Reverse engineering

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enables the extraction of software system flows (data, control, and call maps), architectures, and business layer knowledge (rules, terms, and process). The standard enables the use of a common data format (XMI) enabling the correlation of the various layers of system knowledge for either detailed analysis (such as root cause, impact) or derived analysis (such as business process extraction). Although efforts to represent language constructs can be never-ending because of the number of languages, the continuous evolution of software languages, and the development of new languages, the standard does allow for the use of extensions to support the broad language set as well as evolution. KDM is compatible with UML, BPMN, RDF, and other standards enabling migration into other environments and thus leverage system knowledge for efforts such as software system transformation and enterprise business layer analysis.

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and translation of its form are indispensable to obtain the necessary information to achieve the interoperability of an independently created program with other programs. It has therefore to be considered that, in these limited circumstances only, performance of the acts of reproduction and translation by or on behalf of a person having a right to use a copy of the program is legitimate and compatible with fair practice and must therefore be deemed not to require the authorisation of the rightholder. An objective of this exception is to make it possible to connect all components of a computer system, including those of different manufacturers, so that they can work together. Such an exception to the author's exclusive rights may not be used in a way which prejudices the legitimate interests of the rightholder or which conflicts with a normal exploitation of the program.

1499:(1) Notwithstanding the provisions of subsection (a)(1)(A), a person who has lawfully obtained the right to use a copy of a computer program may circumvent a technological measure that effectively controls access to a particular portion of that program for the sole purpose of identifying and analyzing those elements of the program that are necessary to achieve interoperability of an independently created computer program with other programs, and that have not previously been readily available to the person engaging in the circumvention, to the extent any such acts of identification and analysis do not constitute infringement under this title. 25: 1133:. They regulate almost every aspect of biological behavior and allow cells to carry out physiological processes and responses to perturbations. Understanding the structure and the dynamic behavior of gene networks is therefore one of the paramount challenges of systems biology, with immediate practical repercussions in several applications that are beyond basic research. There are several methods for reverse engineering gene regulatory networks by using molecular biology and data science methods. They have been generally divided into six classes: 1501:(2) Notwithstanding the provisions of subsections (a)(2) and (b), a person may develop and employ technological means to circumvent a technological measure, or to circumvent protection afforded by a technological measure, in order to enable the identification and analysis under paragraph (1), or for the purpose of enabling interoperability of an independently created computer program with other programs, if such means are necessary to achieve such interoperability, to the extent that doing so does not constitute infringement under this title. 1137: 1503:(3) The information acquired through the acts permitted under paragraph (1), and the means permitted under paragraph (2), may be made available to others if the person referred to in paragraph (1) or (2), as the case may be, provides such information or means solely for the purpose of enabling interoperability of an independently created computer program with other programs, and to the extent that doing so does not constitute infringement under this title or violate applicable law other than this section. 468:

images that is necessary for suitable reverse engineering is proportional to the complexity of the PCB itself. More complicated PCBs require well lighted photos on dark backgrounds, while fairly simple PCBs can be recreated simply with just basic dimensioning. Each layer of the PCB is carefully recreated in the software with the intent of producing a final design as close to the initial. Then, the schematics for the circuit are finally generated using an appropriate tool.

480:(IEEE) defined (software) reverse engineering (SRE) as "the process of analyzing a subject system to identify the system's components and their interrelationships and to create representations of the system in another form or at a higher level of abstraction" in which the "subject system" is the end product of software development. Reverse engineering is a process of examination only, and the software system under consideration is not modified, which would otherwise be 3976: 3846: 4006: 182:

the overall cost of the software development. Reverse engineering can also help to detect and to eliminate a malicious code written to the software with better code detectors. Reversing a source code can be used to find alternate uses of the source code, such as detecting the unauthorized replication of the source code where it was not intended to be used, or revealing how a competitor's product was built. That process is commonly used for

874: 1268:), a person in legal possession of a program may reverse-engineer and circumvent its protection if that is necessary to achieve "interoperability", a term that broadly covers other devices and programs that can interact with it, make use of it, and to use and transfer data to and from it in useful ways. A limited exemption exists that allows the knowledge thus gained to be shared and used for interoperability purposes. 3996: 3986: 511:

perhaps poorly documented or documented but no longer valid, are discovered. In the second case, there is no source code available for the software, and any efforts towards discovering one possible source code for the software are regarded as reverse engineering. The second usage of the term is more familiar to most people. Reverse engineering of software can make use of the

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is generally available only to large chip manufacturers. Furthermore, the payoff from this attack is low since other security techniques are often used such as shadow accounts. It is still uncertain whether attacks against chip-and-PIN cards to replicate encryption data and then to crack PINs would provide a cost-effective attack on multifactor authentication.

838:(SEM). That technique can reveal the complete hardware and software part of the smart card. The major problem for the attacker is to bring everything into the right order to find out how everything works. The makers of the card try to hide keys and operations by mixing up memory positions, such as by bus scrambling. 488:

experience of the product to understand the product's functionality fully. It can also be seen as "going backwards through the development cycle". In this model, the output of the implementation phase (in source code form) is reverse-engineered back to the analysis phase, in an inversion of the traditional

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Often, gene network reliability is tested by genetic perturbation experiments followed by dynamic modelling, based on the principle that removing one network node has predictable effects on the functioning of the remaining nodes of the network. Applications of the reverse engineering of gene networks

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Next, the stitched layers need to be aligned because the sample, after etching, cannot be put into the exact same position relative to the SEM each time. Therefore, the stitched versions will not overlap in the correct fashion, as on the real circuit. Usually, three corresponding points are selected,

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There are many reasons for performing reverse engineering in various fields. Reverse engineering has its origins in the analysis of hardware for commercial or military advantage. However, the reverse engineering process may not always be concerned with creating a copy or changing the artifact in some

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The unauthorised reproduction, translation, adaptation or transformation of the form of the code in which a copy of a computer program has been made available constitutes an infringement of the exclusive rights of the author. Nevertheless, circumstances may exist when such a reproduction of the code

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In some cases, it is even possible to attach a probe to measure voltages while the smart card is still operational. The makers of the card employ sensors to detect and prevent that attack. That attack is not very common because it requires both a large investment in effort and special equipment that

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The message formats have traditionally been reverse-engineered by a tedious manual process, which involved analysis of how protocol implementations process messages, but recent research proposed a number of automatic solutions. Typically, the automatic approaches group observe messages into clusters

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or vulnerability. Frequently, as some software develops, its design information and improvements are often lost over time, but that lost information can usually be recovered with reverse engineering. The process can also help to cut down the time required to understand the source code, thus reducing

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accomplishes a task with very little (if any) insight into exactly how it does so. Depending on the system under consideration and the technologies employed, the knowledge gained during reverse engineering can help with repurposing obsolete objects, doing security analysis, or learning how something

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The first step after images have been taken with a SEM is stitching the images together, which is necessary because each layer cannot be captured by a single shot. A SEM needs to sweep across the area of the circuit and take several hundred images to cover the entire layer. Image stitching takes as

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standard (on its way to becoming an ISO standard as well), KDM has started to take hold in industry with the development of tools and analysis environments that can deliver the extraction and analysis of source, binary, and byte code. For source code analysis, KDM's granular standards' architecture

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Software classification is the process of identifying similarities between different software binaries (such as two different versions of the same binary) used to detect code relations between software samples. The task was traditionally done manually for several reasons (such as patch analysis for

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Outdated PCBs are often subject to reverse engineering, especially when they perform highly critical functions such as powering machinery, or other electronic components. Reverse engineering these old parts can allow the reconstruction of the PCB if it performs some crucial task, as well as finding

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involves recreating fabrication data for a particular circuit board. This is done primarily to identify a design, and learn the functional and structural characteristics of a design. It also allows for the discovery of the design principles behind a product, especially if this design information is

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are often designed on proprietary systems and built on production lines, which become obsolete in only a few years. When systems using those parts can no longer be maintained since the parts are no longer made, the only way to incorporate the functionality into new technology is to reverse-engineer

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Reverse engineering is also used by businesses to bring existing physical geometry into digital product development environments, to make a digital 3D record of their own products, or to assess competitors' products. It is used to analyze how a product works, what it does, what components it has;

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Reverse engineering PCBs largely follow the same series of steps. First, images are created by drawing, scanning, or taking photographs of the PCB. Then, these images are ported to suitable reverse engineering software in order to create a rudimentary design for the new PCB. The quality of these

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There are two components in reverse engineering: redocumentation and design recovery. Redocumentation is the creation of new representation of the computer code so that it is easier to understand. Meanwhile, design recovery is the use of deduction or reasoning from general knowledge or personal

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Although the process is specific to the object on which it is being performed, all reverse engineering processes consist of three basic steps: information extraction, modeling, and review. Information extraction is the practice of gathering all relevant information for performing the operation.

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is used to deter both reverse engineering and re-engineering of proprietary software and software-powered systems. In practice, two main types of reverse engineering emerge. In the first case, source code is already available for the software, but higher-level aspects of the program, which are

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reverse engineering can help to improve the understanding of the underlying source code for the maintenance and improvement of the software, relevant information can be extracted to make a decision for software development and graphical representations of the code can provide alternate views

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Modeling is the practice of combining the gathered information into an abstract model, which can be used as a guide for designing the new object or system. Review is the testing of the model to ensure the validity of the chosen abstract. Reverse engineering is applicable in the fields of

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it using newer tools by using the understanding gained as a guide. Another obsolescence originated problem that can be solved by reverse engineering is the need to support (maintenance and supply for continuous operation) existing legacy devices that are no longer supported by their

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Other components of typical protocols, like encryption and hash functions, can be reverse-engineered automatically as well. Typically, the automatic approaches trace the execution of protocol implementations and try to detect buffers in memory holding unencrypted packets.

427:. Areas of freeform data can be combined with exact geometric surfaces to create a hybrid model. A typical example of this would be the reverse engineering of a cylinder head, which includes freeform cast features, such as water jackets and high-tolerance machined areas. 316:. Production and design companies applied Reverse Engineering to practical craft-based manufacturing process. The companies can work on "historical" manufacturing collections through 3D scanning, 3D re-modeling and re-design. In 2013 Italian manufactures Baldi and 596:

systems to share files with systems that run it, is a classic example of software reverse engineering since the Samba project had to reverse-engineer unpublished information about how Windows file sharing worked so that non-Windows computers could emulate it. The

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project is even more ambitious in its goals by striving to provide binary (ABI and API) compatibility with the current Windows operating systems of the NT branch, which allows software and drivers written for Windows to run on a clean-room reverse-engineered

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that is involved. However, an item produced under one or more patents could also include other technology that is not patented and not disclosed. Indeed, one common motivation of reverse engineering is to determine whether a competitor's product contains

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Chandrashekar, S., R. Nagappa, L. Sundaresan, and N. Ramani. 2011. Technology & Innovation in China: A Case Study of Single Crystal Superalloy Development for Aircraft Turbine Blades, R4–11. ISSSP National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore.

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and despite some narrowly-tailored United States and European Union legislation, the legality of using specific reverse engineering techniques for that purpose has been hotly contested in courts worldwide for more than two decades.

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P. M. Comparetti, G. Wondracek, C. Kruegel, and E. Kirda. Prospex: Protocol specification extraction. In Proceedings of the 2009 30th IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, pp. 110–125, Washington, 2009. IEEE Computer

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W. Cui, M. Peinado, K. Chen, H. J. Wang, and L. Irún-Briz. Tupni: Automatic reverse engineering of input formats. In Proceedings of the 15th ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security, pp. 391–402. ACM, Oct

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connection and revealing the traffic data thereon. Bus or network behavior can then be analyzed to produce a standalone implementation that mimics that behavior. That is especially useful for reverse engineering

545:(such as engine management systems), in-house repairs or retrofits, enabling of additional features on low-cost "crippled" hardware (such as some graphics card chip-sets), or even mere satisfaction of curiosity. 1182:

Transcriptional complexes methods leverage information on protein-protein interactions between transcription factors, thus extending the concept of gene networks to include transcriptional regulatory complexes.

1505:(4) For purposes of this subsection, the term 「interoperability」 means the ability of computer programs to exchange information, and of such programs mutually to use the information which has been exchanged. 254:. Learning about an enemy's or competitor's latest research by stealing or capturing a prototype and dismantling it may result in the development of a similar product or a better countermeasure against it. 1065:

without exploding in September 1958. The missile became lodged within the airframe, and the pilot returned to base with what Soviet scientists would describe as a university course in missile development.

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To extract the circuit structure, the aligned, stitched images need to be segmented, which highlights the important circuitry and separates it from the uninteresting background and insulating materials.

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Reverse engineering applies primarily to gaining understanding of a process or artifact in which the manner of its construction, use, or internal processes has not been made clear by its creator.

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W. Cui, J. Kannan, and H. J. Wang. Discoverer: Automatic protocol reverse engineering from network traces. In Proceedings of 16th USENIX Security Symposium on USENIX Security Symposium, pp. 1–14.

814:, which allows interactive generation of probing sequences of messages and listening to responses to those probing sequences. In general, offline learning of small state-machines is known to be 1201:

items do not of themselves have to be reverse-engineered to be studied, for the essence of a patent is that inventors provide a detailed public disclosure themselves, and in return receive

238:. Reverse engineering can be used when a system is required to interface to another system and how both systems would negotiate is to be established. Such requirements typically exist for 2123: 1145:

Coexpression methods are based on the notion that if two genes exhibit a similar expression profile, they may be related although no causation can be simply inferred from coexpression.

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rocket: Technical documents for the V-2 and related technologies were captured by the Western Allies at the end of the war. The Americans focused their reverse engineering efforts via

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to perform guided bombing missions at night. The British countermeasures to the system were so effective that in some cases, German aircraft were led by signals to land at

2483:"The Chinese Air Force: Evolving Concepts, Roles, and Capabilities", Center for the Study of Chinese Military Affairs (U.S), by National Defense University Press, p. 277 441:, a related activity that is also used by businesses, involves deconstructing and analyzing products. However, the objective is to find opportunities for cost-cutting. 1997: 1972: 1083: 1035:

rocket. The Soviets used captured German engineers to reproduce technical documents and plans and worked from captured hardware to make their clone of the rocket, the

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Reverse engineering is often used by people to copy other nations' technologies, devices, or information that have been obtained by regular troops in the fields or by

284:. Also part of product security analysis is acquiring sensitive data by disassembling and analyzing the design of a system component. Another intent may be to remove 630:

allows for reverse-engineering the full contents of a Windows system's live memory including a binary-level, graphical reverse engineering of all running processes.

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Mercatelli, Daniele; Scalambra, Laura; Triboli, Luca; Ray, Forest; Giorgi, Federico M. (2020). "Gene regulatory network inference resources: A practical overview".

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Finally, the wires can be traced from one layer to the next, and the netlist of the circuit, which contains all of the circuit's information, can be reconstructed.

818:, but online learning can be done in polynomial time. An automatic offline approach has been demonstrated by Comparetti et al. and an online approach by Cho et al. 949:

noticed that the Germans had gasoline cans with an excellent design. They reverse-engineered copies of those cans, which cans were popularly known as "Jerry cans".

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There has been less work on reverse-engineering of state-machines of protocols. In general, the protocol state-machines can be learned either through a process of

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Although UML is one approach in providing "reverse engineering" more recent advances in international standards activities have resulted in the development of the

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This method is being used mostly for long and thorough reverse engineering tasks (complete analysis of a complex algorithm or big piece of software). In general,

775:(KDM). The standard delivers an ontology for the intermediate (or abstracted) representation of programming language constructs and their interrelationships. An 1015:. The Soviets, who did not have a similar strategic bomber, decided to copy the B-29. Within three years, they had developed the Tu-4, a nearly-perfect copy. 3072: 795:. Accordingly, the problem of protocol reverse-engineering can be partitioned into two subproblems: message format and state-machine reverse-engineering. 3070: 1101:", which tried all the possible scrambler settings of the "Enigma" machines that helped the breaking of coded messages that had been sent by the Germans. 400:. Reverse engineering aims to go beyond producing such a mesh and to recover the design intent in terms of simple analytical surfaces where appropriate ( 3951: 727:, a process that tries, with varying results, to recreate the source code in some high-level language for a program only available in machine code or 342:(CAD) has become more popular, reverse engineering has become a viable method to create a 3D virtual model of an existing physical part for use in 3D 2497:; and Dillon Zhou, "China J-15 Fighter Jet: Chinese Officials Defend New Fighter As Chinese Original, but Questions Remain," Mic, December 16, 2012, 477: 2494: 358:. The reverse-engineering process involves measuring an object and then reconstructing it as a 3D model. The physical object can be measured using 3045:

Undocumented DOS: A programmer's guide to reserved MS-DOS functions and data structures - expanded to include MS-DOS 6, Novell DOS and Windows 3.1

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specifically prohibit it, and US courts have ruled that if such terms are present, they override the copyright law that expressly permits it (see

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ending all plans for such co-production. Iran was later successful in reverse-engineering the missile and now produces its own copy, the Toophan.

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and Holger M. Kienle, "A Small Primer on Software Reverse Engineering," Technical Report, University of Victoria, 17 pages, March 2009. Online:

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or restructuring. Reverse engineering can be performed from any stage of the product cycle, not necessarily from the functional end product.

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A Survey of Reverse Engineering and Program Comprehension. Michael L. Nelson, April 19, 1996, ODU CS 551 – Software Engineering Survey.

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is considered to be a hard problem, which is also true for software classification, and so few solutions/tools that handle this task well.

496:. The Working Conference on Reverse Engineering (WCRE) has been held yearly to explore and expand the techniques of reverse engineering. 975:

but had been hindered by the Japanese aircraft industry's inexperience with heavy long-range aircraft. The DC-4E was transferred to the

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CAD model. Recovery of such a model allows a design to be modified to meet new requirements, a manufacturing plan to be generated, etc.

3074:(NB. On general methodology of reverse engineering, applied to mass-market software: a program for exploring DOS, disassembling DOS.) 2873: 2410:

Westell, Freeman (November 1999). "Big Iron, big engines & bigger headaches: Building the first experimental strategic bombers".

2806: 280:. That examines how a product works by determining the specifications of its components and estimate costs and identifies potential 2092: 657:

Reverse engineering of software can be accomplished by various methods. The three main groups of software reverse engineering are

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http://www.iptoday.com/issues/2010/11/hiding-in-plain-sight-using-reverse-engineering-to-uncover-software-patent-infringement.asp

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design features from products with little or no additional knowledge about the procedures involved in their original production.

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Directive 2009/24/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the legal protection of computer programs

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on the legal protection of computer programs, which superseded an earlier (1991) directive, governs reverse engineering in the

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Analysis through observation of information exchange, most prevalent in protocol reverse engineering, which involves using

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tools refer to the process of importing and analysing source code to generate UML diagrams as "reverse engineering". See

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Binary reverse engineering is performed if source code for a software is unavailable. This process is sometimes termed

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range from understanding mechanisms of plant physiology to the highlighting of new targets for anticancer therapy.

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are implemented together. Using a combination of geometric and freeform surfaces can provide a powerful method of

161:. Even when the reverse-engineered product is that of a competitor, the goal may not be to copy it but to perform 4055: 4050: 3422: 2843: 2818: 2495:

http://isssp.in/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Technology-and-Innovation-in-China-A-case-Study-of-Single-Crystal4.pdf

1621: 1476: 1256: 271: 1097:" message encryption machines for weaknesses. Their operation was then simulated on electromechanical devices, " 3469: 3289: 1338: 895: 3105:

Schulman, Andrew, "Hiding in Plain Sight: Using Reverse Engineering to Uncover Software Patent Infringement,"

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Elvidge, Julia, "Using Reverse Engineering to Discover Patent Infringement," Chipworks, Sept. 2010. Online:

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and Scotchmer, Suzanne, "The Law and Economics of Reverse Engineering," 111 Yale L.J. 1575 (2002). Online:

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Karwowski, Waldemar; Trzcielinski, Stefan; Mrugalsk, Beata; DiNicolantonio, Massimo; Rossi, Emilio (2018).

1328: 1202: 835: 409: 363: 347: 294:. That is to understand what one's competitor is actually doing, rather than what it says that it is doing. 2962: 3749: 3724: 3520: 3459: 3157: 1276: 1094: 834:. The attacker uses chemicals to etch away layer after layer of the smart card and takes pictures with a 2463: 4035: 3664: 3659: 3309: 3031: 849:

input several hundred pictures and outputs a single properly-overlapped picture of the complete layer.

749: 351: 3127: 3364: 3354: 3252: 3232: 2693:"Reverse Engineering: A Key Component of Systems Biology to Unravel Global Abiotic Stress Cross-Talk" 2453:

Yeam Gordon and Vladimir Rigmant, Tupolev Tu-4: Soviet Superfortress (Hinckley, U.K.: Midland, 2002).

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Reverse Engineering and Testing of Black-Box Software Components: by Grammatical Inference techniques

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cars, such as the MiG-15,17,19,21 (which became the J-2,5,6,7) and the Su-33 (which became the J-15).

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Chikofsky, E.J. & Cross, J.H. II (1990). "Reverse Engineering and Design Recovery: A Taxonomy".

1649:"Reverse engineering and identification in systems biology: strategies, perspectives and challenges" 1441: 1235:, reverse-engineering the artifact or process is often lawful if it has been legitimately obtained. 3624: 3274: 3242: 1389: 1071:

missile: In May 1975, negotiations between Iran and Hughes Missile Systems on co-production of the

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and design intent. The former may be recovered by converting the point cloud to a triangular-faced

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Schulman, Andrew, "Open to Inspection: Using Reverse Engineering to Uncover Software Prior Art,"

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Varady, T; Martin, R; Cox, J (1997). "Reverse engineering of geometric models–an introduction".

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and dismantled for study; as a cover story, the Japanese press reported that it had crashed in

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of the program is read and understood in its own terms, only with the aid of machine-language

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Other purposes of reverse engineering include security auditing, removal of copy protection ("

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but has the goals to find bugs and undocumented features by bashing the product from outside.

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are sets of rules that describe message formats and how messages are exchanged: the protocol

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https://mic.com/articles/20270/china-j-15-fighter-jet-chinese-officials-defend-new-fighter-

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and manual research to identify putative or experimentally-proven gene network connections.

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can be accomplished by using Jad. One famous case of reverse engineering was the first non-

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and Maverick missiles stalled over disagreements in the pricing structure, the subsequent

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during the Second World War and reverse engineered it to create the larger Panzerschreck.

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Council Directive 91/250/EEC of 14 May 1991 on the legal protection of computer programs

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During the Second World War, Polish and British cryptographers studied captured German "

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Polyglot: automatic extraction of protocol message format using dynamic binary analysis

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platform for many years. Reverse engineering of software is protected in the US by the

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that can exploit the system vulnerabilities. Reverse engineering is also being used in

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Undocumented Windows: A Programmer's Guide to Reserved Microsoft Windows API Functions

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Giorgi, Federico M. (2020). "Gene network reverse engineering: The Next Generation".

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Friedel, Swetlana; Usadel, Björn; von Wirén, Nicolaus; Sreenivasulu, Nese (2012).

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is greatly assisted by tools deliberately introduced by the manufacturer, such as

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developers often use reverse engineering techniques to find vulnerabilities in an

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as well, specifically to the task of understanding the structure and function of

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Inference and Analysis of Formal Models of Botnet Command and Control Protocols

1593: 1414: 1343: 1280: 1152: 745:), but it can now be done somewhat automatically for large numbers of samples. 666: 606: 589: 420: 209: 158: 3120: 1594:"Un-building blocks: a model of reverse engineering and applicable heuristics" 1172:

Orthology methods transfer gene network knowledge from one species to another.

803:, or they emulate the protocol implementation tracing the message processing. 4024: 3038: 2775: 2718: 2659: 2594: 2540: 1358: 1348: 1333: 1232: 1104:

Also during the Second World War, British scientists analyzed and defeated a

1036: 1018: 990: 960: 679: 619: 585: 558: 213: 154: 2709: 2650: 2237: 2235: 464:

alternatives which provide the same function, or in upgrading the old PCB.

3771: 2934:, Jan. 1999 (example of reverse engineering used to detect IP infringement) 2793: 2736: 2677: 2602: 2548: 1914: 1682: 1664: 1369: 1308: 1303: 1243: 1040: 1012: 1000: 984: 952: 705: 670: 662: 642: 627: 178: 153:

In some cases, the goal of the reverse engineering process can simply be a

92:) is a process or method through which one attempts to understand through 3568: 3180: 2986: 2232: 1426: 1176: 1050: 815: 701: 602: 526:

has a lot in common with reverse engineering. The tester usually has the

424: 393: 386: 379: 304: 3845: 2963:"Reverse Engineering Delivers Product Knowledge; Aids Technology Spread" 2532: 1169:

of chosen transcription factors to infer their downstream gene networks.

3583: 1086:

of Western and Russian hardware, from fighter aircraft to missiles and

1072: 1068: 1061:, was made possible after a Taiwanese (ROCAF) AIM-9B hit a Chinese PLA 1044: 898: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 831: 830:

Reverse engineering is an invasive and destructive form of analyzing a

724: 359: 2767: 2149: 3877: 3394: 1830: 1743: 1714: 1353: 1231:

In the United States, even if an artifact or process is protected by

1206: 1116:

bases since they believed that they had returned to German territory.

1109: 980: 942: 250: 3032:

http://people.ischool.berkeley.edu/~pam/papers/l&e%20reveng3.pdf

2983:

Reverse Engineering: Mechanisms, Structures, Systems & Materials

1917:

Advances in Manufacturing, Production Management and Process Control

938:. Here are well-known examples from the Second World War and later: 873: 308:. Obsolete objects are then reused in a different-but-useful manner. 3918: 3908: 3766: 2904: 2141: 1905:

Internet Engineering Task Force RFC 2828 Internet Security Glossary

935: 728: 713: 581: 405: 390: 355: 195: 173: 143: 97: 3001:(introduction to hardware teardowns, including methodology, goals) 2690: 1126: 1039:. Thus began the postwar Soviet rocket program, which led to the 994: 695: 614: 201: 191: 16:

Process of extracting design information from anything artificial

2930:

Heines, Henry, "Determining Infringement by X-Ray Diffraction,"

2750:

Lefebvre, Celine; Rieckhof, Gabrielle; Califano, Andrea (2012).

2575:

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Gene Regulatory Mechanisms

2513:

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Gene Regulatory Mechanisms

2366:

Protecting & Exploiting Intellectual Property in Electronics

2624:

Tegner, J.; Yeung, M. K. S.; Hasty, J.; Collins, J. J. (2003).

2197:

Counterterrorism and Cybersecurity: Total Information Awareness

1374: 1313: 1198: 1162: 1148:

Sequence motif methods analyze gene promoters to find specific

1140:

The six classes of gene network inference methods, according to

1062: 638: 566: 432: 312: 114: 3149: 2832:

Contract case could hurt reverse engineering | Developer World

2321:, 2010 ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security. 2199:(2nd ed.). Springer Science+Business Media. p. 110. 274:. The problem is particularly critical in military operations. 177:

regarding the source code, which can help to detect and fix a

2756:

Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Systems Biology and Medicine

2572: 1754: 1647:

Villaverde, Alejandro F.; Banga, Julio R. (6 February 2014).

1106:

series of increasingly-sophisticated radio navigation systems

1098: 1087: 1008: 324:

optimized their innovation, design, and production processes.

633:

Another classic, if not well-known, example is that in 1987

2926:

http://holgerkienle.wikispaces.com/file/view/MK-UVic-09.pdf

2342:

Wolfgang Rankl, Wolfgang Effing, Smart Card Handbook (2004)

1779: 1251: 687: 569: 397: 382: 96:

how a previously made device, process, system, or piece of

845:

Full reverse engineering proceeds in several major steps.

537:"), circumvention of access restrictions often present in 3036: 1250:

as well as any other relevant laws. That is because most

1113: 1024: 946: 623: 562: 557:, or RCE. For example, decompilation of binaries for the 198:, which is usually the goal of a competitor or a hacker. 3041:; Maxey, David; Michels, Raymond J.; Kyle, Jim (1994) . 2940:

Hacking the Xbox: An Introduction to Reverse Engineering

2749: 2287:"Learning regular sets from queries and counterexamples" 2254:"Complexity of automaton identification from given data" 2025:. London, England: Chapman & Hall. pp. 283–305. 3004: 2623: 419:

Hybrid modeling is a commonly used term when NURBS and

3135:

IEEE 2007 Custom Integrated Circuits Conference (CICC)

2090: 1812:"Reverse engineering and design recovery: A taxonomy" 1057:

AA-2 Atoll), a Soviet reverse-engineered copy of the

2743: 2433:. Chicago: Rand McNally & Company. p. 127. 2355:(2008), Seminar ITS-Security Ruhr-Universität Bochum 1759:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 3. 2428: 853:and a transformation applied on the basis of that. 576:industry that has been the overwhelmingly-dominant 3079: 3042: 2568: 2566: 2118: 2037:"Working Conference on Reverse Engineering (WCRE)" 2023:Software Reuse and Reverse Engineering in Practice 1125:Reverse engineering concepts have been applied to 825: 2902: 2684: 2065: 478:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 165:. Reverse engineering may also be used to create 4022: 2807:"Trade Secrets 101", Feature Article, March 2011 1748: 3007:Reverse Engineering – An Industrial Perspective 2898:http://www.photonics.com/Article.aspx?AID=44063 2752:"Reverse-engineering human regulatory networks" 2630:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2617: 2563: 2091:Chuvakin, Anton; Cyrus Peikari (January 2004). 2043:. Computer Science bibliography. Archived from 1929: 1810:Chikofsky, E. J.; Cross, J. H. (January 1990). 1646: 1545:"What is Reverse-engineering? How Does It Work" 987:of the G5N were copied directly from the DC-4E. 967:, which was secretly acting as a front for the 2124:"The Law and Economics of Reverse Engineering" 1809: 1757:Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective 1700: 3165: 2846:. Eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved on 2011-05-29. 1998:"Reverse Engineering a Printed Circuit Board" 1973:"Reverse Engineering a Printed Circuit Board" 652: 231:There are other uses to reverse engineering: 1880: 1805: 1803: 1801: 1773: 641:System 4.1, originally running on the Apple 3125: 3121:http://www.SoftwareLitigationConsulting.com 2960: 2429:Angelucci, Enzo; Matricardi, Paolo (1978). 1696: 1694: 1692: 515:technique to avoid copyright infringement. 3172: 3158: 3069:(xviii+856+vi pages, 3.5"-floppy) Errata: 3005:Raja, Vinesh; Fernandes, Kiran J. (2008). 2504: 2384: 2317:C.Y. Cho, D. Babic, R. Shin, and D. Song. 2284: 1734: 1732: 1190: 735: 2875:Reversing: Secrets of Reverse Engineering 2783: 2726: 2708: 2667: 2649: 2302: 2269: 1883:Reversing: secrets of reverse engineering 1798: 1672: 930:operations. It was often used during the 914:Learn how and when to remove this message 444: 69:Learn how and when to remove this message 3077: 2905:"Software Reverse Engineering Education" 2821:. Utsystem.edu. Retrieved on 2011-05-29. 2501:as-chinese-original-but-questions-remain 2097:(1st ed.). O'Reilly. Archived from 1876: 1874: 1872: 1870: 1868: 1866: 1864: 1862: 1755:Vinesh Raja; Kiran J. Fernandes (2007). 1689: 1135: 863: 32:This article includes a list of general 2980: 2409: 2188: 1899: 1729: 592:, which allows systems that do not run 4023: 3952:Electrical and electronics engineering 3078:Schulman, Andrew; et al. (1992). 3049:(2 ed.). Reading, Massachusetts: 2510: 2020: 1780:Jonathan Band; Masanobu Katoh (2011). 1653:Journal of the Royal Society Interface 1591: 1260:). According to Section 103(f) of the 1031:, which led to the development of the 3153: 2937: 2871: 2834:. InfoWorld. Retrieved on 2011-05-29. 2387:McDonnell Douglas Aircraft since 1920 1995: 1970: 1859: 492:. Another term for this technique is 288:or to circumvent access restrictions. 3985: 2251: 1622:"How Does Reverse Engineering Work?" 1539: 1537: 896:adding citations to reliable sources 867: 682:. Sometimes, reverse engineering on 601:project does the same thing for the 18: 3995: 2194: 2070:. LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing. 993:: The Germans captured an American 690:ports or other debugging means. In 498:Computer-aided software engineering 431:estimate costs; identify potential 190:, or to create a possibly-improved 13: 2353:Smart cards as methods for payment 1619: 548: 292:Competitive technical intelligence 142:way. It may be used as part of an 38:it lacks sufficient corresponding 14: 4077: 2431:-World War II Airplanes: Volume 2 2122:& Scotchmer, Suzanne (2002). 1534: 1271: 1084:reversed engineered many examples 945:: British and American forces in 4004: 3994: 3984: 3975: 3974: 3844: 2961:James, Dick (January 19, 2006). 2809:. ASME. Retrieved on 2013-10-31. 1364:Digital Millennium Copyright Act 1262:Digital Millennium Copyright Act 1226: 1120: 872: 609:is one party doing that for the 385:alone, usually represented as a 23: 3179: 2849: 2837: 2824: 2812: 2800: 2486: 2477: 2456: 2447: 2422: 2403: 2378: 2375:, IBC Conferences, 10 June 1998 2358: 2345: 2336: 2324: 2311: 2278: 2245: 2222: 2213: 2167: 2112: 2084: 2059: 2029: 2014: 1989: 1964: 1950: 1923: 1908: 1592:Garcia, Jorge (December 2015). 1508: 1489: 1477:AI-assisted reverse engineering 1257:Bowers v. Baystate Technologies 1161:(ChIP) methods investigate the 883:needs additional citations for 826:Integrated circuits/smart cards 720:is a particularly popular tool. 272:original equipment manufacturer 1640: 1613: 1585: 1561: 1339:Connectix Virtual Game Station 755: 694:, low-level debuggers such as 572:, which launched the historic 328: 265:the existing chip and then to 1: 2819:Baystate v. Bowers Discussion 2385:Francillon, René J. (1988) . 2271:10.1016/S0019-9958(78)90562-4 1944:10.1016/S0010-4485(96)00054-1 1527: 1395:Knowledge Discovery Metamodel 1175:Literature methods implement 1159:Chromatin ImmunoPrecipitation 773:Knowledge Discovery Metamodel 645:, so that it could run it on 184:"cracking" software and media 3202:List of engineering branches 2932:Chemical Engineering Process 2587:10.1016/j.bbagrm.2019.194430 2525:10.1016/j.bbagrm.2020.194523 2304:10.1016/0890-5401(87)90052-6 1996:Patel, Suresh (2022-08-25). 1971:Patel, Suresh (2022-08-25). 971:, which wanted a long-range 836:scanning electron microscope 783: 741:vulnerability detection and 408:, etc.) as well as possibly 7: 3107:Intellectual Property Today 2830:Gross, Grant. (2003-06-26) 2291:Information and Computation 1286: 1252:end-user license agreements 1221: 1011:were forced to land in the 471: 378:(computed tomography). The 372:structured light digitizers 333: 216:to find vulnerabilities in 136: 10: 4082: 2903:Cipresso, Teodoro (2009). 2864: 2697:Frontiers in Plant Science 2066:Shahbaz, Muzammil (2012). 1784:. MIT Press. p. 136. 1464:Structured light digitizer 1003:: In 1944, three American 983:. The wings, engines, and 750:statistical classification 669:, such as for accessing a 653:Binary software techniques 448: 3970: 3917: 3901: 3853: 3842: 3617: 3559: 3478: 3403: 3330: 3223: 3210: 3187: 1885:. John Wiley & Sons. 1497:(f) Reverse Engineering.— 1405:List of production topics 1043:and the beginning of the 1007:bombers on missions over 977:Nakajima Aircraft Company 965:Imperial Japanese Airways 278:Product security analysis 2981:Messler, Robert (2013). 2466:. centennialofflight.net 2175:"Samba: An Introduction" 1482: 1390:Interactive Disassembler 1131:gene regulatory networks 957:Douglas Aircraft Company 718:Interactive Disassembler 555:reverse code engineering 3863:Bachelor of Engineering 3705:Engineering mathematics 2710:10.3389/fpls.2012.00294 2651:10.1073/pnas.0933416100 2258:Information and Control 1782:Interfaces on Trial 2.0 1242:often falls under both 1238:Reverse engineering of 1191:Overlap with patent law 777:Object Management Group 736:Software classification 637:reverse-engineered the 460:not easily available. 455:Reverse engineering of 451:PCB reverse engineering 414:boundary-representation 226:public-key cryptography 222:symmetric-key algorithm 53:more precise citations. 4056:Technical intelligence 4051:Industrial engineering 3962:Structural engineering 3957:Mechanical engineering 3700:Engineering management 2938:Huang, Andrew (2003). 1665:10.1098/rsif.2013.0505 1520: 1437:Round-trip engineering 1385:Industrial CT scanning 1216:copyright infringement 1141: 969:Imperial Japanese Navy 963:airliner prototype to 743:copyright infringement 723:Decompilation using a 565:implementation of the 457:printed circuit boards 445:Printed circuit boards 412:surfaces to produce a 376:industrial CT scanning 322:University of Florence 167:interoperable products 119:electronic engineering 111:mechanical engineering 3942:Aerospace engineering 3855:Engineering education 3109:, Nov. 2010. Online: 2872:Eilam, Eldad (2005). 1958:"Reverse Engineering" 1932:Computer-Aided Design 1881:Eilam, Eldad (2005). 1569:"Reverse Engineering" 1549:SearchSoftwareQuality 1515: 1514:The directive states: 1294:Antikythera mechanism 1139: 864:Military applications 494:program comprehension 340:computer-aided design 86:backwards engineering 4066:NP-complete problems 3883:Graduate certificate 3126:Thumm, Mike (2007). 2909:SJSU Master's Thesis 2195:Lee, Newton (2013). 1454:Software archaeology 1432:Reverse architecture 1380:Forensic engineering 1277:EU Directive 2009/24 1266:17 U.S.C. § 1201 (f) 1150:transcription factor 955:: In 1939, the U.S. 892:improve this article 539:consumer electronics 524:software engineering 504:Software anti-tamper 127:chemical engineering 123:software engineering 107:computer engineering 4061:Technological races 4031:Reverse engineering 3868:Bachelor of Science 3710:Engineering physics 3694:Engineering drawing 3216:Interdisciplinarity 2969:. Penton Media, Inc 2642:2003PNAS..100.5944T 2285:D. Angluin (1987). 2021:Warden, R. (1992). 1919:. pp. 287–288. 1573:ethics.csc.ncsu.edu 1495:The section states: 1212:patent infringement 1055:NATO reporting name 1029:Operation Paperclip 801:clustering analyses 541:, customization of 518:On a related note, 435:infringement; etc. 421:parametric modeling 282:patent infringement 262:Integrated circuits 218:substitution cipher 163:competitor analysis 94:deductive reasoning 82:Reverse engineering 3470:Telecommunications 3375:Naval architecture 3037:Schulman, Andrew; 2371:2011-07-09 at the 1628:. IEEE Global Spec 1299:Backward induction 1248:breach of contract 1142: 708:, meaning the raw 613:file formats. The 362:technologies like 4036:Computer security 4018: 4017: 3947:Civil engineering 3893:Licensed engineer 3888:Engineer's degree 3840: 3839: 3672:Building services 3655:Health technology 3516:Chemical reaction 3465:Signal processing 3128:"Talking Tactics" 3097:978-0-201-60834-2 3028:Samuelson, Pamela 3020:978-1-84628-855-5 2996:978-0-07-182516-0 2967:Electronic Design 2953:978-1-59327-029-2 2889:978-0-7645-7481-8 2768:10.1002/wsbm.1159 2636:(10): 5944–5949. 2464:"Redstone rocket" 2364:David C. Musker: 2206:978-1-4614-7204-9 2120:Samuelson, Pamela 2077:978-3-659-14073-0 2002:Electronic Design 1977:Electronic Design 1892:978-0-7645-7481-8 1791:978-0-262-29446-1 1766:978-1-84628-856-2 1469:Value engineering 1459:Software cracking 1410:Listeroid Engines 1324:Clean room design 1319:Clone (computing) 1240:computer software 1165:-wide profile of 924: 923: 916: 799:by using various 766:List of UML tools 692:Microsoft Windows 635:Bell Laboratories 594:Microsoft Windows 578:computer hardware 574:IBM PC compatible 520:black box testing 513:clean room design 439:Value engineering 79: 78: 71: 4073: 4008: 3998: 3997: 3988: 3987: 3978: 3977: 3848: 3435:Electromechanics 3221: 3220: 3174: 3167: 3160: 3151: 3150: 3145: 3143: 3142: 3132: 3101: 3085: 3068: 3048: 3024: 3000: 2977: 2975: 2974: 2957: 2918: 2916: 2915: 2893: 2880:Wiley Publishing 2858: 2853: 2847: 2841: 2835: 2828: 2822: 2816: 2810: 2804: 2798: 2797: 2787: 2747: 2741: 2740: 2730: 2712: 2688: 2682: 2681: 2671: 2653: 2621: 2615: 2614: 2570: 2561: 2560: 2508: 2502: 2490: 2484: 2481: 2475: 2474: 2472: 2471: 2460: 2454: 2451: 2445: 2444: 2426: 2420: 2419: 2407: 2401: 2400: 2382: 2376: 2362: 2356: 2349: 2343: 2340: 2334: 2328: 2322: 2315: 2309: 2308: 2306: 2282: 2276: 2275: 2273: 2252:Gold, E (1978). 2249: 2243: 2239: 2230: 2226: 2220: 2217: 2211: 2210: 2192: 2186: 2185: 2183: 2182: 2171: 2165: 2164: 2162: 2161: 2152:. Archived from 2136:(7): 1575–1663. 2129:Yale Law Journal 2116: 2110: 2109: 2107: 2106: 2094:Security Warrior 2088: 2082: 2081: 2063: 2057: 2056: 2054: 2052: 2047:on 14 March 2017 2033: 2027: 2026: 2018: 2012: 2011: 2009: 2008: 1993: 1987: 1986: 1984: 1983: 1968: 1962: 1961: 1954: 1948: 1947: 1927: 1921: 1920: 1912: 1906: 1903: 1897: 1896: 1878: 1857: 1856: 1854: 1853: 1847: 1841:. Archived from 1831:10.1109/52.43044 1816: 1807: 1796: 1795: 1777: 1771: 1770: 1752: 1746: 1736: 1727: 1726: 1715:10.1109/52.43044 1698: 1687: 1686: 1676: 1659:(91): 20130505. 1644: 1638: 1637: 1635: 1633: 1617: 1611: 1610: 1608: 1607: 1598: 1589: 1583: 1582: 1580: 1579: 1565: 1559: 1558: 1556: 1555: 1541: 1521: 1512: 1506: 1493: 1448:Sega v. Accolade 1203:legal protection 1059:AIM-9 Sidewinder 973:strategic bomber 932:Second World War 919: 912: 908: 905: 899: 876: 868: 808:offline learning 710:machine language 684:embedded systems 675:computer network 611:Microsoft Office 543:embedded systems 506:technology like 240:interoperability 206:operating system 186:to remove their 90:back engineering 74: 67: 63: 60: 54: 49:this article by 40:inline citations 27: 26: 19: 4081: 4080: 4076: 4075: 4074: 4072: 4071: 4070: 4021: 4020: 4019: 4014: 3966: 3913: 3897: 3873:Master's degree 3849: 3836: 3750:Instrumentation 3613: 3555: 3521:Electrochemical 3474: 3460:Radio frequency 3399: 3326: 3290:Municipal/Urban 3214: 3212: 3206: 3183: 3178: 3148: 3140: 3138: 3130: 3098: 3065: 3021: 3013:. p. 242. 2997: 2972: 2970: 2954: 2944:No Starch Press 2922:Hausi A. Müller 2913: 2911: 2890: 2882:. p. 595. 2867: 2862: 2861: 2854: 2850: 2842: 2838: 2829: 2825: 2817: 2813: 2805: 2801: 2748: 2744: 2689: 2685: 2622: 2618: 2571: 2564: 2509: 2505: 2491: 2487: 2482: 2478: 2469: 2467: 2462: 2461: 2457: 2452: 2448: 2441: 2427: 2423: 2418:(6): 18, 49–50. 2408: 2404: 2397: 2383: 2379: 2373:Wayback Machine 2363: 2359: 2350: 2346: 2341: 2337: 2329: 2325: 2316: 2312: 2283: 2279: 2250: 2246: 2240: 2233: 2227: 2223: 2218: 2214: 2207: 2193: 2189: 2180: 2178: 2173: 2172: 2168: 2159: 2157: 2117: 2113: 2104: 2102: 2089: 2085: 2078: 2064: 2060: 2050: 2048: 2035: 2034: 2030: 2019: 2015: 2006: 2004: 1994: 1990: 1981: 1979: 1969: 1965: 1956: 1955: 1951: 1928: 1924: 1913: 1909: 1904: 1900: 1893: 1879: 1860: 1851: 1849: 1845: 1814: 1808: 1799: 1792: 1778: 1774: 1767: 1753: 1749: 1737: 1730: 1699: 1690: 1645: 1641: 1631: 1629: 1618: 1614: 1605: 1603: 1596: 1590: 1586: 1577: 1575: 1567: 1566: 1562: 1553: 1551: 1543: 1542: 1535: 1530: 1525: 1524: 1513: 1509: 1504: 1502: 1500: 1498: 1496: 1494: 1490: 1485: 1473: 1289: 1274: 1229: 1224: 1193: 1153:binding domains 1123: 1077:1979 revolution 1033:PGM-11 Redstone 920: 909: 903: 900: 889: 877: 866: 828: 812:online learning 786: 758: 738: 667:packet sniffers 655: 626:) counterpart. 551: 549:Binary software 490:waterfall model 474: 453: 447: 336: 331: 286:copy protection 188:copy protection 155:redocumentation 139: 131:systems biology 84:(also known as 75: 64: 58: 55: 45:Please help to 44: 28: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4079: 4069: 4068: 4063: 4058: 4053: 4048: 4043: 4038: 4033: 4016: 4015: 4013: 4012: 4002: 3992: 3982: 3971: 3968: 3967: 3965: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3949: 3944: 3939: 3938: 3937: 3932: 3923: 3921: 3915: 3914: 3912: 3911: 3905: 3903: 3902:Related topics 3899: 3898: 3896: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3859: 3857: 3851: 3850: 3843: 3841: 3838: 3837: 3835: 3834: 3829: 3824: 3822:Sustainability 3819: 3814: 3809: 3804: 3799: 3794: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3774: 3769: 3764: 3759: 3758: 3757: 3747: 3742: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3697: 3691: 3686: 3684:Geoengineering 3681: 3680: 3679: 3669: 3668: 3667: 3665:Rehabilitation 3662: 3660:Pharmaceutical 3657: 3652: 3647: 3645:Bioinformatics 3637: 3632: 3627: 3621: 3619: 3615: 3614: 3612: 3611: 3606: 3604:Semiconductors 3601: 3596: 3594:Nanotechnology 3591: 3586: 3581: 3576: 3571: 3565: 3563: 3557: 3556: 3554: 3553: 3548: 3543: 3538: 3533: 3528: 3523: 3518: 3513: 3512: 3511: 3506: 3501: 3491: 3484: 3482: 3476: 3475: 3473: 3472: 3467: 3462: 3457: 3452: 3447: 3442: 3437: 3432: 3427: 3426: 3425: 3415: 3409: 3407: 3401: 3400: 3398: 3397: 3392: 3387: 3382: 3377: 3372: 3367: 3362: 3357: 3352: 3347: 3342: 3336: 3334: 3328: 3327: 3325: 3324: 3323: 3322: 3317: 3310:Transportation 3307: 3302: 3297: 3292: 3287: 3282: 3277: 3272: 3267: 3266: 3265: 3260: 3250: 3245: 3240: 3235: 3229: 3227: 3218: 3208: 3207: 3205: 3204: 3199: 3194: 3188: 3185: 3184: 3177: 3176: 3169: 3162: 3154: 3147: 3146: 3123: 3113: 3103: 3096: 3088:Addison Wesley 3075: 3063: 3051:Addison Wesley 3039:Brown, Ralf D. 3034: 3025: 3019: 3002: 2995: 2978: 2958: 2952: 2935: 2928: 2919: 2900: 2894: 2888: 2868: 2866: 2863: 2860: 2859: 2848: 2836: 2823: 2811: 2799: 2762:(4): 311–325. 2742: 2683: 2616: 2562: 2503: 2485: 2476: 2455: 2446: 2439: 2421: 2402: 2395: 2377: 2357: 2344: 2335: 2323: 2310: 2277: 2264:(3): 302–320. 2244: 2231: 2221: 2212: 2205: 2187: 2166: 2142:10.2307/797533 2111: 2083: 2076: 2058: 2028: 2013: 1988: 1963: 1949: 1938:(4): 255–268. 1922: 1907: 1898: 1891: 1858: 1797: 1790: 1772: 1765: 1747: 1728: 1688: 1639: 1612: 1584: 1560: 1532: 1531: 1529: 1526: 1523: 1522: 1507: 1487: 1486: 1484: 1481: 1480: 1479: 1472: 1471: 1466: 1461: 1456: 1451: 1444: 1439: 1434: 1429: 1424: 1417: 1415:Logic analyzer 1412: 1407: 1402: 1397: 1392: 1387: 1382: 1377: 1372: 1367: 1361: 1356: 1351: 1346: 1344:Counterfeiting 1341: 1336: 1331: 1326: 1321: 1316: 1311: 1306: 1301: 1296: 1290: 1288: 1285: 1281:European Union 1273: 1272:European Union 1270: 1228: 1225: 1223: 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IEEE, Inc 3053:. pp. 2987:McGraw Hill 2051:22 February 1632:26 February 1427:Repurposing 1177:text mining 1167:DNA binding 816:NP-complete 756:Source code 702:Disassembly 603:Windows API 508:obfuscation 425:3D modeling 394:information 391:topological 387:point cloud 360:3D scanning 354:, or other 329:Common uses 305:Repurposing 236:Interfacing 208:to build a 51:introducing 4046:Patent law 4025:Categories 3919:Glossaries 3740:Industrial 3720:Facilities 3715:Explosives 3640:Biomedical 3635:Automation 3584:Metallurgy 3494:Biological 3445:Microwaves 3405:Electrical 3350:Automotive 3332:Mechanical 3305:Structural 3270:Geological 3258:Ecological 3248:Earthquake 3141:2009-02-03 3117:New Matter 2973:2009-02-03 2914:2009-08-22 2470:2010-04-27 2181:2009-05-07 2160:2011-10-31 2105:2006-05-25 2007:2024-02-01 1982:2024-02-01 1852:2012-07-02 1626:globalspec 1606:2023-06-04 1601:Core.ac.uk 1578:2022-07-27 1554:2022-07-27 1528:References 1082:China has 1073:BGM-71 TOW 1045:space race 832:smart card 725:decompiler 248:commercial 194:or even a 34:references 4041:Espionage 3878:Doctorate 3792:Packaging 3762:Logistics 3735:Geomatics 3696:/graphics 3589:Molecular 3579:Corrosion 3561:Materials 3541:Petroleum 3531:Molecular 3413:Broadcast 3395:Tribology 3345:Aerospace 3280:Hydraulic 2776:1939-5094 2719:1664-462X 2660:0027-8424 2611:207895066 2595:1874-9399 2557:212629142 2541:1874-9399 2351:T. 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