Religious policies of Constantine the Great

253: 627: 378:'s view, Constantine was "a sincere if a somewhat simple believer." He ended the persecution of Christians, restored confiscated property to the churches, and adopted a policy toward non-Christians of toleration with limits. "He did not punish pagans for being pagans, or Jews for being Jews, and did not adopt a policy of forced conversion." Pagans remained in important positions at his court. He outlawed the gladiatorial shows, destroyed temples and plundered more, and used forceful rhetoric against non-Christians. But he never engaged in a purge. Maxentius' supporters were not slaughtered when Constantine took the capital; Licinius' family and court were not killed. There were no pagan martyrs. Leithart says Constantine attributed his military success to God, and during his reign, the empire was relatively peaceful. 451:

form a sufficient power–base to begin a systematic persecution of pagans. However, Brown reminds us "We should not underestimate the fierce mood of the Christians of the fourth century:" repression, persecution and martyrdom do not generally breed tolerance of those same persecutors. Brown says Roman authorities had shown no hesitation in "taking out" the Christian church that they saw as a threat to empire, and that Constantine and his successors did the same for the same reasons. Constantine would sporadically prohibit public sacrifice and close pagan temples; very little pressure, however, was put on individual pagans. Just as persecution of Christians had been sporadic, actions against pagans were also sporadic.

419:

the pagans. His provisions in the earlier Edict of Milan were restated in the Edict of the Provincials. Drake points out that this edict called for peace and tolerance: "Let no one disturb another, let each man hold fast to that which his soil wishes…" Constantine never reversed this edict. Drake contemplates whether Constantine may have been trying to create a society where the two religions were syncretized. However, Constantine also "assails pagan temples as 'temples of falsehood'," and denounces paganism as idolatry and superstition in the same document. Constantine and his contemporary Christians did not treat paganism as a living religion; it was defined as a

899:, and was deeply distressed by it. After fruitless letter writing and the sending of other bishops to promote reconciliation, Constantine called for all church leaders to convene in 325 in Nicea in Bithynia (in present-day Turkey) to settle the issue. Constantine presided at the council. Kaye references Sozomen as saying Constantine opened with a speech in which he exhorted the bishops as friends and ministers to resolve conflict and embrace peace. Sozomen says the bishops accordingly broke out in mutual accusation. Constantine mediated, occasionally severely corrected, persuaded and praised, and eventually brought them to agreement. The result was the 80: 557: 836:

church capable of embracing the entire Roman empire, by the third century. He explains that, "The governing principle of the sectarian pattern of association is not in the institutional apparatus, but in the personal holiness of its members". A church, on the other hand, is an organization where sanctity is found in the institution rather than the individual. To become a church, Bryant says "Christianity had to overcame its alienation from the 'world' and successfully weather persecution, accept that it was no longer an

19: 468: 366:— on his coins? Why was he never a properly instructed catechumen? Why was he not baptized until he was on his death bed? Constantine's initial grasp of Christianity was shallow, but as time went on Opoku says, it does seem as though he came to see himself as God's appointed sovereign, rewarded with divine favor. According to Opoku, "It thus appeared that Constantine gained, rather than lost, his willingness to exchange the style and title of a god for that of God's vice-regent." 335:. These monuments contain no reference to Christianity. However, in 312, Constantine ordered a statue of himself and Bardill quotes Eusebius as saying Constantine determined his statue should have "a trophy of the Savior's Passion to be set up beneath the hand of his own statue—indeed, he ordered them to place him in the most frequented spot in Rome, holding the saving sign in his right hand." Some time after 324, he wrote to the king of Persia, 76:, imperial Rome's system of government was an easy–going system which governed indirectly through the regional, local elites, and was not built to survive the strain of continuous invasions and civil wars. During this period of crisis, life in a "beleaguered superpower" included bankruptcies, political fragmentation and military losses. Constantine was born during this period in AD 273 and was raised a polytheist by his polytheist parents. 212:. After Severus' death, Maximinus expected to be raised to Augustus in his place and was bitterly disappointed in 308 AD, when at the Conference of Carnuntum, Licinius was declared Augustus of the West instead. In 310 AD, a bitter and disappointed Maximinus II allowed his troops to proclaim him Augustus. That makes five men with serious claims to the same position of Augustus in the West. The empire was in full out civil war. 427:

are indications that Constantine did not convert to a belief in a church of a few pristine elect, but to a belief in Christianity as a "big tent" capable of containing different wings. Drake says the evidence indicates Constantine favored those who favored consensus, chose pragmatists over ideologues of any persuasion, and wanted peace and harmony "but also inclusiveness and flexibility." In his article

125:; both the Church and the empire had changed in that time. The Church was no longer composed of tiny scattered groups. According to Peter Brown, it had become a 'universal church' that functioned as a "city within a city." There was a "Christian gentry" established in Asia Minor, and a developed hierarchy within the church, of leaders who were prominent in the Roman world of their day. 654:, a site venerated and occupied by both Jews and pagans alike, written sources say that Constantine ordered the burning of the idols, the destruction of the altar, and erection of a church. The archaeology of the site, however, demonstrates that Constantine's church along with its attendant buildings, only occupied a peripheral sector of the precinct, leaving the rest unhindered. 723:

temples was also declining, but that this seems to have little to do with anti-paganism. Drake says Constantine personally abhorred sacrifice and removed the obligation to participate in them from the list of duties for imperial officials, but evidence of an actual sweeping ban on sacrifice is slight, while evidence of its continued practice is great.

42:. He saw his father become Augustus of the West and then shortly die. Constantine spent his life in the military warring with much of his extended family, and converted to Christianity sometime around 40 years of age. His religious policies, formed from these experiences, comprised increasing toleration of Christianity, limited regulations against 848:

schisms and defections. Bryant explains that, "once those within a sect determine that the 'spirit' no longer resides in the parent body, 'the holy and the pure' typically find themselves compelled – either by conviction or coercion – to withdraw and establish their own counter-church, comprised of the 'gathered remnant' of God's elect".

224:

himself emperor. Response wasn't what he hoped, and he fled to Marseilles, but Constantine force-marched his army there, and Maximian was caught and allowed, or ordered, to commit suicide. Constantine then broke off his alliance with his brother-in-law Maxentius and joined with Licinius who was to marry Constantine's sister, Constantia.

512:

deliberately evoked the Roman past religiously as well as politically." On 11 May 330, the dedication of the city was celebrated with the festival of Saint Mocius and the striking of commemorative medallions and coins. Up until 325, Constantine had "continued to pay his public honors to the Sun" on coins that showed him jointly with

672:

over-powering generosity. After 320, Constantine supported the Christian church with his patronage, built basilicas, and endowed the church with land and other wealth. He set up St.Peter's in Rome and San Giovanni in Laterano; in Antioch, he built a large golden domed octagon and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.

903:, from which five bishops abstained. They were banished for a time, then eventually returned. Athanasius was then ousted from his bishopric in Alexandria in 336 by the Arians, forced into exile, and lived much of the remainder of his life in a cycle of forced movement as power went back and forth between the two groups. 569:, Constantine's reign did not constitute the end of temple construction altogether. He both permitted and commissioned temple construction in areas outside Constantinople. Trombley says the dedication of new temples is attested in the historical and archaeological records until the end of the 4th century. 722:

purpose "is to flatter and praise the Christians, to show the personal commitment of the emperor to their cause, while at the same time preventing a crusade against the unbelieving." Archaeologist Luke Lavan writes that blood sacrifice was already declining in popularity, just as construction of new

671:

Constantine and his successors brought wealth, peace, and the opportunity to build a strong local position, to the churches. Christianity had already shown itself as able to distribute money in support of its religious causes; following the Roman tradition of endowments, Constantine became a donor of

418:

Constantine never directly outlawed paganism. In the words of an early edict, he decreed that polytheists could "celebrate the rites of an outmoded illusion," so long as they did not force Christians to join them. In addition, there are accounts that indicate Constantine remained somewhat tolerant of

240:

In the spring of 312, Constantine determined he needed to deal with Maxentius himself. Potter says scholars don't know who approached who, but Licinius and Constantine came to an agreement that appears to have involved mutual military support against Maxentius. While Licinius kept some of Maxentius'

143:

In addition to martyrdom, the First Edict also saw churches destroyed and demanded that the written scriptures and other Christian books be surrendered. At a time when the Emperor's law was seen as the divine source of order and peace, the Church claimed to possess its own universal divine law in the

108:

While the Tetrarchy itself didn't last long, Jonathan Bardill says that it made some permanent changes to the empire. Government became more centralized around the imperial court as the only certain source of power and influence, and elites lost some of their wealth and status. Capital cities emerged

879:

with its debate of Trinitarian formulas. Donatism was a 'schism' (differences were over practices not doctrine) that was geographically limited to northern Africa; Arianism, on the other hand, was seen as an actual heresy: wrong belief. Arians believed the Father, Son and Holy Ghost were not equals.

847:

Without what Peter Brown has called "the conversion of Christianity" to the culture and ideals of the Roman world", Brown says Constantine would never have converted, but this "momentous transformation" also threatened the survival of the marginal religious movement as it naturally led to divisions,

426:

According to Burckhardt and his followers, being Christian automatically meant being intolerant; however, as Drake points out, that assumes a uniformity of belief within Christianity that does not exist in the historical record. Brown says that the church was never monolithic. In Drake's view, there

201:

Galerius himself marched on Maxentius in Rome in the autumn of that year, but also failed to take the city. Constantine watched from Gaul and avoided conflict with both Maxentius and the Eastern emperors for most of this period. Constantine's holdings at this time were not much: mostly Britain, Gaul

180:

Constantine and his father left Gaul and crossed into Britain to win a great battle over the Picts, but on 25 July 306, Constantine's father Constantius died in Eboracum (York). Afterwards, Constantine's father's troops proclaimed Constantine as Augustus in the West, and he agreed. However, Galerius

855:

Constantine's persecution of these Christians was no more successful than Diocletian's had been, and in 321, Constantine acknowledged failure and cancelled the laws against the Donatists. For the next 75 years, both parties existed, often directly alongside each other, with a double line of bishops

772:, many of those who had cooperated with the authorities wanted to return to their positions in the church. Maureen Tilley, President of the North American Patristics Society, says the different responses to this 'returning' among the North African Christians were already becoming apparent by AD305. 662:

indicate the deconsecration of a temple merely required the removal of the cult statue and altar. However, this was often extended to the removal or even destruction of other statues and icons, votive stelae and all other internal imagery and decoration. Such objects were not always destroyed, some

326:

Brown says Constantine was over 40, had most likely been a traditional polytheist, and was a savvy and ruthless politician when he declared himself a Christian. His first step after conquering was to eclipse the memory of Maxentius, which he did by filling the center of Rome with monuments such as

193:

Then, on 28 October 306, Maxentius, son of Maximian, declared himself Augustus of the West, holding Italy and living in Rome from AD 306–312. Maxentius summoned his father, Maximian, out of retirement for support. Maxentius was then declared a usurper, and Galerius ordered his co-Augustus, Severus,

835:

Sociologist Joseph Bryant sees the Donatist controversy as the culmination of the dynamic process of a sect changing into a church. Bryant asserts that Christianity changed from being a "marginal, persecuted, and popularly despised Christian sect" in the first century, to a fully institutionalized

458:

are two among many who agree that Constantine was generally not in favor of suppression of paganism by force. Instead, Constantine took steps to legally limit the public practice of pagan worship. Constantine's main approach was to use enticement by making the adoption of Christianity beneficial.

450:

Although Constantine is regarded as the first Christian emperor, this does not mean that there are no longer any pagans in the empire. Christians most likely formed between sixteen and seventeen percent of empire at the time of Constantine's conversion. They did not have the numerical advantage to

406:, much has been written from differing views on Constantine's religious policies, but "Constantine's commitment to unity in the church one policy on which virtually all parties agree." Conflicting views only arise when the topic shifts to whether or not this unity included pagans. Drake says that 310:

Constantine says he was not a child or a youth when he converted. Bardill says this is likely, as Constantine's parents were both polytheists; his mother was only persuaded to convert after Constantine had already done so. Bardill considers it likely Constantine converted some time between 310 and

305:

Nine years after Diocletian celebrated twenty years of stable rule with a smoking altar in the Roman Forum and the most severe persecution of Christians in the empire's history, the victorious Constantine I entered Rome and bypassed the altar on the capitol without offering sacrifice. According to

223:

to deal with Alexander who was subsequently taken prisoner and executed by strangulation. The next to die was Maximian, Constantine's father-in-law. In 310, Constantine deployed his father-in-law on a mission to Arles where Maximian proceeded to announce that Constantine was dead; then he declared

831:

Therefore, Tilley says, "it became Constantine's imperial and religious duty" to impose acceptance. Constantine responded with moderate to severe repression. The first Donatist' martyr stories come from the years 317 to 321. Tilley indicates this was a response of the state to the need for public

747:

says that Christian emperors inherited this fear of private practices, including the fear of private divination. Emperors had long thought to keep knowledge of the future for themselves, therefore private divination, astrology, and 'Chaldean practices' became associated with magic and carried the

511:

and pontifex maximus Praetextus. In commemoration, Constantine had a statue of the goddess of fortune Tyche built, and a column made of porphyry, where he placed a golden statue of Apollo with the face of Constantine looking toward the sun. Litehart says "Constantinople was newly founded, but it

120:

This led to a suppression of Christianity that was more severe than any seen before and which took place on an empire-wide scale. On 24 February, AD 303, Diocletian issued the first of a series of edicts that rescinded Christians' legal rights and demanded compliance with traditional polytheistic

887:

writes that dating its beginning is highly problematic. Kaye says it started in Alexandria, between the bishops Arius and Alexander, and quickly spread through Egypt and Libya and the other Roman provinces. Bishops engaged in "wordy warfare," and the people divided into parties, while the pagans

867:

characterizes the conversion of Constantine, and the council of Nicea that Constantine called, as two of the most important things to ever happen to the Christian church. Throughout his reign, Constantine's involvement with the church was dominated by its many conflicts defining orthodoxy versus

702:

Scott Bradbury writes that Constantine's policies toward pagans are "ambiguous and elusive" and that "no aspect has been more controversial than the claim he banned blood sacrifices." Sources on this are contradictory: Eusebius says he did; Labanius says it was Constantius II who did so and not

693:

Under Constantine, most of the temples remained open for the official pagan ceremonies and for the more socially acceptable activities of 'libation' and the offering of incense. Church restrictions opposing the pillaging of pagan temples by Christians were in place even while the Christians were

227:

Peter Leithart points out that Constantine spent his life in the military, often fighting other Romans, who also happened to be members of his extended family. By the time Constantine's life ended, "he was responsible for the death of his father-in-law Maximian, his brother-in-law Maxentius, his

87:

The third century crisis had begun with the assassination of Emperor Severus Alexander by his own troops in 235 which led to a 50-year long leadership crisis with at least 26 claimants to the title of emperor. By 268, the empire had split into three competing states. The crisis didn't end until

851:

Since Constantine had commissioned more than one investigation into the Donatist issues, and because they had all ruled in support of the Catholic cause, yet the Donatists refused to submit to either imperial or ecclesiastical authority, that would have been sufficient cause to act. Constantine

446:

priests in Egypt because they transgressed his moral norms. According to MacMullen, Constantine made many derogatory and contemptuous comments relating to the old religion; writing of the "true obstinacy" of the pagans, of their "misguided rites and ceremonial", and of their "temples of lying"

283:

as Constantine approached the capitol from his camp. Maxentius' troops were forced back to the Tiber river where Maxentius had destroyed the bridge in hopes of trapping Constantine's troops. They would have been forced to cross the Tiber on the remaining pontoons, but it was Maxentius who was

152:

believed that every book of scripture was not just pen and ink, but was the physical manifestation of the Word of God, and that handing over the scriptures to be burnt, and handing over a martyr to die, were two sides of the same coin. Those who cooperated with the soldiers were, in the Latin,

1256:

Jonathan Bardill has held fellowships at the University of Oxford, Dumbarton Oaks, Newcastle University and Koç University's Research Center for Anatolian Civilizations, Istanbul. He has contributed articles to numerous archaeological and historical journals, including the American Journal of

185:

says stories circulating at the time said this was all part of the machinations of Galerius to prevent Constantine from becoming the senior emperor. The West at this time was still largely undeveloped. The military's support of Constantine forced Galerius as Augustus of the more developed and

775:

According to Tilley, many of the North African Christians had a long established tradition of a "physicalist approach to religion." The sacred scriptures were not simply books to them, but were the Word of God in physical form; they saw handing over the Bible, and handing over a person to be

657:

Most of these sites had been "polluted" by pagan shrines and needed "desacrilization" or deconsecration before they could be used. (The practice of "cleansing" a sacred site of its previous spiritual influences was not limited to Christians.) According to Bayliss, the historical writings of

827:

in 313 to deal with the issue of Donatism, and in 314, he also appointed an appeals commission that met at Arles to sort out who should be the rightful bishop. The commission found in favor of the Catholic bishop. The Donatists rejected the commission's findings and refused compromise.

852:

became the first Emperor in the Christian era to persecute specific groups of Christians. Brown says Roman authorities had shown no hesitation in "taking out" the Christian church they saw as a threat to empire, and Constantine and his successors did the same, for the same reasons.

776:

martyred, as "two sides of the same coin." During the Great Persecution, "When Roman soldiers came calling, some of the officials handed over the sacred books, vessels, and other church goods rather than risk legal penalties" over a few objects. These cooperators became known as

172:, who was Constantine's father, had previously both been adopted by Diocletian. They were accordingly appointed Augustii of the East and West, respectively, on 1 May AD 305. Very soon after Diocletian stepped down, his successors began to struggle for control of the Roman Empire. 109:

in each region while other cities shrank. The cities were no longer as unique and different as they had been. The empire could no longer be seen as "a commonwealth of cities." Instead, what all cities had in common was ideology: a shared loyalty to the emperor and his followers.

410:

characterized Constantine as being "essentially unreligious", using the Church solely to support his power and ambition. However, Drake goes on to say that "critical reaction against Burckhardt's anachronistic reading has been decisive." Burckhardt used a method rooted in the

314:

Brown calls Constantine's conversion a "very Roman conversion." "He had risen to power in a series of deathly civil wars, destroyed the system of divided empire, believed the Christian God had brought him victory, and therefore regarded that god as the proper recipient of

2461:

Salzman, Michele Renee. "The Evidence for the Conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity in Book 16 of the 'Theodosian Code.'" Historia: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte, vol. 42, no. 3, 1993, pp. 362–378. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4436297. Accessed 2 June

880:

Most fourth and fifth century church controversies centered on the nature of Christ and his exact relation to God and man. Unlike Donatism, Arianism was spread throughout much of the empire, including among Germanic tribes, like the Visigoths, who were just converting.

667:

or "cleansed" by having crosses chiseled onto them and perhaps a rite performed over them. Some were simply relocated and displayed as works of art. For example, the Parthenon frieze was preserved after the Christian conversion of the temple, although in modified form.

241:

troops occupied in northern Italy, Constantine gathered an army of 40,000 soldiers and crossed the Alps heading toward Rome. According to Peter Leithart, Constantine met Maxentius' forces at Susa, Turin and Verona where he was victorious each time. According to

357:

and Noel Lenski, Constantine swung through the Holy Land with the intent of being baptized in the Jordan river, but he became deathly ill at Nicomedia where he was swiftly baptized. He died shortly thereafter on 22 May 337 at a suburban villa named Achyron.

202:

and Spain. Leithart says that, Constantine realized Galerius was an insecure foundation to build his future on, so Constantine made alliance with Maximian and Maxentius, sealing that alliance by marrying Maximian's daughter Fausta in the summer of AD 307.

361:

Francis Opoku writes that, "Whilst some are of the opinion that Constantine‟s conversion was genuine, others think that his policies to support Christians were for political expediency." As a converted Christian, why did he still have the unconquered sun

236:

By 310, Galerius' health was failing and his power eroding. After his death in 311, the Balkan territories were quickly occupied by Licinius, while Maxentius obtained the populous and prosperous Asia Minor for himself to add to his holdings in Italy.

906:

The controversy became political after Constantine's death. Athanasius died in 373, but his orthodox teaching was a major influence in the West, and on Theodosius, who became ruler in 381. The Nicene creed remained the official creed of the church.

822:

says that, "since the Jovian dynasty when Diocletian established the empire as one expressly based on divine support, the lack of consensus on religious matters was no small thing." Constantine had already appointed a council at Rome under Pope

751:

From emperor to emperor, private and secret rituals were constantly at risk of falling into the category of magic. However, Constantine's decree against private divination did not classify divination as magic, therefore, Constantine allowed the

498:

On Sunday 8 November 324, Constantine consecrated Byzantium as his new residence, Constantinoupolis — "city of Constantine" — with the local pagan priests, astrologers, and augurs. However, the emperor still went back to Rome to celebrate his

135:

Known to Christians as the Great Persecution, Baynes says it had two phases. The first phase began with the issue of the First Edict in 303; the second phase began with the issue of the Fourth Edict, whose date and authorship are debated.

806:, died. The twelve bishops of the region were supposed to gather and elect a successor, but instead, the Donatists and the Catholics, each elected one of their own, and neither would accept the other's nominee. The rigorists elected 104:

as Augustus in the West, AD 286–305. Diocletian established administrative capitals located closer to the empire's borders for each of the four Tetrarchs. These changes helped restore imperial power by the end of the third century.

503:: his twenty-year jubilee. Two years after the consecration of Constantinople, Constantine left Rome behind, returning to Constantinople permanently. On Monday 4 November 328, new rituals to dedicate the city as the new 1133:

Jonathan Bardill, Research Fellow in Byzantine Archaeology; Bardill, Jonathan. "Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age". United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, 2012.

743:. Luke Lavan explains, private practices were associated with treason and secret plots against the emperor. The fear of a rival, had led many emperors to be severe against those who attempted to divine their successor. 711:, chapter 44, Eusebius explicitly states that Constantine wrote a new law "appointing mainly Christian governors and also a law forbidding any remaining pagan officials from sacrificing in their official capacity." 564:

Several scholars indicate that in the new capital city of Constantinople, Constantine made sure there were no new pagan temples built and refused to allow blood sacrifice. However, according to French historian

817:

The Donatists appealed to Constantine to decide who would be the real bishop of Carthage. Christians expected Constantine to be the arbiter of all religious disputes. It was simply part of the emperor's job.

1257:

Archaeology, the Journal of Roman Archaeology and Dumbarton Oaks Papers, as well as several edited volumes, including Social and Political Life in Late Antiquity and The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies.

2312:

Salzman, Michele R. “'Superstitio' in the 'Codex Theodosianus' and the Persecution of Pagans". Vigiliae Christianae, vol. 41, no. 2, 1987, pp. 172–188. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1584108. Accessed 27 July

1413:

Little, Charles Eugene. Cyclopedia of Classified Dates, with an Exhaustive Index ...: For the Use of Students of History .... United Kingdom, Funk & Wagnalls Company, 1899.

650:

Using the same vocabulary of reclamation, Constantine acquired several more sites of Christian significance in the Holy Land for the purpose of constructing churches. At the sacred oak and spring at

205:

In the spring of 308, Maximian attempted to depose his son, Maxentius, asking his former army to choose between father and son. They chose the son, and Maximian fled to his son-in-law Constantine.

132:, in the second year of the persecution, after the arrival of Urbanus as governor of Palestine, the imperial edict extending the order for sacrifice to the general public was then also published. 454:

Lives were lost around the imperial court for various reasons and intrigues, but there is no evidence of judicial killings for illegal sacrifices before Tiberius Constantine (574-582). Drake and

415:

by choosing politics to question Constantine's religious conviction. According to Drake, this doesn't give an accurate view because politics is in everything and religion isn't determined by it.

2471:

Telfer, W. "WHEN DID THE ARIAN CONTROVERSY BEGIN?” The Journal of Theological Studies, vol. 47, no. 187/188, 1946, pp. 129–142. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/23952690. Accessed 26 July 2020.

856:

for the same cities. This eventually led to a second phase of persecution, but the Donatists survived until Arab armies overran North African in the closing years of the seventh century.

345:

observes that the myth of Constantine being baptized by Pope Sylvester developed toward the end of the fifth century in a romantic depiction of Sylvester's life which has survived as the

300: 2386:

Bryant, Joseph M. (1993). "The Sect-Church Dynamic and Christian Expansion in the Roman Empire: Persecution, Penitential Discipline, and Schism in Sociological Perspective".

694:

being persecuted by the pagans. Despite the polemic of Eusebius, Constantine's principal contribution to the downfall of the temples lay primarily in his neglect of them.

54:

characterizes the conversion of Constantine, and the Council of Nicea that Constantine called, as two of the most important things to ever happen to the Christian church.

181:

didn't. Even though Constantine was the son of the Western Augustus Constantius, Diocletian had made a "rule" in 305 that sons should not follow their fathers in power.

623:

hill in order to suppress Jewish-Christian veneration there. Constantine used that to justify the temple's destruction, saying he was simply 'reclaiming' the property.

2015:

Wiemer, Hans-Ulrich. "Libanius on Constantine". The Classical Quarterly, vol. 44, no. 2, 1994, pp. 511–524. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/639654. Accessed 23 June 2020.

288: 2100:

Ramskold, Lars, and Noel Lenski. Constantinople's dedication medallions and the maintenance of civic traditions. Österreichische Numismatische Gesellschaft, 2012.

832:

order and was also a specifically Roman response from the emperor's need to keep the pax deorum (‘the benevolence of gods’) – the peace between Heaven and earth.

194:

to dislodge Maxentius from Italy in early 307. Once Severus arrived in Italy, however, his army defected to Maxentius. Severus was captured and taken to the camp

2544: 2445:"There is No Crime for Those who Have Christ: Religious Violence in the Christian Roman Empire", Michael Gaddis, p55-56, University of California Press, 2005, 580:

also says Constantinople was "literally crammed with statuary gathered, in Jerome's words, by 'the virtual denuding' of every city in the East." According to

573: 534: 455: 249:, Maxentius' most senior general, was killed at Verona. "By October, Constantine was camped within sight of Rome, on the Tiber, near the Milvian Bridge." 291:, the day after the battle, Maxentius body was found and decapitated, and his head was paraded through the streets of Rome before being taken to Africa. 220: 145: 795:

Catholics wanted to wipe the slate clean and accommodate the new government. There were also different views of baptism and some other practices, but

435:

was aimed at including the Church in a broader policy of civic unity, even though his personal views undoubtedly favored one religion over the other.

626: 354: 112:

Brown says that the empire became more intrusive into the personal lives of its subjects as it also became more committed to an ideological stance.

687: 306:

Church historians writing after his death, Constantine had by then converted to Christianity, making him the first Christian Roman emperor. In his

252: 792:

back into church leadership positions, citing the need for ecclesiastical purity. This rejection extended to the traditores' descendants as well.

228:

sister's husband Licinius and their son, Constantine's nephew, his wife Fausta and her and Constantine's son Crispus, and a few other relatives."

128:

Persecution began with this leadership, forcing Christian bishops to participate in sacrifice to the traditional Roman gods or die. According to

2549: 576:, that pillaging was motivated more by a desire to supply his new capital with "imposing statuary" than it was by a desire to destroy paganism. 2119: 2079: 1739:

The Catholic Encyclopedia says there are no known contemporary documents that attest to an earlier intention to become a member of the Church.

442:

says the consensus of the sources is that Constantine had both his son and wife executed at his instigation. He also ordered the execution of

577: 342: 46:

with toleration, participation in resolving religious disputes such as schism with the Donatists, and the calling of councils including the

2356:

H. A. Drake, LAMBS INTO LIONS: EXPLAINING EARLY CHRISTIAN INTOLERANCE, Past & Present, Volume 153, Issue 1, November 1996, Pages 3–36,

1427:

Hoeber, Karl. "Valerius Maximianus Galerius." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. 22 Jul. 2020 <

72:

The Crisis of the Third Century (AD 235–284), was a period of heavy barbarian invasions and migrations into Roman territory. According to

844:, a 'catholic' Church geared to mass conversions and institutionally endowed with extensive powers of sacramental grace and redemption". 161:

back into church leadership positions. The Donatists would later become a thorn in Constantine's side which lasted throughout his reign.

525:

Although by this time Constantine openly supported Christianity, the city still offered room to pagan cults: there were shrines for the

799:

says Donatism was not an actual heresy with differences in important doctrine, instead, it was a schism over differences in practices.

2189:

Deichmann, F. W. 1975. Die Spolien in der spätantiken Architektur. Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Phil.-Hist. Kl. 6. München.

690:

writes that approximately 400 churches and chapels, along with over a hundred new synagogues, had been built in Palestine and Jordan.

349:(CPL 2235). Lenski says this story absolved the medieval church of a major embarrassment: Constantine's baptism by an Arian bishop, 402:. The Edict protected all faiths from religious persecution, and allowed anyone to worship whichever deity they chose. According to 2157:

Dagron, Gilbert. "Naissance d'une capitale: Constantinople et ses institutions de 330 à 451." Bibliothèque byzantine/Etudes (1974).

872:

indicates heresy was a higher priority than pagans for most Christians of the fourth and fifth centuries including Constantine.

735:

as illicit divination or magic and fear of the divine. Laws against the private practice of divination had been enacted in the

643: 122: 2539: 2517: 1576: 1559: 686:

undertook a trip to Palestine (326–328 AD), were only the beginning. By the end of the Byzantine period (235/325 - 614 AD),

592:

that Constantine looted the Temples in order to get their treasures to build Constantinople, not because of anti-paganism.

267:(a symbol of Christ) on his soldiers' shields. Eusebius, however, makes no mention of such a vision. Eusebius compares the 2274: 92:, a system with four men ruling jointly over an empire divided into two parts, East and West. Each part was headed by an 2430: 2045: 1455: 1093: 736: 611:(Jerusalem), destroying a temple there for the purpose of constructing a church. Christian historians had alleged that 2554: 2450: 2341: 2233: 2208: 2180:

MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianizing the Roman Empire: (A.D. 100–400). United Kingdom, Yale University Press, 1984.

1991: 1961: 1918: 1810: 1717: 1709: 1685: 1623: 1606: 1554:

Cowen, Ross (2016). Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's battle for Empire and Faith. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing.

1475: 1398: 1368: 1316: 1218: 1193: 1139: 1027: 1008:

KAYE, John. Some account of the Council of Nicæa in connexion with the life of Athanasius. United Kingdom, n.p, 1853.

88:

Diocletian took the reins and implemented reforms in 284. He restructured the Roman government by establishing the

2564: 796: 638:. The Christian cross on the chin and forehead was intended to "deconsecrate" a Holy pagan artifact. Found in the 157:, which originally referred to "handing over", but came to mean: traitors. Thereafter, Donatists refused to allow 2281:

quote: "he razed to their foundations those of them which had been the chief objects of superstitious reverence"

144:

Christian scriptures, so the soldiers were sent out to confiscate and burn them. This is what scholars such as

2487: 1530:

Coinage and History of the Roman Empire. United Kingdom, Taylor & Francis, 2016.Chapter 10

939:

Bradbury, Scott (April 1994). "Constantine and the problem of anti-pagan legislation in the fourth century".

1391:

Through the Eye of a Needle Wealth, the Fall of Rome, and the Making of Christianity in the West, 350-550 AD

263:

says Lactantius records that Constantine had a dream the night before battle where he was told to place the

677: 387: 268: 186:

wealthier East, to recognize Constantine's claim, but only partially. Galerius appointed his own supporter

2069:

Vanderspoel, John. "Correspondence and correspondents of Julius Julianus." Byzantion 69.2 (1999): 396-478.

242: 31: 2488:"Nicea and its aftermath: A Historical Survey of the First Ecumenical Council and the Ensuing Conflicts" 2166:

Trombley, F. R. 1995a. Hellenic Religion and Christianisation, c. 370-529. New York. I. 166-8, II. 335-6

1500: 714:

Other significant evidence fails to support Eusebius' claim of an end to sacrifice. Constantine, in his

323:

to the traditional gods," and Brown says "this is how his subjects came to realize he was a Christian."

896: 1489:

Timothy D. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1981)

2559: 884: 2271:

NPNF2-01. Eusebius Pamphilius: Church History, Life of Constantine, Oration in Praise of Constantine

2123: 2087: 190:

to the position of Augustus of the West, and proclaimed Constantine as Severus' subordinate Caesar.

889: 769: 39: 639: 73: 47: 256:

Triumph of Constantine over Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (tapestry) - 1623-1625

784:, but it came to mean "traitor". The North African Christians who were the rigorists known as 731:

Michelle Salzman says that, in the fourth century, there was a conceptual connection between

595:

According to Wiemer, Constantine destroyed some pagan sanctuaries, including the prestigious

438:

Some of Constantine's choices have not left historians with a simple reading of his beliefs.

350: 35: 1678:

The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine: Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World

1571:

Barnes, Timothy D. Constantine and Eusebius. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981.

1776:"Constantine and Christianity: The formation of church/state relations in the Roman Empire" 1775: 704: 507:

of the Roman empire were performed. Among the attendants were the Neoplatonist philosopher

399: 272: 1751: 1236:"Book Review of Jonathan Bardill, Constantine: Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age" 718:, never mentions any law against sacrifices. Errington says it is generally seen that the 8: 1913:

R. MacMullen, "Christianizing The Roman Empire A.D.100-400, Yale University Press, 1984,

439: 332: 246: 169: 2296:

Errington, R. Malcolm. "Constantine and the Pagans." Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies

2060:

Balzer, Mary. "Constantine’s Constantinople: A Christian Emperor, A Pagan City." (2013).

339:: "Him I call upon with bended knee, shunning all abominable blood and hateful odors ." 2403: 1884: 1876: 1289: 956: 869: 864: 216: 79: 51: 467: 2513: 2446: 2426: 2337: 2229: 2204: 2041: 1987: 1957: 1914: 1888: 1713: 1705: 1681: 1602: 1572: 1555: 1471: 1451: 1394: 1364: 1312: 1293: 1214: 1189: 1135: 1089: 1023: 960: 876: 744: 375: 219:

who had proclaimed himself emperor in AD 308. Maxentius sent his praetorian prefect

2228:(revised ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 49–54. 1934: 2395: 2248: 1868: 1501:"From Toleration to Repression: The Evolution of Constantine's Religious Policies*" 1281: 948: 683: 608: 581: 556: 407: 187: 129: 43: 164:

In 305, Diocletian decided to resign and he compelled Maximian to retire as well.

2278: 819: 600: 403: 182: 137: 1805: 916: 811: 756:

to practice their rituals in public. According to Kahlos, he still labeled it "

566: 487: 395: 328: 276: 260: 209: 97: 2269: 1730: 1285: 275:

since Maxentius and his soldiers "sank as lead into the mighty waters" as the

18: 2533: 2265: 1428: 1272:

Baynes, Norman H. (July–October 1924). "Two Notes on the Great Persecution".

584:, Constantine did this as an act of anti-paganism. However, Wiemer says that 198:

outside of Rome, where he either committed suicide, or was executed, in 307.

2226:

Authority and the Sacred: Aspects of the Christianisation of the Roman World

1186:

Defending Constantine The Twilight of an Empire and the Dawn of Christendom

900: 588:, the contemporary chronicler of Constantine, writes in a passage from his 514: 482: 1814: 2510:

The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition and Reform

757: 412: 100:. Diocletian ruled as head Augustus in the East, from AD 284–305, with 62: 2357: 1880: 895:

Constantine got news of the conflict sometime before his last war with

659: 635: 596: 500: 280: 2407: 1811:"The Edict of Milan, complete text in English (Constantine, 313 A.D.)" 2201:

Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, Vol.3

1086:

The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity, A.D. 200-1000

824: 807: 803: 631: 616: 550: 546: 336: 215:

Two claimants to the position of Augustus died in 310: The first was

89: 1872: 1645: 1361:

Donatist Martyr Stories The Church in Conflict in Roman North Africa

1235: 2399: 1423: 1421: 1419: 1020:

The Roman Empire in Late Antiquity A Political and Military History

952: 785: 753: 740: 726: 585: 526: 477: 391: 165: 149: 140:

says these edicts were enforced more in the East than in the West.

101: 93: 788:, continued to resent Roman government, and refused to accept the 1680:(illustrated, revised ed.). UK: Cambridge University Press. 620: 612: 542: 519: 508: 284:

trapped instead. Maxentius drowned when the pontoons came apart.

264: 30:

have been called "ambiguous and elusive." Born in 273 during the

1416: 1470:

Constantine and the Christian Empire. London: Routledge, 2004.

651: 538: 472: 443: 369: 301:

Christianization of the Roman Empire as diffusion of innovation

2268:(Editor) and McGiffert, Rev. Arthur Cushman, PhD (Translator) 572:

Constantine pillaged many pagan sanctuaries, but according to

537:

says there is good reason to believe the ancestral temples of

2423:

The world of late antiquity: From Marcus Aurelius to Muhammad

892:

who became the "champion of orthodoxy" in Alexander's place.

682:

and other churches built by Constantine after his mother the

530: 2294:

Errington, R. Malcolm (1988). "Constantine and the Pagans".

748:

threat of banishment and execution long before Constantine.

353:, which occurred while on campaign to Persia. According to 208:

Galerius nephew and Caesar was Maximinus II, also known as,

22:

Constantine the Great, a sculpture by Philip Jackson in York

2038:

Provincial Cilicia and the Archaeology of Temple Conversion

883:

While it is generally accepted that Arianism began in 318,

604: 462: 1982:

Lavan, Luke (2011). Lavan, Luke; Mulryan, Michael (eds.).

1954:

The Rise of Christianity A Sociologist Reconsiders History

888:

ridiculed them all. At the center of the controversy was

480:. The reverse describes Constantine as the "companion of 279:

says of Pharaoh. Bardill says the two armies met at the

2512:. Downer's Grove, In.: InterVarsity Press. p. 172. 1904:

J. Kirsch, "God Against the Gods", Viking Compass, 2004.

1859:

Drake, H. A. (March 1995). "Constantine and Consensus".

840:, (a sect of the holy and the elect), but was instead a 553:, with its ancient pagan temples, was left as it was. 2289: 2287: 1637: 607:

in Lebanon. He did 'confiscate' the military colony of

447:

contrasted with "the splendours of the home of truth".

1704:. London & New York: Routledge, 2004a. Hardcover 1646:"Maxentius' Head and the Rituals of Civil War (2015)" 1542:

Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology

549:

remained functioning in Constantinople as well. The

63:

Politics and persecution in Constantine's early years

2284: 859: 2381: 2379: 2377: 2375: 2373: 2371: 2369: 2367: 2365: 1854: 1852: 2192: 1850: 1848: 1846: 1844: 1842: 1840: 1838: 1836: 1834: 1832: 1601:(illustrated ed.). Harvard University Press. 1384: 1382: 1380: 978: 976: 974: 972: 970: 121:religious practices. Christianity had existed for 2176: 2174: 2172: 2138: 1544:. Vol. 1. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. 875:The worst of these heresies was the 56-year long 603:. Constantine is also said to have destroyed the 2531: 2362: 2199:Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). "11". 1211:Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376-568 986:2nd edition (Oxford, Blackwell Publishing, 2003) 727:Legislation against magic and private divination 1829: 1565: 1377: 1179: 1177: 1175: 1173: 1171: 1169: 1167: 967: 431:, Drake concludes that Constantine's religious 175: 2545:Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire 2258: 2169: 1731:"CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Constantine the Great" 1592: 1590: 1588: 1586: 1584: 1441: 1439: 1437: 1354: 1352: 1350: 1348: 1165: 1163: 1161: 1159: 1157: 1155: 1153: 1151: 1149: 1147: 1129: 1127: 1125: 2350: 2198: 1485: 1483: 1450:(Reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. 1346: 1344: 1342: 1340: 1338: 1336: 1334: 1332: 1330: 1328: 1267: 1265: 1123: 1121: 1119: 1117: 1115: 1113: 1111: 1109: 1107: 1105: 294: 2334:Religious Dissent in Late Antiquity, 350-450 1769: 1767: 1765: 1079: 1077: 1075: 1073: 1071: 1069: 1067: 1065: 1063: 1061: 1059: 370:Constantine's religious beliefs and policies 271:to the triumph of Moses over Pharaoh at the 1581: 1526: 1524: 1522: 1520: 1518: 1434: 1144: 1057: 1055: 1053: 1051: 1049: 1047: 1045: 1043: 1041: 1039: 28:Religious policies of Constantine the Great 2465: 2148:(New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) 2031: 2029: 2027: 2025: 2023: 2021: 1984:The Archaeology of Late Antique "paganism" 1492: 1480: 1429:http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06341a.htm 1407: 1325: 1300: 1262: 1202: 1102: 1004: 1002: 1000: 998: 996: 994: 992: 934: 932: 739:of AD 1-30 before the time of the emperor 615:(2nd century) had constructed a temple of 2414: 2327: 2325: 2323: 2321: 2319: 2293: 2217: 2011: 2009: 2007: 2005: 2003: 1945: 1928: 1926: 1762: 1671: 1669: 1667: 1540:Smith, William, ed. (1867). "Alexander". 1533: 168:was Diocletian's son-in-law; both he and 148:see as the cause of the Donatist schism. 2455: 1977: 1975: 1973: 1515: 1183: 1036: 1011: 938: 644:National Archaeological Museum in Athens 634:, 1st century AD copy of an original by 625: 555: 466: 463:Ban on new temples and pillaging the old 251: 78: 57: 17: 2035: 2018: 1900: 1898: 1596: 1208: 989: 929: 922: 518:, whereas these later coins showed the 2550:Constantine the Great and Christianity 2532: 2481: 2479: 2477: 2385: 2331: 2316: 2040:. UK: British Archaeological Reports. 2000: 1932: 1923: 1907: 1752:"Internet History Sourcebooks Project" 1675: 1664: 1643: 1621: 1498: 1445: 1358: 1306: 1271: 2507: 2501: 2420: 2223: 2144:Gerberding, R. and J. H. Moran Cruz, 1981: 1970: 1951: 1858: 1773: 1539: 1388: 1233: 1083: 1017: 319:He did all of this without according 308:Oration to the Assembly of the Saints 2358:https://doi.org/10.1093/past/153.1.3 1895: 782:one who hands over a physical object 697: 83:Roman Emperor Diocletian - panoramio 2485: 2474: 1780:Ilorin Journal of Religious Studies 13: 1599:The Later Roman Empire, AD 284-430 1088:(10th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. 619:on the site of the crucifixion on 390:, Constantine and his co-Augustus 14: 2576: 2425:. Thames and Hudson. p. 82. 860:Arianism and the Council of Nicea 716:Letter to the Eastern Provincials 476:issued 309/'10 by Constantine at 2388:The British Journal of Sociology 1359:Tilley, Maureen A., ed. (1996). 814:, giving the movement its name. 802:In 311, the bishop of Carthage, 560:Labarum of Constantine the Great 2439: 2306: 2253:Christianizing the Roman Empire 2242: 2183: 2160: 2151: 2112: 2103: 2094: 2072: 2063: 2054: 1941:, vol. I, Sheed & Ward 1798: 1774:Opoku, Francis (20 July 2015). 1744: 1723: 1694: 1615: 1548: 1464: 2255:, 1986, Yale University Press. 1956:. Princeton University Press. 1393:. Princeton University Press. 1363:. Liverpool University Press. 1234:Odahl, Dr. Charles M. (2013). 1227: 1213:. Cambridge University Press. 1022:. Cambridge University Press. 115: 38:was thirty at the time of the 1: 2540:Religion in the Roman Empire 703:Constantine I. According to 678:Church of the Holy Sepulcher 388:Battle of the Milvian Bridge 231: 176:Family that divides together 7: 2495:Ashland Theological Journal 2336:. Oxford University Press. 2332:Kahlos, Maijastina (2019). 1311:. Oxford University Press. 1184:Leithart, Peter J. (2010). 910: 763: 381: 347:Actus beati Sylvestri papai 67: 32:Crisis of the Third Century 10: 2581: 1644:Kristensen, Troels Myrup. 1622:Kristensen, Troels Myrup. 1505:Scripta Classica Israelica 1254:– via academia.edu. 780:the term originally meant 707:, in Book 2 of Eusebius' D 590:In Defense of the Temples, 423:— an 'outmoded illusion.' 298: 295:Conversion to Christianity 2203:. Yale University Press. 2036:Bayliss, Richard (2004). 1286:10.1017/S0009838800007102 429:Constantine and Consensus 245:, the praetorian prefect 2555:4th-century Christianity 2508:Olson, Roger E. (1999). 2264:Eusebius Pamphilius and 1597:Cameron, Averil (1993). 1499:Barnes, Timothy (2002). 770:Diocletianic persecution 675:The construction of the 2565:4th century in religion 1939:A History of the Church 1933:Hughes, Philip (1949), 1756:sourcebooks.fordham.edu 1702:The Emperor Constantine 1448:Constantine the Emperor 1309:Constantine the Emperor 1274:The Classical Quarterly 984:The Rise of Christendom 868:heterodoxy and heresy. 289:Troels Myrup Kristensen 2486:Ray, J. David (2007). 1952:Stark, Rodney (2020). 1652:. Franz Steiner Verlag 1633:. Stanford University. 1446:Potter, David (2015). 1307:Potter, David (2012). 1188:. InterVarsity Press. 647: 561: 495: 491: 257: 96:who had a subordinate 84: 23: 2421:Brown, Peter (1971). 2224:Brown, Peter (1997). 1676:Lenski, Noel (2012). 1389:Brown, Peter (2013). 1209:Halsall, Guy (2007). 1084:Brown, Peter (2013). 810:who was succeeded by 737:early imperial period 629: 559: 470: 351:Eusebius of Nicomedia 255: 217:Alexander of Carthage 82: 58:Historical background 50:concerning Arianism. 36:Constantine the Great 21: 2080:"Constantinople (1)" 1018:Elton, Hugh (2018). 923:Notes and references 705:R. Malcolm Errington 400:religious toleration 941:Classical Philology 605:Temple of Aphrodite 492:SOLI INVICTO COMITI 440:Johann Peter Kirsch 333:Arch of Constantine 247:Ruricius Pompeianus 2277:2018-04-17 at the 2109:MacMullan 1984:44. 1700:Pohlsander, Hans. 1624:"curriculum vitae" 870:Michele R. Salzman 709:e vita Constantini 648: 574:Hans-Ulrich Wiemer 562: 535:Hans-Ulrich Wiemer 496: 456:Hans-Ulrich Wiemer 258: 85: 24: 2519:978-0-8308-1505-0 2090:on 4 August 2008. 1735:www.newadvent.org 1631:Stanford Classics 1577:978-0-674-16531-1 1560:978-1-4728-1381-7 1240:The Ancient World 877:Arian controversy 745:Maijastina Kahlos 698:Ban on sacrifices 376:Peter J. Leithart 221:Rufius Volusianus 146:Maureen A. Tilley 48:Council of Nicaea 40:Great Persecution 2572: 2560:Christianization 2524: 2523: 2505: 2499: 2498: 2492: 2483: 2472: 2469: 2463: 2459: 2453: 2443: 2437: 2436: 2418: 2412: 2411: 2383: 2360: 2354: 2348: 2347: 2329: 2314: 2310: 2304: 2303: 2291: 2282: 2262: 2256: 2249:Ramsay MacMullen 2246: 2240: 2239: 2221: 2215: 2214: 2196: 2190: 2187: 2181: 2178: 2167: 2164: 2158: 2155: 2149: 2142: 2136: 2135: 2133: 2131: 2126:on 4 August 2008 2122:. Archived from 2120:"Constantinople" 2116: 2110: 2107: 2101: 2098: 2092: 2091: 2086:. Archived from 2076: 2070: 2067: 2061: 2058: 2052: 2051: 2033: 2016: 2013: 1998: 1997: 1979: 1968: 1967: 1949: 1943: 1942: 1930: 1921: 1911: 1905: 1902: 1893: 1892: 1856: 1827: 1826: 1824: 1822: 1813:. Archived from 1802: 1796: 1795: 1793: 1791: 1771: 1760: 1759: 1748: 1742: 1741: 1727: 1721: 1698: 1692: 1691: 1673: 1662: 1661: 1659: 1657: 1641: 1635: 1634: 1628: 1619: 1613: 1612: 1594: 1579: 1569: 1563: 1552: 1546: 1545: 1537: 1531: 1528: 1513: 1512: 1496: 1490: 1487: 1478: 1468: 1462: 1461: 1443: 1432: 1425: 1414: 1411: 1405: 1404: 1386: 1375: 1374: 1356: 1323: 1322: 1304: 1298: 1297: 1280:(3/4): 189–194. 1269: 1260: 1259: 1253: 1251: 1231: 1225: 1224: 1206: 1200: 1199: 1181: 1142: 1131: 1100: 1099: 1081: 1034: 1033: 1015: 1009: 1006: 987: 980: 965: 964: 936: 842:corpus permixtum 609:Aelia Capitolina 582:Ramsay MacMullen 408:Jacob Burckhardt 188:Valerius Severus 130:Norman H. Baynes 44:Roman polytheism 2580: 2579: 2575: 2574: 2573: 2571: 2570: 2569: 2530: 2529: 2528: 2527: 2520: 2506: 2502: 2490: 2484: 2475: 2470: 2466: 2460: 2456: 2444: 2440: 2433: 2419: 2415: 2384: 2363: 2355: 2351: 2344: 2330: 2317: 2311: 2307: 2292: 2285: 2279:Wayback Machine 2263: 2259: 2247: 2243: 2236: 2222: 2218: 2211: 2197: 2193: 2188: 2184: 2179: 2170: 2165: 2161: 2156: 2152: 2146:Medieval Worlds 2143: 2139: 2129: 2127: 2118: 2117: 2113: 2108: 2104: 2099: 2095: 2078: 2077: 2073: 2068: 2064: 2059: 2055: 2048: 2034: 2019: 2014: 2001: 1994: 1980: 1971: 1964: 1950: 1946: 1931: 1924: 1912: 1908: 1903: 1896: 1873:10.2307/3168653 1857: 1830: 1820: 1818: 1817:on 17 July 2007 1809: 1803: 1799: 1789: 1787: 1772: 1763: 1750: 1749: 1745: 1729: 1728: 1724: 1699: 1695: 1688: 1674: 1665: 1655: 1653: 1642: 1638: 1626: 1620: 1616: 1609: 1595: 1582: 1570: 1566: 1553: 1549: 1538: 1534: 1529: 1516: 1497: 1493: 1488: 1481: 1469: 1465: 1458: 1444: 1435: 1426: 1417: 1412: 1408: 1401: 1387: 1378: 1371: 1357: 1326: 1319: 1305: 1301: 1270: 1263: 1249: 1247: 1232: 1228: 1221: 1207: 1203: 1196: 1182: 1145: 1132: 1103: 1096: 1082: 1037: 1030: 1016: 1012: 1007: 990: 981: 968: 937: 930: 925: 913: 862: 820:Harold A. Drake 766: 729: 700: 640:Agora of Athens 601:Cilician Aegeae 465: 384: 372: 355:Hans Pohlsander 303: 297: 234: 178: 138:David M. Potter 118: 70: 65: 60: 12: 11: 5: 2578: 2568: 2567: 2562: 2557: 2552: 2547: 2542: 2526: 2525: 2518: 2500: 2473: 2464: 2454: 2438: 2432:978-0500320228 2431: 2413: 2400:10.2307/591221 2394:(2): 303–339. 2361: 2349: 2342: 2315: 2305: 2283: 2266:Schaff, Philip 2257: 2241: 2234: 2216: 2209: 2191: 2182: 2168: 2159: 2150: 2137: 2111: 2102: 2093: 2084:www.livius.org 2071: 2062: 2053: 2047:978-1841716343 2046: 2017: 1999: 1992: 1969: 1962: 1944: 1922: 1906: 1894: 1861:Church History 1828: 1806:Edict of Milan 1797: 1761: 1743: 1722: 1693: 1686: 1663: 1636: 1614: 1607: 1580: 1564: 1547: 1532: 1514: 1491: 1479: 1463: 1457:978-0190231620 1456: 1433: 1415: 1406: 1399: 1376: 1369: 1324: 1317: 1299: 1261: 1226: 1219: 1201: 1194: 1143: 1101: 1095:978-1118301265 1094: 1035: 1028: 1010: 988: 966: 953:10.1086/367402 947:(2): 120–139. 927: 926: 924: 921: 920: 919: 917:Serpent Column 912: 909: 885:William Telfer 861: 858: 765: 762: 728: 725: 699: 696: 688:Mark A. Meyers 684:empress Helena 567:Gilbert Dagron 464: 461: 398:which granted 396:Edict of Milan 386:Following the 383: 380: 371: 368: 329:Triumphal Arch 296: 293: 277:Book of Exodus 261:Averil Cameron 233: 230: 210:Maximinus Daia 177: 174: 123:over 250 years 117: 114: 69: 66: 64: 61: 59: 56: 34:(AD 235–284), 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2577: 2566: 2563: 2561: 2558: 2556: 2553: 2551: 2548: 2546: 2543: 2541: 2538: 2537: 2535: 2521: 2515: 2511: 2504: 2496: 2489: 2482: 2480: 2478: 2468: 2458: 2452: 2451:0-520-24104-5 2448: 2442: 2434: 2428: 2424: 2417: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2382: 2380: 2378: 2376: 2374: 2372: 2370: 2368: 2366: 2359: 2353: 2345: 2343:9780190067267 2339: 2335: 2328: 2326: 2324: 2322: 2320: 2309: 2302:(3): 309–318. 2301: 2297: 2290: 2288: 2280: 2276: 2273: 2272: 2267: 2261: 2254: 2250: 2245: 2237: 2235:9780521595575 2231: 2227: 2220: 2212: 2210:9780300174830 2206: 2202: 2195: 2186: 2177: 2175: 2173: 2163: 2154: 2147: 2141: 2125: 2121: 2115: 2106: 2097: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2075: 2066: 2057: 2049: 2043: 2039: 2032: 2030: 2028: 2026: 2024: 2022: 2012: 2010: 2008: 2006: 2004: 1995: 1993:9789004192379 1989: 1985: 1978: 1976: 1974: 1965: 1963:9780691214290 1959: 1955: 1948: 1940: 1936: 1929: 1927: 1920: 1919:0-300-03642-6 1916: 1910: 1901: 1899: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1855: 1853: 1851: 1849: 1847: 1845: 1843: 1841: 1839: 1837: 1835: 1833: 1816: 1812: 1807: 1801: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1770: 1768: 1766: 1757: 1753: 1747: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1726: 1719: 1718:0-415-31938-2 1715: 1711: 1710:0-415-31937-4 1707: 1703: 1697: 1689: 1687:9781107013407 1683: 1679: 1672: 1670: 1668: 1651: 1647: 1640: 1632: 1625: 1618: 1610: 1608:9780674511941 1604: 1600: 1593: 1591: 1589: 1587: 1585: 1578: 1574: 1568: 1561: 1557: 1551: 1543: 1536: 1527: 1525: 1523: 1521: 1519: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1495: 1486: 1484: 1477: 1476:0-415-17485-6 1473: 1467: 1459: 1453: 1449: 1442: 1440: 1438: 1430: 1424: 1422: 1420: 1410: 1402: 1400:9781400844531 1396: 1392: 1385: 1383: 1381: 1372: 1370:9780853239314 1366: 1362: 1355: 1353: 1351: 1349: 1347: 1345: 1343: 1341: 1339: 1337: 1335: 1333: 1331: 1329: 1320: 1318:9780199986026 1314: 1310: 1303: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1268: 1266: 1258: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1230: 1222: 1220:9780521434911 1216: 1212: 1205: 1197: 1195:9780830827220 1191: 1187: 1180: 1178: 1176: 1174: 1172: 1170: 1168: 1166: 1164: 1162: 1160: 1158: 1156: 1154: 1152: 1150: 1148: 1141: 1140:9780521764230 1137: 1130: 1128: 1126: 1124: 1122: 1120: 1118: 1116: 1114: 1112: 1110: 1108: 1106: 1097: 1091: 1087: 1080: 1078: 1076: 1074: 1072: 1070: 1068: 1066: 1064: 1062: 1060: 1058: 1056: 1054: 1052: 1050: 1048: 1046: 1044: 1042: 1040: 1031: 1029:9780521899314 1025: 1021: 1014: 1005: 1003: 1001: 999: 997: 995: 993: 985: 982:Peter Brown, 979: 977: 975: 973: 971: 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 942: 935: 933: 928: 918: 915: 914: 908: 904: 902: 898: 893: 891: 886: 881: 878: 873: 871: 866: 857: 853: 849: 845: 843: 839: 838:ecclesia pura 833: 829: 826: 821: 815: 813: 809: 805: 800: 798: 793: 791: 787: 783: 779: 773: 771: 761: 759: 755: 749: 746: 742: 738: 734: 724: 721: 717: 712: 710: 706: 695: 691: 689: 685: 681: 679: 673: 669: 666: 661: 655: 653: 645: 641: 637: 633: 628: 624: 622: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 593: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 570: 568: 558: 554: 552: 548: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 523: 521: 517: 516: 510: 506: 502: 493: 489: 485: 484: 479: 475: 474: 469: 460: 457: 452: 448: 445: 441: 436: 434: 430: 424: 422: 416: 414: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 379: 377: 367: 365: 359: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 338: 334: 330: 324: 322: 318: 312: 309: 302: 292: 290: 287:According to 285: 282: 278: 274: 270: 266: 262: 254: 250: 248: 244: 238: 229: 225: 222: 218: 213: 211: 206: 203: 199: 197: 196:Tres Tabernae 191: 189: 184: 173: 171: 170:Constantius I 167: 162: 160: 156: 151: 147: 141: 139: 133: 131: 126: 124: 113: 110: 106: 103: 99: 95: 91: 81: 77: 75: 55: 53: 49: 45: 41: 37: 33: 29: 20: 16: 2509: 2503: 2494: 2467: 2457: 2441: 2422: 2416: 2391: 2387: 2352: 2333: 2308: 2299: 2295: 2270: 2260: 2252: 2244: 2225: 2219: 2200: 2194: 2185: 2162: 2153: 2145: 2140: 2128:. Retrieved 2124:the original 2114: 2105: 2096: 2088:the original 2083: 2074: 2065: 2056: 2037: 1983: 1953: 1947: 1938: 1909: 1864: 1860: 1819:. Retrieved 1815:the original 1800: 1788:. Retrieved 1783: 1779: 1755: 1746: 1738: 1734: 1725: 1701: 1696: 1677: 1654:. Retrieved 1650:academia.edu 1649: 1639: 1630: 1617: 1598: 1567: 1550: 1541: 1535: 1508: 1504: 1494: 1466: 1447: 1409: 1390: 1360: 1308: 1302: 1277: 1273: 1255: 1248:. Retrieved 1243: 1239: 1229: 1210: 1204: 1185: 1085: 1019: 1013: 983: 944: 940: 905: 901:Nicene Creed 894: 882: 874: 863: 854: 850: 846: 841: 837: 834: 830: 816: 801: 797:Alan Cameron 794: 789: 781: 777: 774: 767: 750: 732: 730: 719: 715: 713: 708: 701: 692: 676: 674: 670: 665:desacralized 664: 656: 649: 594: 589: 571: 563: 524: 515:Sol Invictus 513: 504: 497: 483:Sol Invictus 481: 471: 453: 449: 437: 432: 428: 425: 420: 417: 385: 373: 364:Sol Invictus 363: 360: 346: 341: 325: 320: 316: 313: 307: 304: 286: 259: 239: 235: 226: 214: 207: 204: 200: 195: 192: 183:David Potter 179: 163: 158: 154: 142: 134: 127: 119: 111: 107: 86: 71: 27: 25: 15: 2130:13 December 1867:(1): 1–15. 778:traditores; 758:superstitio 578:Noel Lenski 421:superstitio 413:Reformation 404:H. A. Drake 394:issued the 343:Noel Lenski 116:Persecution 74:Peter Brown 2534:Categories 1712:Paperback 1511:: 189–207. 890:Athanasius 790:traditores 768:After the 754:haruspices 733:superstito 660:Prudentius 636:Praxiteles 501:Vicennalia 299:See also: 281:Saxa Rubra 159:traditores 155:traditores 1986:. Brill. 1889:163129848 1808:", 313CE. 1294:170641484 961:159997492 865:John Kaye 825:Miltiades 808:Majorinus 804:Mensurius 786:Donatists 632:Aphrodite 617:Aphrodite 597:Asclepias 551:Acropolis 547:Aphrodite 522:instead. 337:Shapur II 232:Civil War 150:Donatists 90:Tetrarchy 52:John Kaye 2275:Archived 1250:4 August 911:See also 897:Licinius 764:Donatism 741:Tiberius 720:Letter's 630:Head of 621:Golgotha 586:Libanius 527:Dioscuri 478:Lugdunum 392:Licinius 382:Paganism 331:and the 317:religio. 243:T.Barnes 166:Galerius 102:Maximian 94:Augustus 68:Politics 1881:3168653 1821:18 July 1790:26 July 1720:, 75–76 1656:23 July 812:Donatus 613:Hadrian 543:Artemis 520:labarum 509:Sopater 505:capital 321:religio 273:Rea Sea 265:chi-rho 2516: 2449: 2429: 2408:591221 2406: 2340: 2232: 2207: 2044: 1990: 1960: 1917: 1887: 1879: 1716: 1708: 1684: 1605: 1575: 1558: 1474: 1454: 1397: 1367: 1315: 1292: 1217: 1192: 1138: 1092: 1026: 959: 652:Mambre 539:Helios 473:Follis 444:eunuch 433:policy 269:battle 98:Caesar 2491:(PDF) 2462:2020. 2404:JSTOR 2313:2020. 1885:S2CID 1877:JSTOR 1627:(PDF) 1431:>. 1290:S2CID 957:S2CID 663:were 531:Tyche 488:Latin 311:315. 2514:ISBN 2447:ISBN 2427:ISBN 2338:ISBN 2230:ISBN 2205:ISBN 2132:2019 2042:ISBN 1988:ISBN 1958:ISBN 1915:ISBN 1823:2007 1792:2020 1714:ISBN 1706:ISBN 1682:ISBN 1658:2020 1603:ISBN 1573:ISBN 1556:ISBN 1472:ISBN 1452:ISBN 1395:ISBN 1365:ISBN 1313:ISBN 1252:2020 1215:ISBN 1190:ISBN 1136:ISBN 1090:ISBN 1024:ISBN 545:and 529:and 486:". ( 327:the 26:The 2396:doi 1935:"6" 1869:doi 1786:(1) 1282:doi 1246:(2) 949:doi 760:." 599:at 374:In 2536:: 2493:. 2476:^ 2402:. 2392:44 2390:. 2364:^ 2318:^ 2300:29 2298:. 2286:^ 2251:, 2171:^ 2082:. 2020:^ 2002:^ 1972:^ 1937:, 1925:^ 1897:^ 1883:. 1875:. 1865:64 1863:. 1831:^ 1782:. 1778:. 1764:^ 1754:. 1737:. 1733:. 1666:^ 1648:. 1629:. 1583:^ 1517:^ 1509:21 1507:. 1503:. 1482:^ 1436:^ 1418:^ 1379:^ 1327:^ 1288:. 1278:18 1276:. 1264:^ 1244:44 1242:. 1238:. 1146:^ 1104:^ 1038:^ 991:^ 969:^ 955:. 945:89 943:. 931:^ 642:. 541:, 533:. 490:: 2522:. 2497:. 2435:. 2410:. 2398:: 2346:. 2238:. 2213:. 2134:. 2050:. 1996:. 1966:. 1891:. 1871:: 1825:. 1804:" 1794:. 1784:5 1758:. 1690:. 1660:. 1611:. 1562:. 1460:. 1403:. 1373:. 1321:. 1296:. 1284:: 1223:. 1198:. 1098:. 1032:. 963:. 951:: 680:, 646:. 494:) 362:—

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.