical reenactors
187:
176:
120:
73:
63:
57:
22:
4113:Stephanus Byzantinus
4018:Eusebius of Caesaria
3880:Sidonius Apollinaris
3570:Ammianus Marcellinus
2909:Tribune of the plebs
2332:Ammianus Marcellinus
2162:"Lorica Squamta ATA"
1919:Cowan, Ross (2003).
1193:was replaced by the
833:) and scale armour (
719:The ligo was a pick-
606:The Roman commander
567:, also known as the
223:gladius Hispaniensis
203:gladius Hispaniensis
121:Reconstruction of a
4289:Distinguished women
3940:Velleius Paterculus
3780:Nicolaus Damascenus
3760:Marcellus Empiricus
3149:Republican currency
2375:Complete Roman Army
2291:Rawlinson, George.
2254:2010JEnMa..67..261H
1768:Elton, Hugh, 1996,
1505:: a leather satchel
1250:Montefortino helmet
929:never replaced the
331:were re-armed with
4063:Phlegon of Tralles
3870:Seneca the Younger
3344:Naming conventions
3074:Personal equipment
2607:Later Roman Empire
2340:(late 4th century)
2084:, pp. 117–132
2080:, pp. 11–15;
2061:Romanhideout.com:
1665:, is derived from
1609:Romans' field camp
1570:
1568:Roman iron caltrop
1562:
1482:
1397:Vindolanda tablets
1387:: woollen trousers
1238:
1068:
1059:
1001:
907:
808:
770:
768:Adamclisi Monument
673:
661:
561:
502:Projectile weapons
262:
216:, and the Pompeii
190:
182:
127:
25:
4402:
4401:
4364:Pontifices maximi
4146:
4145:
4003:Diogenes Laërtius
3825:Pliny the Younger
3580:Asconius Pedianus
3540:Romance languages
3412:Civil engineering
3154:Imperial currency
3027:Political control
2988:
2987:
2622:
2621:
2429:Media related to
2362:Bonner Jahrbücher
2220:Santosuosso, A.,
1934:978-1-84176-600-3
1590:Roman civil wars.
1376:Cingulum militare
1361:lorica segmentata
1345:lorica segmentata
1286:Manica (armguard)
1027:lorica segmentata
964:lorica segmentata
948:lorica segmentata
922:lorica segmentata
910:Lorica segmentata
904:lorica segmentata
890:Lorica segmentata
883:Lorica segmentata
824:lorica segmentata
651:Entrenching tools
521:was armed with a
137:that was used by
4422:
4354:Magistri equitum
4269:Cities and towns
4262:
4188:Constantinopolis
3998:Diodorus Siculus
3930:Valerius Maximus
3865:Seneca the Elder
3785:Nonius Marcellus
3553:
3552:
3106:Hippika gymnasia
3069:Infantry tactics
2975:Consular tribune
2965:Magister equitum
2914:Military tribune
2879:
2878:
2839:Pontifex maximus
2834:Princeps senatus
2824:Magister militum
2590:Byzantine Empire
2511:
2510:
2472:
2465:
2458:
2449:
2448:
2428:
2415:
2406:
2387:
2378:
2369:
2358:Campbell, Duncan
2353:
2320:
2319:
2314:. Archived from
2305:
2299:
2298:
2288:
2282:
2281:
2239:
2231:
2225:
2218:
2212:
2211:
2200:
2194:
2193:
2182:
2176:
2175:
2173:
2172:
2158:
2145:
2144:Elton (1996) 111
2142:
2136:
2133:
2127:
2121:
2115:
2112:
2106:
2103:
2097:
2091:
2085:
2071:
2065:
2059:
2053:
2050:
2044:
2027:
2021:
2020:
2013:
2007:
2006:
1995:
1989:
1988:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1952:
1946:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1916:
1910:
1907:
1901:
1894:
1888:
1887:, Tempus, p. 79.
1881:
1875:
1868:
1862:
1855:
1849:
1848:
1846:
1845:
1831:
1822:
1816:
1810:
1804:
1798:
1792:
1786:
1781:In Luttwak, E.,
1779:
1773:
1766:
1602:Scorpio (weapon)
1173:was used in the
759:
635:Late infantrymen
68:Russell Robinson
4430:
4429:
4425:
4424:
4423:
4421:
4420:
4419:
4405:
4404:
4403:
4398:
4260:
4258:
4252:
4142:
3978:Aëtius of Amida
3959:
3945:Verrius Flaccus
3925:Valerius Antias
3885:Silius Italicus
3820:Pliny the Elder
3765:Marcus Aurelius
3640:Cornelius Nepos
3590:Aurelius Victor
3544:
3466:
3378:
3312:Secessio plebis
3283:
3158:
3110:
2984:
2938:
2868:
2750:
2702:
2618:
2539:
2500:
2482:
2476:
2422:
2403:
2328:
2323:
2306:
2302:
2289:
2285:
2232:
2228:
2219:
2215:
2202:
2201:
2197:
2184:
2183:
2179:
2170:
2168:
2160:
2159:
2148:
2143:
2139:
2134:
2130:
2122:
2118:
2113:
2109:
2104:
2100:
2092:
2088:
2072:
2068:
2060:
2056:
2051:
2047:
2028:
2024:
2015:
2014:
2010:
1997:
1996:
1992:
1979:
1978:
1974:
1967:
1953:
1949:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1917:
1913:
1908:
1904:
1895:
1891:
1882:
1878:
1869:
1865:
1856:
1852:
1843:
1841:
1833:
1832:
1825:
1817:
1813:
1805:
1801:
1793:
1789:
1780:
1776:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1742:
1720:
1677:
1644:
1638:
1627:
1625:Onager (weapon)
1621:
1604:
1598:
1586:grappling hooks
1581:
1575:
1552:
1488:
1470:Trajan's Column
1462:
1323:
1314:
1308:
1288:
1282:
1275:
1240:Roman helmets,
1226:
1217:
1205:
1151:
1145:
1131:
1129:Scutum (shield)
1125:
1118:
1110:lorica squamata
1071:Lorica squamata
1051:
1049:Lorica squamata
1045:
1042:Lorica squamata
989:
983:
956:lorica squamata
892:
886:
836:lorica squamata
800:
776:
760:as used by the
747:
717:
711:
697:
691:
653:
632:
626:
610:records in his
565:cheiroballistra
553:
551:Cheiroballistra
547:
539:arcubus ligneis
515:
509:
504:
422:
416:
374:
368:
341:, and only the
308:
302:
295:
247:
241:
171:
165:
115:
109:
102:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4428:
4418:
4417:
4400:
4399:
4397:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4265:
4263:
4254:
4253:
4251:
4250:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4180:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4160:
4154:
4152:
4148:
4147:
4144:
4143:
4141:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3980:
3975:
3969:
3967:
3961:
3960:
3958:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3907:
3902:
3897:
3892:
3887:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3830:Pomponius Mela
3827:
3822:
3817:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3565:Aelius Donatus
3561:
3559:
3550:
3546:
3545:
3543:
3542:
3537:
3536:
3535:
3533:Ecclesiastical
3530:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3487:
3482:
3476:
3474:
3468:
3467:
3465:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3388:
3386:
3380:
3379:
3377:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3335:
3334:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3293:
3291:
3285:
3284:
3282:
3281:
3276:
3274:Toys and games
3271:
3266:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3246:
3245:
3244:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3168:
3166:
3160:
3159:
3157:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3120:
3118:
3112:
3111:
3109:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3087:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3056:
3051:
3050:
3049:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2998:
2996:
2990:
2989:
2986:
2985:
2983:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2952:
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2931:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2885:
2883:
2876:
2870:
2869:
2867:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2814:Vigintisexviri
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2774:Cursus honorum
2771:
2766:
2760:
2758:
2752:
2751:
2749:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2712:
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2695:
2690:
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2678:
2673:
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2648:
2643:
2638:
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2617:
2616:
2615:
2614:
2604:
2603:
2602:
2597:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2580:
2573:Western Empire
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2549:
2547:
2541:
2540:
2538:
2537:
2532:
2531:
2530:
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2514:
2508:
2502:
2501:
2499:
2498:
2493:
2487:
2484:
2483:
2475:
2474:
2467:
2460:
2452:
2446:
2445:
2440:
2421:
2420:External links
2418:
2417:
2416:
2407:
2402:978-1445638423
2401:
2388:
2379:
2370:
2354:
2341:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2321:
2318:on 2005-12-24.
2300:
2283:
2248:(3): 261–273.
2226:
2213:
2195:
2177:
2146:
2137:
2128:
2116:
2107:
2098:
2086:
2066:
2054:
2045:
2042:978-1842171592
2022:
2008:
1990:
1972:
1966:978-1472815880
1965:
1947:
1933:
1911:
1902:
1889:
1876:
1863:
1850:
1823:
1821:, p. 145.
1811:
1799:
1787:
1774:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1754:
1753:
1748:
1741:
1738:
1737:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1719:
1716:
1705:De Re Militari
1702:, in his work
1676:
1671:
1640:Main article:
1637:
1632:
1623:Main article:
1620:
1617:
1600:Main article:
1597:
1594:
1577:Main article:
1574:
1571:
1551:
1548:
1547:
1546:
1538:
1525:
1516:
1512:
1506:
1484:Main article:
1461:
1456:
1455:
1454:
1438:
1426:
1400:
1388:
1380:
1372:
1371:: a sword belt
1364:
1348:
1334:
1322:
1319:
1310:Main article:
1307:
1304:
1284:Main article:
1281:
1276:
1274:
1271:
1224:Galea (helmet)
1222:Main article:
1216:
1213:
1204:
1199:
1149:Parma (shield)
1147:Main article:
1144:
1139:
1127:Main article:
1124:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1047:Main article:
1044:
1039:
985:Main article:
982:
977:
912:was a type of
888:Main article:
885:
880:
816:light infantry
799:
796:
772:Main article:
746:
741:
713:Main article:
710:
705:
693:Main article:
690:
685:
652:
649:
628:Main article:
625:
620:
597:cheiroballista
559:Roman crossbow
549:Main article:
546:
543:
511:Main article:
508:
505:
503:
500:
432:) was a heavy
418:Main article:
415:
410:
370:Main article:
367:
364:
304:Main article:
301:
296:
294:
287:
243:Main article:
240:
235:
199:Roman Republic
167:Main article:
164:
159:
111:Main article:
108:
103:
101:
98:
53:Marian Reforms
40:Roman Republic
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4427:
4416:
4413:
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4410:
4395:
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4380:
4377:
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4307:
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4280:
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4270:
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4266:
4264:
4255:
4249:
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4244:
4241:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4206:
4204:
4201:
4199:
4196:
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4189:
4186:
4184:
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4179:
4176:
4174:
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4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4155:
4153:
4149:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
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4099:
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4019:
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4009:
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3999:
3996:
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3989:
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3979:
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3808:
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3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3783:
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3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
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3758:
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3748:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3720:Julius Paulus
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
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3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3655:Fabius Pictor
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3562:
3560:
3558:
3554:
3551:
3547:
3541:
3538:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3490:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3477:
3475:
3473:
3469:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3392:Amphitheatres
3390:
3389:
3387:
3385:
3381:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3333:
3330:
3329:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3294:
3292:
3290:
3286:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3243:
3240:
3239:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3169:
3167:
3165:
3161:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3129:Deforestation
3127:
3125:
3122:
3121:
3119:
3117:
3113:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3079:Siege engines
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3061:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3048:
3045:
3044:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3012:Establishment
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2999:
2997:
2995:
2991:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2947:
2945:
2943:Extraordinary
2941:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2929:Promagistrate
2927:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2886:
2884:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2871:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2761:
2759:
2757:
2753:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2716:Twelve Tables
2714:
2713:
2711:
2709:
2705:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2668:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2629:
2625:
2613:
2610:
2609:
2608:
2605:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2592:
2591:
2588:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2575:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2546:
2542:
2536:
2533:
2529:
2526:
2525:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2515:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2503:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2488:
2485:
2480:
2473:
2468:
2466:
2461:
2459:
2454:
2453:
2450:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2435:
2434:
2432:
2427:
2413:
2408:
2404:
2398:
2394:
2393:Roman Helmets
2389:
2385:
2380:
2376:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2342:
2339:
2338:
2337:Roman History
2333:
2330:
2329:
2317:
2313:
2312:
2304:
2296:
2295:
2287:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2238:
2230:
2223:
2217:
2209:
2205:
2199:
2191:
2187:
2181:
2167:
2163:
2157:
2155:
2153:
2151:
2141:
2132:
2125:
2120:
2111:
2102:
2096:
2090:
2083:
2082:Campbell 1986
2079:
2075:
2070:
2064:
2058:
2049:
2043:
2039:
2036:
2035:1-84217-159-3
2032:
2026:
2018:
2012:
2004:
2000:
1994:
1986:
1982:
1976:
1968:
1962:
1958:
1951:
1936:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1915:
1906:
1899:
1893:
1886:
1880:
1873:
1867:
1860:
1854:
1840:
1836:
1830:
1828:
1820:
1815:
1808:
1803:
1796:
1791:
1784:
1778:
1771:
1765:
1761:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1743:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1721:
1718:Miscellaneous
1714:
1709:
1707:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1694:
1693:war elephants
1690:
1686:
1682:
1675:
1670:
1668:
1664:
1659:
1657:
1652:
1650:
1643:
1636:
1631:
1626:
1616:
1614:
1610:
1603:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1580:
1566:
1560:
1556:
1544:
1543:
1539:
1536:
1532:
1531:
1526:
1523:
1522:
1517:
1513:
1510:
1507:
1504:
1503:
1499:
1498:
1497:
1495:
1494:
1487:
1479:
1476:, cloak bag,
1475:
1471:
1466:
1460:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1443:
1439:
1436:
1432:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1418:
1413:
1412:
1407:
1406:
1401:
1398:
1394:
1393:
1389:
1386:
1385:
1381:
1378:
1377:
1373:
1370:
1369:
1365:
1362:
1358:
1357:lorica hamata
1354:
1353:
1349:
1346:
1342:
1341:lorica hamata
1338:
1335:
1332:
1328:
1325:
1324:
1318:
1313:
1303:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1287:
1280:
1270:
1268:
1264:
1259:
1255:
1254:Coolus helmet
1251:
1247:
1243:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1212:
1210:
1203:
1198:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1167:
1165:
1160:
1156:
1150:
1143:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1123:
1113:
1111:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1096:
1091:
1089:
1088:lorica hamata
1085:
1081:
1077:
1072:
1063:
1055:
1050:
1043:
1038:
1036:
1032:
1031:lorica hamata
1028:
1023:
1021:
1020:lorica hamata
1017:
1013:
1012:lorica hamata
1009:
1005:
1004:Lorica hamata
998:
993:
988:
987:Lorica hamata
981:
980:Lorica hamata
976:
973:
969:
968:lorica hamata
965:
961:
957:
953:
952:lorica hamata
949:
945:
944:
938:
936:
932:
931:lorica hamata
928:
923:
918:
915:
911:
905:
901:
896:
891:
884:
879:
877:
876:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
842:
838:
837:
832:
831:
830:lorica hamata
826:
825:
819:
817:
813:
812:light cavalry
804:
795:
793:
789:
785:
781:
775:
767:
763:
758:
757:
751:
745:
740:
738:
734:
728:
726:
722:
716:
709:
704:
702:
696:
689:
684:
682:
678:
677:Julius Caesar
670:
665:
657:
648:
646:
642:
641:
636:
631:
624:
619:
617:
613:
609:
604:
602:
598:
595:respectively
594:
590:
586:
583:authors like
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
557:
552:
542:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
523:composite bow
520:
514:
499:
497:
492:
488:
484:
480:
475:
471:
468:
464:
459:
455:
450:
446:
444:
439:
435:
431:
427:
421:
414:
409:
407:
406:
401:
400:
395:
394:
389:
388:
383:
379:
373:
363:
361:
357:
352:
350:
346:
345:
340:
336:
335:
330:
326:
325:
320:
316:
312:
307:
306:Hasta (spear)
300:
292:
286:
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90:Carthaginians
87:
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77:
71:
69:
61:
56:
54:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
32:res militaris
29:
21:
4334:Institutions
4198:Leptis Magna
4151:Major cities
4058:Philostratus
3845:Quadrigarius
3665:Rufus Festus
3528:Contemporary
3249:Romanization
3172:Architecture
3073:
2779:Collegiality
2628:Constitution
2479:Ancient Rome
2423:
2411:
2392:
2383:
2374:
2365:
2361:
2349:
2345:
2335:
2316:the original
2310:
2303:
2293:
2286:
2245:
2241:
2229:
2221:
2216:
2207:
2198:
2189:
2180:
2169:. Retrieved
2166:www.larp.com
2165:
2140:
2131:
2123:
2119:
2110:
2101:
2089:
2076:Tact. 43.1;
2069:
2057:
2048:
2025:
2011:
2002:
1993:
1984:
1975:
1956:
1950:
1938:. Retrieved
1924:
1914:
1905:
1897:
1892:
1884:
1879:
1871:
1866:
1858:
1853:
1842:. Retrieved
1838:
1814:
1802:
1795:D’Amato 2009
1790:
1782:
1777:
1769:
1764:
1711:
1703:
1697:
1680:
1678:
1673:
1666:
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1446:
1440:
1428:
1421:
1415:
1409:
1403:
1390:
1382:
1374:
1367:
1363:) and helmet
1360:
1356:
1350:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1330:
1315:
1295:
1291:
1289:
1278:
1263:ridge helmet
1245:
1241:
1239:
1233:
1218:
1208:
1206:
1201:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
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1007:
1003:
1002:
996:
979:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
946:were issued
941:
939:
934:
930:
926:
921:
919:
909:
908:
903:
882:
873:
869:
861:
857:
853:
845:
840:
834:
828:
822:
820:
809:
806:Scale armour
798:Torso armour
779:
777:
743:
729:
718:
707:
700:
698:
687:
674:
644:
638:
633:
622:
611:
605:
596:
593:manuballista
592:
589:arcuballista
588:
569:manuballista
568:
564:
562:
538:
530:
526:
518:
516:
495:
490:
486:
482:
478:
473:
470:
467:melee weapon
462:
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403:
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130:
128:
122:
105:
93:
79:
74:
64:
58:
44:Roman Empire
35:
31:
27:
26:
4329:Geographers
4013:Dioscorides
3993:Cassius Dio
3615:Cassiodorus
3518:Renaissance
3124:Agriculture
3096:Auxiliaries
3037:Engineering
2874:Magistrates
2726:Citizenship
2721:Mos maiorum
2656:Late Empire
1921:"Equipment"
1819:Bishop 1985
1689:tetrahedron
1300:Dacian Wars
1273:Limb armour
1267:Spangenhelm
1084:legionaries
943:praetorians
933:- thus the
914:body armour
850:mail armour
519:sagittarius
347:still used
277:semispathae
257:late Roman
201:, the term
4218:Mediolanum
4158:Alexandria
4123:Themistius
4088:Porphyrius
3915:Tertullian
3850:Quintilian
3840:Propertius
3735:Lactantius
3685:Fulgentius
3620:Censorinus
3442:Sanitation
3427:Metallurgy
3384:Technology
3349:Demography
3297:Patricians
3264:Spectacles
3222:Literature
3217:Hairstyles
3054:Technology
2804:Praefectus
2756:Government
2746:Litigation
2731:Auctoritas
2676:Centuriate
2563:Principate
2558:Pax Romana
2518:Foundation
2326:References
2171:2020-01-22
2078:Baatz 1999
1940:8 February
1844:2021-11-08
1734:Vine staff
1447:subarmalis
1392:Subligaria
1337:Subarmalis
1159:Roman feet
1076:centurions
1035:segmentata
1016:linothorax
972:segmentata
960:segmentata
927:segmentata
870:principate
846:segmentata
841:subarmalis
792:overgrowth
616:Roman Gaul
513:Sagittarii
438:Roman army
70:, 1975, 67
36:disciplina
4374:Quaestors
4304:Empresses
4294:Dynasties
4284:Dictators
4259:and other
4248:Volubilis
4243:Vindobona
4203:Londinium
4128:Theodoret
4098:Procopius
4078:Polyaenus
4053:Pausanias
3955:Vitruvius
3900:Symmachus
3895:Suetonius
3805:Petronius
3790:Obsequens
3755:Macrobius
3750:Lucretius
3675:Frontinus
3650:Eutropius
3635:Columella
3585:Augustine
3575:Appuleius
3523:Neo-Latin
3498:Classical
3489:Versions
3397:Aqueducts
3339:Patronage
3259:Sexuality
3232:Mythology
3207:Education
3197:Cosmetics
3022:Campaigns
3017:Structure
2970:Decemviri
2829:Imperator
2528:overthrow
2368:: 117–132
2278:123023353
2270:1573-2703
2126:Oriens.XI
1708:, wrote:
1613:carriages
1509:Waterskin
1033:once the
900:reenactor
640:plumbatae
623:Plumbatae
143:legionary
4409:Category
4379:Tribunes
4369:Praetors
4319:Generals
4299:Emperors
4208:Lugdunum
4193:Eboracum
4183:Carthage
4168:Aquileia
4083:Polybius
4073:Plutarch
4043:Libanius
4033:Josephus
4028:Herodian
3920:Tibullus
3835:Priscian
3810:Phaedrus
3770:Manilius
3715:Jordanes
3700:Hydatius
3630:Claudian
3610:Catullus
3600:Boëthius
3595:Ausonius
3513:Medieval
3485:Alphabet
3457:Theatres
3432:Numerals
3417:Concrete
3407:Circuses
3374:Bagaudae
3364:Adoption
3359:Marriage
3332:Assembly
3237:Religion
3212:Folklore
3192:Clothing
3187:Calendar
3144:Currency
3134:Commerce
3032:Strategy
2994:Military
2980:Triumvir
2960:Dictator
2955:Interrex
2934:Governor
2919:Quaestor
2882:Ordinary
2864:Province
2854:Tetrarch
2844:Augustus
2809:Vicarius
2799:Officium
2736:Imperium
2686:Plebeian
2646:Republic
2568:Dominate
2535:Republic
2496:Timeline
1772:, p. 110
1740:See also
1729:Vexillum
1700:Vegetius
1681:tribulus
1674:Tribulus
1579:Ballista
1573:Ballista
1530:batillum
1472:showing
1451:Pteruges
1442:Pteruges
1408:and the
1321:Clothing
1265:and the
1183:velites'
875:pteruges
862:fabricae
737:grub axe
723:or draw
669:unhafted
630:Plumbata
585:Vegetius
577:medieval
573:crossbow
571:, was a
545:Crossbow
535:Vegetius
428:(plural
405:spiculum
402:and the
319:camillan
231:gladius,
82:Etruscan
4349:Legions
4309:Fiction
4279:Consuls
4274:Climate
4228:Ravenna
4223:Pompeii
4213:Lutetia
4178:Bononia
4173:Berytus
4163:Antioch
4138:Zosimus
4133:Zonaras
4108:Sozomen
4093:Priscus
4068:Photius
3910:Terence
3905:Tacitus
3890:Statius
3875:Servius
3860:Sallust
3815:Plautus
3795:Orosius
3775:Martial
3730:Juvenal
3705:Hyginus
3690:Gellius
3549:Writers
3480:History
3462:Thermae
3452:Temples
3402:Bridges
3369:Slavery
3317:Equites
3289:Society
3269:Theatre
3242:Deities
3202:Cuisine
3182:Bathing
3164:Culture
3139:Finance
3116:Economy
3007:Borders
3002:History
2904:Tribune
2899:Praetor
2789:Legatus
2784:Emperor
2671:Curiate
2641:Kingdom
2636:History
2612:History
2595:decline
2553:History
2523:Kingdom
2506:History
2491:Outline
2250:Bibcode
2124:Notitia
1685:caltrop
1667:buccina
1663:Posaune
1656:buccina
1642:Buccina
1635:Buccina
1596:Scorpio
1559:Buccina
1535:dolabra
1502:Loculus
1486:Sarcina
1474:loculus
1459:Sarcina
1430:Caligae
1422:paenula
1411:paenula
1384:Braccae
1368:Balteus
1331:braccae
1296:manicas
1215:Helmets
1179:velites
1116:Shields
1095:squamae
1080:cavalry
1008:auxilia
997:hamatas
858:Notitia
854:auxilia
762:Dacians
733:Pulaski
721:mattock
715:Mattock
701:dolabra
695:Dolabra
688:Dolabra
681:rampart
645:plumbum
612:Tactica
531:sagitta
434:javelin
393:verutum
387:velites
372:Javelin
366:Javelin
344:triarii
329:hastati
324:hastati
283:spathae
255:replica
218:gladius
214:gladius
194:Gladius
179:gladius
169:Gladius
162:Gladius
151:pugio's
94:de novo
4359:Nomina
4344:Legacy
4324:Gentes
4261:topics
4257:Lists
4238:Smyrna
4118:Strabo
4048:Lucian
4038:Julian
3988:Arrian
3983:Appian
3973:Aelian
3950:Vergil
3725:Justin
3710:Jerome
3695:Horace
3680:Fronto
3670:Florus
3645:Ennius
3625:Cicero
3605:Caesar
3503:Vulgar
3327:Tribes
3254:Romans
3064:Legion
3047:castra
2924:Aedile
2894:Censor
2889:Consul
2849:Caesar
2819:Lictor
2741:Status
2681:Tribal
2661:Senate
2651:Empire
2545:Empire
2481:topics
2399:
2352:: 5–19
2276:
2268:
2074:Arrian
2040:
2033:
1963:
1931:
1619:Onager
1521:patera
1478:patera
1420:. The
1417:fibula
1352:Focale
1312:Greave
1306:Greave
1292:manica
1279:Manica
1246:cassis
1219:Galea
1209:Hesych
1202:Caetra
1195:scutum
1181:. The
1122:Scutum
935:hamata
788:scythe
784:sickle
766:Trajan
643:(from
608:Arrian
603:find.
601:Xanten
399:lancea
360:hastae
349:hastae
339:gladii
315:Hastae
291:hastae
267:spatha
259:spatha
245:Spatha
238:Spatha
227:gladii
135:dagger
48:Romans
4023:Galen
3965:Greek
3935:Varro
3745:Lucan
3557:Latin
3472:Latin
3447:Ships
3437:Roads
3422:Domes
3354:Women
3302:Plebs
3227:Music
2769:Forum
2764:Curia
2274:S2CID
1757:Notes
1550:Other
1542:Sudis
1533:) or
1515:them.
1493:furca
1435:cleat
1405:sagum
1327:Tunic
1258:Galea
1242:galea
1234:limes
1191:parma
1187:parma
1171:parma
1155:parma
1142:Parma
1066:them.
954:, or
786:or a
581:Roman
527:arcus
487:pilum
483:pilum
479:pilum
463:pilum
458:pilum
454:pilum
443:pilum
426:pilum
420:Pilum
413:Pilum
382:pilum
356:hasta
311:Hasta
299:Hasta
211:Mainz
139:Roman
133:is a
131:pugio
123:pugio
113:Pugio
106:Pugio
86:Celts
4339:Laws
4314:Film
4233:Roma
3800:Ovid
3740:Livy
3508:Late
3322:Gens
3279:Wine
3091:Navy
3059:Army
2698:SPQR
2600:fall
2578:fall
2397:ISBN
2266:ISSN
2038:ISBN
2031:ISBN
1961:ISBN
1942:2012
1929:ISBN
1654:The
1169:The
1164:umbo
1153:The
780:falx
778:The
774:Falx
756:Falx
744:Falx
708:Ligo
699:The
667:The
591:and
563:The
517:The
496:pila
491:pila
474:pila
449:Pila
430:pila
424:The
378:pila
337:and
334:pila
42:and
3493:Old
3177:Art
2950:Rex
2794:Dux
2708:Law
2366:186
2258:doi
1359:or
1343:or
1244:or
1166:).
814:or
739:".
725:hoe
507:Bow
34:or
4411::
2395:.
2364:,
2350:10
2348:,
2334:,
2272:.
2264:.
2256:.
2246:67
2244:.
2240:.
2206:.
2188:.
2164:.
2149:^
2001:.
1983:.
1923:.
1837:.
1826:^
1679:A
1669:.
1449:.
1302:.
1197:.
1078:,
1022:.
898:A
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794:.
354:A
351:.
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264:A
129:A
2471:e
2464:t
2457:v
2414:.
2405:.
2386:.
2377:.
2297:.
2280:.
2260::
2252::
2210:.
2192:.
2174:.
2019:.
2005:.
1987:.
1969:.
1944:.
1847:.
1809:.
1797:.
1683:(
1649:C
1437:.
1399:.
1333:.
1236:.
525:(
293:)
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