Reinforcement - Knowledge

3059:'wanting' (Robinson and Berridge, 1993). But why one target becomes more 'wanted' than all others has not been fully explained. In addicts or agonist-stimulated patients, the repetition of dopamine-stimulation of incentive salience becomes attributed to particular individualized pursuits, such as taking the addictive drug or the particular compulsions. In Pavlovian reward situations, some cues for reward become more 'wanted' more than others as powerful motivational magnets, in ways that differ across individuals (Robinson et al., 2014b; Saunders and Robinson, 2013). ... However, hedonic effects might well change over time. As a drug was taken repeatedly, mesolimbic dopaminergic sensitization could consequently occur in susceptible individuals to amplify 'wanting' (Leyton and Vezina, 2013; Lodge and Grace, 2011; Wolf and Ferrario, 2010), even if opioid hedonic mechanisms underwent down-regulation due to continual drug stimulation, producing 'liking' tolerance. Incentive-sensitization would produce addiction, by selectively magnifying cue-triggered 'wanting' to take the drug again, and so powerfully cause motivation even if the drug became less pleasant (Robinson and Berridge, 1993). 1782:

the dominant person, punctuated by intermittent episodes of intense abuse. To maintain the upper hand, the victimizer manipulates the behavior of the victim and limits the victim's options so as to perpetuate the power imbalance. Any threat to the balance of dominance and submission may be met with an escalating cycle of punishment ranging from seething intimidation to intensely violent outbursts. The victimizer also isolates the victim from other sources of support, which reduces the likelihood of detection and intervention, impairs the victim's ability to receive countervailing self-referent feedback, and strengthens the sense of unilateral dependency ... The traumatic effects of these abusive relationships may include the impairment of the victim's capacity for accurate self-appraisal, leading to a sense of personal inadequacy and a subordinate sense of dependence upon the dominating person. Victims also may encounter a variety of unpleasant social and legal consequences of their emotional and behavioral affiliation with someone who perpetrated aggressive acts, even if they themselves were the recipients of the aggression.

1972:

several reward functions. ... Rewards are attractive. They are motivating and make us exert an effort. ... Rewards induce approach behavior, also called appetitive or preparatory behavior, and consummatory behavior. ... Thus any stimulus, object, event, activity, or situation that has the potential to make us approach and consume it is by definition a reward. ... Intrinsic rewards are activities that are pleasurable on their own and are undertaken for their own sake, without being the means for getting extrinsic rewards. ... Intrinsic rewards are genuine rewards in their own right, as they induce learning, approach, and pleasure, like perfectioning, playing, and enjoying the piano. Although they can serve to condition higher order rewards, they are not conditioned, higher order rewards, as attaining their reward properties does not require pairing with an unconditioned reward.

293:. Skinner defined reinforcers according to the change in response strength (response rate) rather than to more subjective criteria, such as what is pleasurable or valuable to someone. Accordingly, activities, foods or items considered pleasant or enjoyable may not necessarily be reinforcing (because they produce no increase in the response preceding them). Stimuli, settings, and activities only fit the definition of reinforcers if the behavior that immediately precedes the potential reinforcer increases in similar situations in the future; for example, a child who receives a cookie when he or she asks for one. If the frequency of "cookie-requesting behavior" increases, the cookie can be seen as reinforcing "cookie-requesting behavior". If however, "cookie-requesting behavior" does not increase the cookie cannot be considered reinforcing. 1752:

behavior. Hundreds of studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of praise in promoting positive behaviors, notably in the study of teacher and parent use of praise on child in promoting improved behavior and academic performance, but also in the study of work performance. Praise has also been demonstrated to reinforce positive behaviors in non-praised adjacent individuals (such as a classmate of the praise recipient) through vicarious reinforcement. Praise may be more or less effective in changing behavior depending on its form, content and delivery. In order for praise to effect positive behavior change, it must be contingent on the positive behavior (i.e., only administered after the targeted behavior is enacted), must specify the particulars of the behavior that is to be reinforced, and must be delivered sincerely and credibly.

266:

factor, be it pleasant or unpleasant, to the environment, whereas "negative" actions are those that remove or withhold from the environment a factor of either type. In turn, the strict sense of "reinforcement" refers only to reward-based conditioning; the introduction of unpleasant factors and the removal or withholding of pleasant factors are instead referred to as "punishment", which when used in its strict sense thus stands in contradistinction to "reinforcement". Thus, "positive reinforcement" refers to the addition of a pleasant factor, "positive punishment" refers to the addition of an unpleasant factor, "negative reinforcement" refers to the removal or withholding of an unpleasant factor, and "negative punishment" refers to the removal or withholding of a pleasant factor.

2042:

that define a state of addiction. ... A large body of literature has demonstrated that such ΔFosB induction in D1-type neurons increases an animal's sensitivity to drug as well as natural rewards and promotes drug self-administration, presumably through a process of positive reinforcement ... Another ΔFosB target is cFos: as ΔFosB accumulates with repeated drug exposure it represses c-Fos and contributes to the molecular switch whereby ΔFosB is selectively induced in the chronic drug-treated state.. ... Moreover, there is increasing evidence that, despite a range of genetic risks for addiction across the population, exposure to sufficiently high doses of a drug for long periods of time can transform someone who has relatively lower genetic loading into an addict.

1430:. Many different human individual and social situations can be created by superimposing simple reinforcement schedules. For example, a human being could have simultaneous tobacco and alcohol addictions. Even more complex situations can be created or simulated by superimposing two or more concurrent schedules. For example, a high school senior could have a choice between going to Stanford University or UCLA, and at the same time have the choice of going into the Army or the Air Force, and simultaneously the choice of taking a job with an internet company or a job with a software company. That is a reinforcement structure of three superimposed concurrent schedules of reinforcement. 3001:& Stacy, 2006; Hickey et al., 2010a; Piech et al., 2010; Anderson et al., 2011). The CS even takes on some incentive properties similar to its UCS. An attractive CS often elicits behavioral motivated approach, and sometimes an individual may even attempt to 'consume' the CS somewhat as its UCS (e.g., eat, drink, smoke, have sex with, take as drug). 'Wanting' of a CS can turn also turn the formerly neutral stimulus into an instrumental conditioned reinforcer, so that an individual will work to obtain the cue (however, there exist alternative psychological mechanisms for conditioned reinforcement too). 1682:

article, a few of the most salient are: availability of immediate reinforcement (e.g. the ever-present bag of dog yummies); contingency, assuring that reinforcement follows the desired behavior and not something else; the use of secondary reinforcement, as in sounding a clicker immediately after a desired response; shaping, as in gradually getting a dog to jump higher and higher; intermittent reinforcement, reducing the frequency of those yummies to induce persistent behavior without satiation; chaining, where a complex behavior is gradually put together.

1701:. Providing positive reinforcement in the classroom can be beneficial to student success. When applying positive reinforcement to students, it's crucial to make it individualized to that student's needs. This way, the student understands why they are receiving the praise, they can accept it, and eventually learn to continue the action that was earned by positive reinforcement. For example, using rewards or extra recess time might apply to some students more, whereas others might accept the enforcement by receiving stickers or check marks indicating praise. 1251: 2940:

specific case of drug , cues and contexts that are intimately and repeatedly associated with drug use will often themselves become reinforcing ... A fundamental piece of Robinson and Berridge's incentive-sensitization theory of addiction posits that the incentive value or attractive nature of such secondary reinforcement processes, in addition to the primary reinforcers themselves, may persist and even become sensitized over time in league with the development of drug addiction (Robinson and Berridge, 1993). ...

66:. For example, a rat can be trained to push a lever to receive food whenever a light is turned on. In this example, the light is the antecedent stimulus, the lever pushing is the operant behavior, and the food is the reinforcer. Likewise, a student that receives attention and praise when answering a teacher's question will be more likely to answer future questions in class. The teacher's question is the antecedent, the student's response is the behavior, and the praise and attention are the reinforcements. 1005: 1549: 40: 4796: 852:

While these primary reinforcers are fairly stable through life and across individuals, the reinforcing value of different primary reinforcers varies due to multiple factors (e.g., genetics, experience). Thus, one person may prefer one type of food while another avoids it. Or one person may eat much food while another eats very little. So even though food is a primary reinforcer for both individuals, the value of food as a reinforcer differs between them.

270:

subsuming both reward and punishment and "negative" as referring to the responding operant's evaluation of the factor being introduced. By contrast, technical parlance would use the term "negative reinforcement" to describe encouragement of a given behavior by creating a scenario in which an unpleasant factor is or will be present but engaging in the behavior results in either escaping from that factor or preventing its occurrence, as in

1722:

consumption is called "the price elasticity of demand." Certain commodities are more elastic than others; for example, a change in price of certain foods may have a large effect on the amount bought, while gasoline and other essentials may be less affected by price changes. In terms of operant analysis, such effects may be interpreted in terms of motivations of consumers and the relative value of the commodities as reinforcers.

1619:(i.e., it is "wanted" or "desired"), so as an addiction develops, deprivation of the drug leads to craving. In addition, stimuli associated with drug use – e.g., the sight of a syringe, and the location of use – become associated with the intense reinforcement induced by the drug. These previously neutral stimuli acquire several properties: their appearance can induce craving, and they can become 1305: 1697:

reward as part of an incentive system created collaboratively with the child). In addition, parents learn to select simple behaviors as an initial focus and reward each of the small steps that their child achieves towards reaching a larger goal (this concept is called "successive approximations"). They may also use indirect rewards such through

350:, in 1938, and elaborated this research in many subsequent publications. Notably Skinner argued that positive reinforcement is superior to punishment in shaping behavior. Though punishment may seem just the opposite of reinforcement, Skinner claimed that they differ immensely, saying that positive reinforcement results in lasting 1532:

first behavior in the chain), backwards chaining (starting from the last behavior) and total task chaining (teaching each behavior in the chain simultaneously). People's morning routines are a typical chain, with a series of behaviors (e.g. showering, drying off, getting dressed) occurring in sequence as a well learned habit.

1831:, since it appears to argue that response strength is increased by reinforcement, and defines reinforcement as something that increases response strength (i.e., response strength is increased by things that increase response strength). However, the correct usage of reinforcement is that something is a reinforcer 1737:

persistent lever-pulling behavior in gamblers. Because the machines are programmed to pay out less money than they take in, the persistent slot-machine user invariably loses in the long run. Slots machines, and thus variable ratio reinforcement, have often been blamed as a factor underlying gambling addiction.

1272:– A single schedule with two components where progress in one component affects progress in the other component. In an interlocking FR 60 FI 120-s schedule, for example, each response subtracts time from the interval component such that each response is "equal" to removing two seconds from the FI schedule. 1781:

The other source indicated that 'The necessary conditions for traumatic bonding are that one person must dominate the other and that the level of abuse chronically spikes and then subsides. The relationship is characterized by periods of permissive, compassionate, and even affectionate behavior from

1721:

Both psychologists and economists have become interested in applying operant concepts and findings to the behavior of humans in the marketplace. An example is the analysis of consumer demand, as indexed by the amount of a commodity that is purchased. In economics, the degree to which price influences

970:

Thus, artificial reinforcement can be used to build or develop generalizable skills, eventually transitioning to naturally occurring reinforcement to maintain or increase the behavior. Another example is a social situation that will generally result from a specific behavior once it has met a certain

926:

Noncontingent reinforcement refers to response-independent delivery of stimuli identified as reinforcers for some behaviors of that organism. However, this typically entails time-based delivery of stimuli identified as maintaining aberrant behavior, which decreases the rate of the target behavior. As

296:

The sole criterion that determines if a stimulus is reinforcing is the change in probability of a behavior after administration of that potential reinforcer. Other theories may focus on additional factors such as whether the person expected a behavior to produce a given outcome, but in the behavioral

3058:

An important goal in future for addiction neuroscience is to understand how intense motivation becomes narrowly focused on a particular target. Addiction has been suggested to be partly due to excessive incentive salience produced by sensitized or hyper-reactive dopamine systems that produce intense

2939:

An important dimension of reinforcement highly relevant to the addiction process (and particularly relapse) is secondary reinforcement (Stewart, 1992). Secondary reinforcers (in many cases also considered conditioned reinforcers) likely drive the majority of reinforcement processes in humans. In the

2097:

Addiction: A term used to indicate the most severe, chronic stage of substance-use disorder, in which there is a substantial loss of self-control, as indicated by compulsive drug taking despite the desire to stop taking the drug. In the DSM-5, the term addiction is synonymous with the classification

2094:

Substance-use disorder: A diagnostic term in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) referring to recurrent use of alcohol or other drugs that causes clinically and functionally significant impairment, such as health problems, disability, and failure to

1971:

Rewards in operant conditioning are positive reinforcers. ... Operant behavior gives a good definition for rewards. Anything that makes an individual come back for more is a positive reinforcer and therefore a reward. Although it provides a good definition, positive reinforcement is only one of

1814:

in the 2010s, some games offered "loot boxes" as rewards or purchasable by real-world funds that offered a random selection of in-game items, distributed by rarity. The practice has been tied to the same methods that slot machines and other gambling devices dole out rewards, as it follows a variable

1535:

Challenging behaviors seen in individuals with autism and other related disabilities have successfully managed and maintained in studies using a scheduled of chained reinforcements. Functional communication training is an intervention that often uses chained schedules of reinforcement to effectively

1493:

in 1961. Matching law is a rule for instrumental behavior which states that the relative rate of responding on a particular response alternative equals the relative rate of reinforcement for that response (rate of behavior = rate of reinforcement). Animals and humans have a tendency to prefer choice

1380:

and his colleagues (Skinner and Ferster, 1957). They demonstrated that reinforcers could be delivered on schedules, and further that organisms behaved differently under different schedules. Rather than a reinforcer, such as food or water, being delivered every time as a consequence of some behavior,

1369:

the person's spouse and a rip in the pants from the family dog jumping enthusiastically. Another example of superimposed schedules of reinforcement is a pigeon in an experimental cage pecking at a button. The pecks deliver a hopper of grain every 20th peck, and access to water after every 200 pecks.

1368:

refers to a structure of rewards where two or more simple schedules of reinforcement operate simultaneously. Reinforcers can be positive, negative, or both. An example is a person who comes home after a long day at work. The behavior of opening the front door is rewarded by a big kiss on the lips by

987:

Specific schedules of reinforcement reliably induce specific patterns of response, and these rules apply across many different species. The varying consistency and predictability of reinforcement is an important influence on how the different schedules operate. Many simple and complex schedules were

674:

was introduced by Skinner to indicate that in his experimental paradigm, the organism is free to operate on the environment. In this paradigm, the experimenter cannot trigger the desirable response; the experimenter waits for the response to occur (to be emitted by the organism) and then a potential

269:

This usage is at odds with some non-technical usages of the four term combinations, especially in the case of the term "negative reinforcement", which is often used to denote what technical parlance would describe as "positive punishment" in that the non-technical usage interprets "reinforcement" as

3000:

When a Pavlovian CS+ is attributed with incentive salience it not only triggers 'wanting' for its UCS, but often the cue itself becomes highly attractive – even to an irrational degree. This cue attraction is another signature feature of incentive salience. The CS becomes hard not to look at (Wiers

1839:

Increasingly, understanding of the role reinforcers play is moving away from a "strengthening" effect to a "signalling" effect. That is, the view that reinforcers increase responding because they signal the behaviors that are likely to result in reinforcement. While in most practical applications,

1696:

Providing positive reinforcement for appropriate child behaviors is a major focus of parent management training. Typically, parents learn to reward appropriate behavior through social rewards (such as praise, smiles, and hugs) as well as concrete rewards (such as stickers or points towards a larger

1473:

It is not necessary for responses on the two schedules to be physically distinct. In an alternate way of arranging concurrent schedules, introduced by Findley in 1958, both schedules are arranged on a single key or other response device, and the subject can respond on a second key to change between

1266:– A complex reinforcement procedure in which the participant is permitted to choose during the first link which of several simple reinforcement schedules will be in effect in the second link. Once a choice has been made, the rejected alternatives become unavailable until the start of the next trial. 979:

Behavior is not always reinforced every time it is emitted, and the pattern of reinforcement strongly affects how fast an operant response is learned, what its rate is at any given time, and how long it continues when reinforcement ceases. The simplest rules controlling reinforcement are continuous

851:

in order to function as a reinforcer and most likely has obtained this function through the evolution and its role in species' survival. Examples of primary reinforcers include food, water, and sex. Some primary reinforcers, such as certain drugs, may mimic the effects of other primary reinforcers.

748:

Extinction occurs when a given behavior is ignored (i.e. followed up with no consequence), where it will disappear over time if the behavior continuously receives no reinforcement. Behavior after extinction spikes first and then declines over time. Extinction does not have to be deliberate in order

2942:

Negative reinforcement is a special condition associated with a strengthening of behavioral responses that terminate some ongoing (presumably aversive) stimulus. In this case we can define a negative reinforcer as a motivational stimulus that strengthens such an "escape" response. Historically, in

2936:

Abused substances (ranging from alcohol to psychostimulants) are initially ingested at regular occasions according to their positive reinforcing properties. Importantly, repeated exposure to rewarding substances sets off a chain of secondary reinforcing events, whereby cues and contexts associated

1681:

Animal trainers and pet owners were applying the principles and practices of operant conditioning long before these ideas were named and studied, and animal training still provides one of the clearest and most convincing examples of operant control. Of the concepts and procedures described in this

904:

Reinforcement hierarchy is a list of actions, rank-ordering the most desirable to least desirable consequences that may serve as a reinforcer. A reinforcement hierarchy can be used to determine the relative frequency and desirability of different activities, and is often employed when applying the

265:

In the behavioral sciences, the terms "positive" and "negative" refer when used in their strict technical sense to the nature of the action performed by the conditioner rather than to the responding operant's evaluation of that action and its consequence(s). "Positive" actions are those that add a

2041:

Despite the importance of numerous psychosocial factors, at its core, drug addiction involves a biological process: the ability of repeated exposure to a drug of abuse to induce changes in a vulnerable brain that drive the compulsive seeking and taking of drugs, and loss of control over drug use,

1815:

rate schedule. While the general perception that loot boxes are a form of gambling, the practice is only classified as such in a few countries as gambling and otherwise legal. However, methods to use those items as virtual currency for online gambling or trading for real-world money has created a

1751:

The concept of praise as a means of behavioral reinforcement in humans is rooted in B.F. Skinner's model of operant conditioning. Through this lens, praise has been viewed as a means of positive reinforcement, wherein an observed behavior is made more likely to occur by contingently praising said

1512:

The intervention of shaping is used in many training situations, and also for individuals with autism as well as other developmental disabilities. When shaping is combined with other evidence-based practices such as Functional Communication Training (FCT), it can yield positive outcomes for human

1508:

Shaping is the reinforcement of successive approximations to a desired instrumental response. In training a rat to press a lever, for example, simply turning toward the lever is reinforced at first. Then, only turning and stepping toward it is reinforced. Eventually the rat will be reinforced for

1469:

is faced with two pecking keys; pecking responses can be made on either, and food reinforcement might follow a peck on either. The schedules of reinforcement arranged for pecks on the two keys can be different. They may be independent, or they may be linked so that behavior on one key affects the

1393:

In addition, ratio schedules can deliver reinforcement following fixed or variable number of behaviors by the individual organism. Likewise, interval schedules can deliver reinforcement following fixed or variable intervals of time following a single response by the organism. Individual behaviors

1531:

Chaining involves linking discrete behaviors together in a series, such that the consequence of each behavior is both the reinforcement for the previous behavior, and the antecedent stimulus for the next behavior. There are many ways to teach chaining, such as forward chaining (starting from the

870:

When trying to distinguish primary and secondary reinforcers in human examples, use the "caveman test." If the stimulus is something that a caveman would naturally find desirable (e.g. candy) then it is a primary reinforcer. If, on the other hand, the caveman would not react to it (e.g. a dollar

358:

positive reinforcement and punishment are equally effective in modifying behavior. Research on the effects of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment continue today as those concepts are fundamental to learning theory and apply to many practical applications of that theory.

952:

In 1970, Baer and Wolf developed the concept of "behavioral traps." A behavioral trap requires only a simple response to enter the trap, yet once entered, the trap cannot be resisted in creating general behavior change. It is the use of a behavioral trap that increases a person's repertoire, by

1410:

their fisheries or tear down their rainforests. Brechner created a situation where simple reinforcement schedules were superimposed upon each other. In other words, a single response or group of responses by an organism led to multiple consequences. Concurrent schedules of reinforcement can be

760:

Reinforcers serve to increase behaviors whereas punishers serve to decrease behaviors; thus, positive reinforcers are stimuli that the subject will work to attain, and negative reinforcers are stimuli that the subject will work to be rid of or to end. The table below illustrates the adding and

1835:

of its effect on behavior, and not the other way around. It becomes circular if one says that a particular stimulus strengthens behavior because it is a reinforcer, and does not explain why a stimulus is producing that effect on the behavior. Other definitions have been proposed, such as F.D.

1736:

As stated earlier in this article, a variable ratio schedule yields reinforcement after the emission of an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule typically generates rapid, persistent responding. Slot machines pay off on a variable ratio schedule, and they produce just this sort of

1516:

Shaping is also used for food refusal. Food refusal is when an individual has a partial or total aversion to food items. This can be as minimal as being a picky eater to so severe that it can affect an individual's health. Shaping has been used to have a high success rate for food acceptance.

357:

A great many researchers subsequently expanded our understanding of reinforcement and challenged some of Skinner's conclusions. For example, Azrin and Holz defined punishment as a “consequence of behavior that reduces the future probability of that behavior,” and some studies have shown that

1755:

Acknowledging the effect of praise as a positive reinforcement strategy, numerous behavioral and cognitive behavioral interventions have incorporated the use of praise in their protocols. The strategic use of praise is recognized as an evidence-based practice in both classroom management and

1840:

the effect of any given reinforcer will be the same regardless of whether the reinforcer is signalling or strengthening, this approach helps to explain a number of behavioral phenomena including patterns of responding on intermittent reinforcement schedules (fixed interval scallops) and the

1109:(DRO) – Also known as omission training procedures, an instrumental conditioning procedure in which a positive reinforcer is periodically delivered only if the participant does something other than the target response. An example would be reinforcing any hand action other than nose picking. 1509:

pressing the lever. The successful attainment of one behavior starts the shaping process for the next. As training progresses, the response becomes progressively more like the desired behavior, with each subsequent behavior becoming a closer approximation of the final behavior.

825:

Reinforcement in the business world is essential in driving productivity. Employees are constantly motivated by the ability to receive a positive stimulus, such as a promotion or a bonus. Employees are also driven by negative reinforcement, such as by eliminating unpleasant

1397:

If an organism is offered the opportunity to choose between or among two or more simple schedules of reinforcement at the same time, the reinforcement structure is called a "concurrent schedule of reinforcement". Brechner (1974, 1977) introduced the concept of superimposed

829:

Though negative reinforcement has a positive effect in the short term for a workplace (i.e. encourages a financially beneficial action), over-reliance on a negative reinforcement hinders the ability of workers to act in a creative, engaged way creating growth in the long

1102:

or, less commonly, providing contingent punishment, while simultaneously providing reinforcement contingent on a desirable response. An example would be a teacher attending to a student only when they raise their hand, while ignoring the student when he or she calls

1445:. Other examples of the use of superimposed schedules of reinforcement as an analytical tool are its application to the contingencies of rent control (Brechner, 2003) and problem of toxic waste dumping in the Los Angeles County storm drain system (Brechner, 2010). 1260:– A complex reinforcement procedure in which the participant can choose any one of two or more simple reinforcement schedules that are available simultaneously. Organisms are free to change back and forth between the response alternatives at any time. 1192:

Organisms whose schedules of reinforcement are "thinned" (that is, requiring more responses or a greater wait before reinforcement) may experience "ratio strain" if thinned too quickly. This produces behavior similar to that seen during extinction.

1178:

Fixed schedules produce "post-reinforcement pauses" (PRP), where responses will briefly cease immediately following reinforcement, though the pause is a function of the upcoming response requirement rather than the prior reinforcement.

944:

proposed classifying reinforcement into events that increase the frequency of an operant behavior as a natural consequence of the behavior itself, and events that affect frequency by their requirement of human mediation, such as in a

1457:, concurrent schedules of reinforcement are schedules of reinforcement that are simultaneously available to an animal subject or human participant, so that the subject or participant can respond on either schedule. For example, in a 1411:

thought of as "or" schedules, and superimposed schedules of reinforcement can be thought of as "and" schedules. Brechner and Linder (1981) and Brechner (1987) expanded the concept to describe how superimposed schedules and the

1756:

parenting training interventions, though praise is often subsumed in intervention research into a larger category of positive reinforcement, which includes strategies such as strategic attention and behavioral rewards.

1385:

may be required to peck a button switch ten times before food appears. This is a "ratio schedule". Also, a reinforcer could be delivered after an interval of time passed following a target behavior. An example is a

1477:

Concurrent schedules often induce rapid alternation between the keys. To prevent this, a "changeover delay" is commonly introduced: each schedule is inactivated for a brief period after the subject switches to it.

1796:

Most video games are designed around some type of compulsion loop, adding a type of positive reinforcement through a variable rate schedule to keep the player playing the game, though this can also lead to

1482: 1623:

of continued use. Thus, if an addicted individual encounters one of these drug cues, a craving for the associated drug may reappear. For example, anti-drug agencies previously used posters with images of

923:. Giving a dog a piece of food immediately after sitting is more contiguous with (and therefore more likely to reinforce) the behavior than a several minute delay in food delivery following the behavior. 821:

Some reinforcement can include both positive and negative features, such as a drug addict taking drugs for the added euphoria (positive reinforcement) and also to eliminate withdrawal symptoms (negative

2943:

relation to drug addiction, this phenomenon has been consistently observed in humans whereby drugs of abuse are self-administered to quench a motivational need in the state of withdrawal (Wikler, 1952).

815:

Distinguishing between positive and negative reinforcement can be difficult and may not always be necessary. Focusing on what is being removed or added and how it affects behavior can be more helpful.

1081:(FT) – Provides a reinforcing stimulus at a fixed time since the last reinforcement delivery, regardless of whether the subject has responded or not. In other words, it is a non-contingent schedule. 1394:

tend to generate response rates that differ based upon how the reinforcement schedule is created. Much subsequent research in many labs examined the effects on behaviors of scheduling reinforcers.

1234:– A complex schedule of reinforcement where two or more simple schedules are in effect independently of each other, and requirements on all of the simple schedules must be met for reinforcement. 1591:

Reinforcement and punishment are ubiquitous in human social interactions, and a great many applications of operant principles have been suggested and implemented. Following are a few examples.

1290:– completion of one schedule is reinforced according to a second schedule; e.g. in FR2 (FI10 secs), two successive fixed interval schedules require completion before a response is reinforced. 1221:

Compound schedules combine two or more different simple schedules in some way using the same reinforcer for the same behavior. There are many possibilities; among those most often used are:

1674: 1131:(DRH) – Used to increase high rates of responding. It is like an interval schedule, except that a minimum number of responses are required in the interval in order to receive reinforcement. 880:

A generalized reinforcer is a conditioned reinforcer that has obtained the reinforcing function by pairing with many other reinforcers and functions as a reinforcer under a wide-variety of

919:

Contiguous stimuli are stimuli closely associated by time and space with specific behaviors. They reduce the amount of time needed to learn a behavior while increasing its resistance to

1246:– Either of two, or more, schedules may occur with no stimulus indicating which is in force. Reinforcement is delivered if the response requirement is met while a schedule is in effect. 1185:

fixed interval scallop: the pattern of responding that develops with fixed interval reinforcement schedule, performance on a fixed interval reflects subject's accuracy in telling time.

3250:

Garland AF, Hawley KM, Brookman-Frazee L, Hurlburt MS (May 2008). "Identifying common elements of evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children's disruptive behavior problems".

1240:– Two or more schedules alternate over time, with a stimulus indicating which is in force. Reinforcement is delivered if the response requirement is met while a schedule is in effect. 1284:– Reinforcement occurs when two or more successive schedule requirements have been completed, with no stimulus indicating when a schedule has been completed and the next has started. 344:, known for his experiments with cats escaping from puzzle boxes. A number of others continued this research, notably B.F. Skinner, who published his seminal work on the topic in 1390:

that is given a food pellet immediately following the first response that occurs after two minutes has elapsed since the last lever press. This is called an "interval schedule".

890:

Socially-mediated reinforcement involves the delivery of reinforcement that requires the behavior of another organism. For example, another person is providing the reinforcement.

1182:

The PRP of a fixed interval schedule is frequently followed by a "scallop-shaped" accelerating rate of response, while fixed ratio schedules produce a more "angular" response.

4016:

Harter JK, Shmidt FL, Keyes CL (2002). "Well-Being in the Workplace and its Relationship to Business Outcomes: A Review of the Gallup Studies.". In Keyes CL, Haidt J (eds.).

131:– psychoactive substances that with repeated use are associated with significantly higher rates of substance use disorders, due in large part to the drug's effect on brain 1278:– Reinforcement occurs after two or more successive schedules have been completed, with a stimulus indicating when one schedule has been completed and the next has started 1199:

Ratio run: high and steady rate of responding that completes each ratio requirement. Usually higher ratio requirement causes longer post-reinforcement pauses to occur.

2756:"CORRIGENDUM to "Further Evaluations of Functional Communication Training and Chained Schedules of Reinforcement to Treat Multiple Functions of Challenging Behavior"" 2813:"Functional Communication Training and Chained Schedules of Reinforcement to Treat Challenging Behavior Maintained by Terminations of Activity Interruptions" 1125:(DRL) – Used to encourage low rates of responding. It is like an interval schedule, except that premature responses reset the time required between behavior. 2294:

Tucker M, Sigafoos J, Bushell H (October 1998). "Use of noncontingent reinforcement in the treatment of challenging behavior. A review and clinical guide".

4534: 4004: 3423:

Simonsen B, Fairbanks S, Briesch A, Myers D, Sugai G (2008). "Evidence-based Practices in Classroom Management: Considerations for Research to Practice".

3140:

Lozano Bleda JH, Pérez Nieto MA (November 2012). "Impulsivity, intelligence, and discriminating reinforcement contingencies in a fixed-ratio 3 schedule".

2337:

Droleskey RE, Andrews K, Chiarantini L, DeLoach JR (1992). "Use of fluorescent probes for describing the process of encapsulation by hypotonic dialysis".

737:, not negative reinforcement. The difference is that reinforcement always increases the likelihood of a behavior whereas punishment always decreases it. 3485:

Dutton; Painter (1981). "Traumatic Bonding: The development of emotional attachments in battered women and other relationships of intermittent abuse".

2937:

with drug use may themselves become reinforcing and thereby contribute to the continued use and possible abuse of the substance(s) of choice. ...

2712:

Turner, Virginia R; et al. (2020). "Response Shaping to Improve Food Acceptance for Children with Autism: Effects of Small and Large Food Sets".

1141:

Fixed ratio: activity slows after reinforcer is delivered, then response rates increase until the next reinforcer delivery (post-reinforcement pause).

871:

bill), it is a secondary reinforcer. As with primary reinforcers, an organism can experience satisfaction and deprivation with secondary reinforcers.

4554: 1008:

A chart demonstrating the different response rate of the four simple schedules of reinforcement, each hatch mark designates a reinforcer being given

2095:

meet major responsibilities at work, school, or home. Depending on the level of severity, this disorder is classified as mild, moderate, or severe.

3114:

Forgatch MS, Patterson GR (2010). Parent management training — Oregon model: An intervention for antisocial behavior in children and adolescents.

1228:– A type of compound schedule where two or more simple schedules are in effect and whichever schedule is completed first results in reinforcement. 1167:

The variable ratio schedule produces both the highest rate of responding and the greatest resistance to extinction (for example, the behavior of

1628:

as an attempt to show the dangers of drug use. However, such posters are no longer used because of the effects of incentive salience in causing

4045: 92:. The concept has been applied in a variety of practical areas, including parenting, coaching, therapy, self-help, education, and management. 927:

no measured behavior is identified as being strengthened, there is controversy surrounding the use of the term noncontingent "reinforcement".

81:, which involves taking away an undesirable stimulus. An example of negative reinforcement would be taking an aspirin to relieve a headache. 1513:

behavior. Shaping typically uses continuous reinforcement, but the response can later be shifted to an intermittent reinforcement schedule.

1489:

is found between relative response rates in the two schedules and the relative reinforcement rates they deliver; this was first observed by

908:

Contingent outcomes are more likely to reinforce behavior than non-contingent responses. Contingent outcomes are those directly linked to a

1474:

the schedules. In such a "Findley concurrent" procedure, a stimulus (e.g., the color of the main key) signals which schedule is in effect.

1087:(VT) – Provides reinforcement at an average variable time since last reinforcement, regardless of whether the subject has responded or not. 887:

In reinforcer sampling, a potentially reinforcing but unfamiliar stimulus is presented to an organism without regard to any prior behavior.

252: 3098:

Kazdin AE (2010). Problem-solving skills training and parent management training for oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder.

980:

reinforcement, where every response is reinforced, and extinction, where no response is reinforced. Between these extremes, more complex

59: 3523: 1022:– a schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of the instrumental response (desired response) is followed by the reinforcer. 2442:

Vollmer TR, Iwata BA (1992). "Differential reinforcement as treatment for behavior disorders: procedural and functional variations".

186:– dependence socially seen as being extremely mild compared to physical dependence (e.g., with enough willpower it could be overcome) 1580: 1157:

Ratio schedules produce higher rates of responding than interval schedules, when the rates of reinforcement are otherwise similar.

963:

Interrelated contingencies of reinforcement inside the trap motivate the person to acquire, extend, and maintain targeted skills.

709:

is presented as a consequence of a behavior and the chance that this behavior will manifest in similar environments increases.

142:– an adaptive state associated with a withdrawal syndrome upon cessation of repeated exposure to a stimulus (e.g., drug intake) 2504:

McSweeney FK, Murphy ES, Kowal BP (2001). "Dynamic changes in reinforcer value: Some misconceptions and why you should care".

867:

that functions as a reinforcer. This stimulus may be a primary reinforcer or another conditioned reinforcer (such as money).

3624: 3599: 3510: 3080: 2696: 2624: 2354: 4821:"Developing and Implementing a Positive Behavioral Reinforcement Intervention in Prison-Based Drug Treatment: Project BRITE" 3287:"Task clarification, performance feedback, and social praise: Procedures for improving the customer service of bank tellers" 3766: 1984:

Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).

1579:

There has been research on building a mathematical model of reinforcement. This model is known as MPR, which is short for

4747: 4219: 4076: 2904:

Edwards S (2016). "Reinforcement principles for addiction medicine; from recreational drug use to psychiatric disorder".

1196:

Ratio strain: the disruption of responding that occurs when a fixed ratio response requirement is increased too rapidly.

1026:

Simple schedules have a single rule to determine when a single type of reinforcer is delivered for a specific response.

4609: 63: 1433:

Superimposed schedules of reinforcement can create the three classic conflict situations (approach–approach conflict,

901:, which states that a highly preferred activity can be used effectively as a reinforcer for a less-preferred activity. 3930: 3909: 3888: 3778:

Brechner KC, Linder DE (1981). "A social trap analysis of energy distribution systems". In Baum A, Singer JE (eds.).

3469: 3196: 3130:

Domjan, M. (2009). The Principles of Learning and Behavior. Wadsworth Publishing Company. 6th Edition. pages 244–249.

2921: 2542: 1993: 1372:

Superimposed schedules of reinforcement are a type of compound schedule that evolved from the initial work on simple

1347: 953:

exposing them to the naturally occurring reinforcement of that behavior. Behavioral traps have four characteristics:

354:(long-term) whereas punishment changes behavior only temporarily (short-term) and has many detrimental side-effects. 313: 679:

paradigm, the experimenter triggers (elicits) the desirable response by presenting a reflex eliciting stimulus, the

289:

was a well-known and influential researcher who articulated many of the theoretical constructs of reinforcement and

220:– a condition in which the use of substances leads to clinically and functionally significant impairment or distress 4672: 4539: 3689:

McCormack J, Arnold-Saritepe A, Elliffe D (June 2017). "The differential outcomes effect in children with autism".

1889: 245: 2378:

Baer DM, Wolf MM. "The entry into natural communities of reinforcement". In Ulrich R, Stachnik T, Mabry J (eds.).

4752: 4742: 1879: 1716: 1434: 1207:

Ratio schedules are more resistant than interval schedules and variable schedules more resistant than fixed ones.

4774: 4008: 2811:

Falcomata, Terry S.; Roane, Henry S.; Muething, Colin S.; Stephenson, Kasey M.; Ing, Anna D. (9 February 2012).

1329: 28: 4375: 2240: 1458: 275: 1836:

Sheffield's "consummatory behavior contingent on a response", but these are not broadly used in psychology.

4886: 4604: 4589: 4577: 4517: 1841: 1119:

it by reinforcing an incompatible response. An example would be reinforcing clapping to reduce nose picking

966:

They can remain effective for long periods of time because the person shows few, if any, satiation effects.

912:

behavior, such a light turning on being contingent on flipping a switch. Note that contingent outcomes are

714: 43: 4136: 3538: 1204:

Partial reinforcement schedules are more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement schedules.

4202: 238: 62:

that increase the likelihood of an organism's future behavior, typically in the presence of a particular

17: 4637: 4172: 3559: 1691: 1399: 1373: 204:– stimuli that the brain interprets as intrinsically positive and desirable or as something to approach 4881: 4702: 4632: 4584: 4544: 4424: 4278: 3116: 3100: 2395:"Toward a technology of generalization: The identification of natural contingencies of reinforcement" 2242:

Well-Being in the Workplace and its Relationship to Business Outcomes: A Review of the Gallup Studies

2157: 1854: 1320: 346: 309: 4054: 4042: 1560: 1426:

Superimposed schedules of reinforcement have many real-world applications in addition to generating

1164:

than most fixed schedules. This is also known as the Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect (PREE).

1151:

Fixed interval: responding increases towards the end of the interval; poor resistance to extinction.

4385: 3727: 1874: 1648: 301: 182: 4687: 4677: 4655: 4069: 1869: 1811: 1775: 1161: 1145: 1116: 1099: 920: 694: 484: 402: 693:

is a basic term in operant conditioning. For the punishment aspect of operant conditioning, see

4707: 4527: 4494: 4419: 4414: 4207: 3212:

Baker GL, Barnes HJ (1992). "Superior vena cava syndrome: etiology, diagnosis, and treatment".

733:. Doing something unpleasant to people to prevent or remove a behavior from happening again is 676: 216: 1098:(DRA) - A conditioning procedure in which an undesired response is decreased by placing it on 4769: 4697: 4682: 4594: 4192: 3501: 2906:

Neuroscience for Addiction Medicine: From Prevention to Rehabilitation - Constructs and Drugs

1599:

Positive and negative reinforcement play central roles in the development and maintenance of

1381:

a reinforcer could be delivered after more than one instance of the behavior. For example, a

351: 89: 4891: 4692: 4549: 4360: 4237: 4214: 4156: 4131: 4093: 2123: 1798: 1710: 1503: 1454: 1442: 984:

specify the rules that determine how and when a response will be followed by a reinforcer.

881: 864: 848: 761:

subtracting of stimuli (pleasant or aversive) in relation to reinforcement vs. punishment.

388: 367: 325: 138: 85: 2962:"From prediction error to incentive salience: mesolimbic computation of reward motivation" 2616: 2608: 8: 4616: 4499: 4449: 4444: 4434: 4429: 4380: 4146: 1828: 1640: 1636: 329: 228:– the diminishing effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose 166: 3796:

Cowie S (2019). "Some weaknesses of a response-strength account of reinforcer effects".

2127: 916:

necessary to demonstrate reinforcement, but perceived contingency may increase learning.

154:– the escalating effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose 4896: 4853: 4820: 4799: 4762: 4737: 4727: 4522: 4459: 4439: 4141: 4062: 3987: 3962: 3877: 3851: 3826: 3813: 3666: 3641: 3440: 3402: 3394: 3359: 3311: 3286: 3185: 3165: 3153: 3044: 3019: 2986: 2961: 2848: 2793: 2737: 2640:

Ghaemmaghami, Mahshid; Hanley, Gregory P.; Jessel, Joshua; Landa, Robin (14 May 2018).

2584: 2559: 2419: 2394: 2319: 2080: 2055: 2027: 2010: 1957: 1932: 1625: 1616: 1250: 1016:– the reinforcement depends only on the number of responses the organism has performed. 317: 70: 4858: 4840: 4757: 4599: 4126: 4032: 3992: 3926: 3905: 3884: 3856: 3817: 3748: 3671: 3620: 3595: 3588: 3506: 3465: 3444: 3406: 3351: 3316: 3267: 3229: 3192: 3169: 3157: 3076: 3049: 2991: 2977: 2927: 2917: 2840: 2832: 2797: 2785: 2777: 2741: 2729: 2692: 2669: 2661: 2620: 2589: 2538: 2459: 2455: 2424: 2360: 2350: 2311: 2281: 2139: 2085: 2032: 1989: 1962: 1765: 1315: 894: 305: 146: 4037: 3363: 2852: 2323: 1583:. Peter Killeen has made key discoveries in the field with his research on pigeons. 960:

Only a low-effort response already in the repertoire is necessary to enter the trap.

4848: 4832: 4290: 4187: 4167: 4121: 3982: 3974: 3949: 3846: 3838: 3805: 3744: 3698: 3661: 3653: 3432: 3386: 3343: 3306: 3298: 3259: 3221: 3187:

History of behavior modification: Experimental foundations of contemporary research

3149: 3039: 3031: 2981: 2973: 2909: 2879: 2824: 2767: 2721: 2653: 2579: 2571: 2513: 2486: 2451: 2414: 2406: 2342: 2303: 2131: 2075: 2067: 2022: 1952: 1944: 957:

They are "baited" with desirable reinforcers that "lure" the student into the trap.

341: 175: 4819:

Burdon, William M.; St. De Lore, Jef; Prendergast, Michael L. (7 September 2011).

3809: 884:. (One example of this is money because it is paired with many other reinforcers). 863:, is a stimulus or situation that has acquired its function as a reinforcer after 4836: 4781: 4665: 4390: 4049: 3920: 3899: 3868: 3459: 3263: 3035: 2532: 1859: 1791: 1668: 1656: 1604: 1490: 941: 271: 158: 116: 2346: 2341:. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 326. pp. 73–80. 2172: 4647: 4475: 4179: 4116: 3347: 2913: 2725: 2190: 1948: 1771: 1698: 224: 195:– stimuli that increase the probability of repeating behaviors paired with them 120: 3334:

Goldman NC (1992). "Adenoid cystic carcinoma of the external auditory canal".

2883: 2812: 2307: 2135: 729:

Negative reinforcement increases the rate of a behavior to avoid or escape an

4875: 4844: 4660: 3978: 3842: 2836: 2828: 2781: 2772: 2755: 2665: 1899: 1894: 1816: 1608: 1210:

Momentary changes in reinforcement value lead to dynamic changes in behavior.

1091:

Simple schedules are utilized in many differential reinforcement procedures:

946: 898: 769: 706: 208: 199: 132: 3657: 3302: 3225: 3013: 3011: 3009: 2867: 1635:

In drug dependent individuals, negative reinforcement occurs when a drug is

1004: 304:

experimental results. Reinforcement is the central concept and procedure in

297:

theory, reinforcement is defined by an increased probability of a response.

212:– an amplified response to a stimulus resulting from repeated exposure to it 4862: 3872: 3860: 3675: 3320: 3271: 3161: 3053: 2995: 2955: 2953: 2951: 2931: 2844: 2789: 2733: 2673: 2593: 2428: 2143: 2089: 2036: 1966: 1918: 1864: 1827:

The standard definition of behavioral reinforcement has been criticized as

1486: 1377: 1172: 989: 818:

An event that punishes behavior for some may reinforce behavior for others.

286: 3996: 3827:"The etymology of basic concepts in the experimental analysis of behavior" 3355: 3233: 2463: 2364: 2315: 2280:

Miltenberger, R. G. "Behavioral Modification: Principles and Procedures".

2071: 1673: 1655:, restlessness, irritability, and anxiety) that arise during the state of 1154:

Variable interval: steady activity results, good resistance to extinction.

171: 3615:

Vaccarino FJ, Schiff BB, Glickman SE (1989). Mowrer RR, Klein SB (eds.).

3006: 1466: 1427: 1412: 1407: 1403: 718: 290: 51: 4020:. Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association. pp. 205–224. 2948: 1548: 1441:(1935) and can operationalize other Lewinian situations analyzed by his 39: 4732: 4572: 4409: 3436: 3398: 2410: 1919:

Definition of reinforcement from the American Psychological Association

1884: 1536:

promote the appropriate and desired functional communication response.

1438: 1361: 993: 340:

Laboratory research on reinforcement is usually dated from the work of

2641: 4101: 4089: 4084: 3953: 3702: 3564: 3543: 3117:

Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents (2nd ed.)

3101:

Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents (2nd ed.)

2657: 2575: 2517: 2490: 1652: 1600: 775: 730: 321: 127: 111: 3963:"Fixed and variable schedules of response-independent reinforcement" 3249: 2111: 1144:

Variable ratio: rapid, steady rate of responding; most resistant to

3390: 1986:

Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience

1805: 1731: 1526: 949:

where subjects are rewarded for certain behavior by the therapist.

4269: 3642:"Reinforcement: food signals the time and location of future food" 3252:

Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

2336: 2056:"Neurobiologic Advances from the Brain Disease Model of Addiction" 1160:

Variable schedules produce higher rates and greater resistance to

4243: 1988:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 364–375. 1629: 1168: 1135: 69:

Consequences that lead to appetitive behavior such as subjective

3782:. Vol. 3. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum & Associates. 3735:

Brechner KC (1977). "An experimental analysis of social traps".

2810: 1037:

th response. An FR 1 schedule is synonymous with a CRF schedule.

4331: 3758:

Social Traps, Individual Traps, and Theory in Social Psychology

3688: 1778:

creates powerful emotional bonds that are resistant to change.

1746: 1644: 1462: 1420: 1416: 1382: 909: 1685: 683:(UCS), which they pair (precede) with a neutral stimulus, the 4341: 4336: 4326: 4321: 4316: 4310: 4303: 4296: 4264: 4249: 3422: 2908:. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 223. pp. 63–76. 2899: 2897: 2895: 2893: 2639: 2382:. Vol. 2. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman. pp. 319–24. 1933:"Neuronal Reward and Decision Signals: From Theories to Data" 119:

disorder characterized by persistent use of drugs (including

4818: 2477:

Derenne A, Flannery KA (2007). "Within Session FR Pausing".

2339:

The Use of Resealed Erythrocytes as Carriers and Bioreactors

300:

The study of reinforcement has produced an enormous body of

4259: 4254: 3760:. Bulletin No. 870001. Pasadena, CA: Time River Laboratory. 3461:

Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents

2686: 1254:

Administrating two reinforcement schedules at the same time

3940:

Skinner BF (1956). "A case history in scientific method".

2890: 4284: 3284: 1387: 162:– symptoms that occur upon cessation of repeated drug use 3451: 2687:

Tarbox and Lanagan Bermudez, Jonathan and Taira (2017).

3614: 3139: 1725: 974: 931: 721:

treatment based on the idea of positive reinforcement.

3418: 3416: 3245: 3243: 2248:. Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association. 1774:

in which the intermittent reinforcement of reward and

1632:

upon sight of the stimuli illustrated in the posters.

2615:(2nd ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. pp. 2606: 2293: 2195:. New York: Meredith Publishing Company. p. 381. 4535:

Community reinforcement approach and family training

3285:

Crowell CR, Anderson DC, Abel DM, Sergio JP (1988).

2642:"Shaping complex functional communication responses" 2557: 2503: 834: 3639: 3413: 3240: 3017: 2192:

Operant Behavior: Areas of Research and Application

2158:

The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis

1983: 1115:(DRI) – Used to reduce a frequent behavior without 1113:

Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior

1033:(FR) – schedules deliver reinforcement after every 123:) despite substantial harm and adverse consequences 34:

Consequence affecting an organism's future behavior

4018:Flourishing: The Positive Person and the Good Life 3876: 3587: 3184: 2560:"On Choice, Preference, and Preference For Choice" 2171: 2053: 1770:Traumatic bonding occurs as the result of ongoing 1639:in order to alleviate or "escape" the symptoms of 1615:of drug use. The brain's reward system assigns it 1096:Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior 755: 4015: 3767:"Superimposed schedules applied to rent control." 3073:Carrots and sticks: principles of animal training 1977: 1437:, and avoidance–avoidance conflict) described by 897:is a special case of reinforcement elaborated by 4873: 3967:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 3901:A dynamic theory of personality: Selected papers 3831:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 3646:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 3619:. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 3590:Skinner for the classroom : selected papers 2054:Volkow ND, Koob GF, McLellan AT (January 2016). 1402:in an attempt to create a laboratory analogy of 2476: 2392: 2276: 2274: 2272: 2270: 2268: 2266: 2264: 1123:Differential reinforcement of low response rate 170:– dependence that involves persistent physical– 3867: 3777: 3070: 2558:Martin TL, Yu CT, Martin GL, Fazzio D (2006). 1325:convert Author (Year) citations to wiki style. 1136:Effects of different types of simple schedules 4070: 3505:. Jessica Kingsley Publishers; 15 June 2008. 3493: 3484: 3094: 3092: 2530: 2226:Learning Processes: Instrumental Conditioning 2213:. Albany: State University of New York Press. 2002: 809: 246: 73:(desire and pleasure) function as rewards or 3377:Brophy J (1981). "On praising effectively". 3370: 3327: 2441: 2261: 2047: 1107:Differential reinforcement of other behavior 874: 749:to have an effect on a subject's behavior. 3791:(5th ed.). Toronto: Thomson-Wadsworth. 3640:Cowie S, Davison M, Elliffe D (July 2011). 3457: 3211: 2691:. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 1–6. 2607:Schacter DL, Gilbert DT, Wegner DM (2011). 2223: 2217: 1686:Child behavior – parent management training 1594: 1485:, a quantitative relationship known as the 1264:Concurrent-chain schedule of reinforcement' 84:Reinforcement is an important component of 4077: 4063: 4033:An On-Line Positive Reinforcement Tutorial 3089: 2868:"Mathematical principles of reinforcement" 2008: 1620: 1470:likelihood of reinforcement on the other. 316:and is a core concept in some medical and 253: 239: 4852: 3986: 3850: 3737:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 3665: 3310: 3075:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3043: 2985: 2771: 2583: 2418: 2160:", 1938 New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts 2112:"Some Experiments on Animal Intelligence" 2109: 2079: 2026: 1956: 1415:analogy could be used to analyze the way 1348:Learn how and when to remove this message 1294: 724: 700: 3824: 3764: 3755: 3734: 3724:An experimental analysis of social traps 3721: 3018:Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML (May 2015). 2959: 2204: 2202: 2011:"Cellular basis of memory for addiction" 1672: 1612: 1581:mathematical principles of reinforcement 1249: 1003: 38: 3939: 3918: 3585: 3551: 3502:Counselling Survivors of Domestic Abuse 3333: 2903: 2865: 2258:Skinner, B.F. (1974). About Behaviorism 2169: 1930: 1819:market that is under legal evaluation. 1481:When both the concurrent schedules are 1448: 1366:superimposed schedules of reinforcement 1129:Differential reinforcement of high rate 1071:amount of time, but not always exactly 361: 174:withdrawal symptoms (e.g., fatigue and 14: 4874: 3960: 3786: 3769:. In Levine DK, Pesendorfer W (eds.). 3536: 3524:"Traumatic Bonding | Encyclopedia.com" 3376: 3182: 2714:Research in Developmental Disabilities 2711: 2444:Research in Developmental Disabilities 2238: 2232: 1924: 1539: 847:, is a stimulus that does not require 4058: 3925:. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. 3897: 3883:. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. 3798:European Journal of Behavior Analysis 3795: 2689:Treating Feeding Challenges in Autism 2208: 2199: 2188: 2163: 1216: 705:Positive reinforcement occurs when a 656: 654: 645: 643: 641: 607: 605: 603: 590: 588: 579: 577: 572: 570: 561: 515: 513: 495: 482: 480: 478: 476: 474: 465: 463: 461: 415: 413: 411: 400: 398: 396: 394: 392: 387: 385: 383: 381: 379: 377: 375: 4007:. University of Iowa. Archived from 3780:Advances in Environmental Psychology 3586:Skinner BF (1982). Epstein R (ed.). 3557: 3336:Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery 3291:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 3191:. Baltimore: University Park Press. 3108: 2966:The European Journal of Neuroscience 2646:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 2377: 2182: 1759: 1726:Gambling – variable ratio scheduling 1543: 1298: 975:Intermittent reinforcement schedules 932:Natural and artificial reinforcement 4748:Discrimination against drug addicts 3594:. Champaign, Ill.: Research Press. 3425:Education and Treatment of Children 1067:(VI) – reinforced on an average of 1047:th response, but not always on the 1043:(VR) – reinforced on average every 999: 938:Arbitrary and Natural Reinforcement 24: 4610:Tobacco cessation clinics in India 3714: 3154:10.5209/rev_sjop.2012.v15.n3.39384 3105:211–226. New York: Guilford Press. 2239:Harter JK (2002). Keyes CL (ed.). 2224:D'Amato MR (1969). Marx MH (ed.). 2015:Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 1662: 25: 4908: 4026: 4005:"Glossary of reinforcement terms" 3214:American Journal of Critical Care 3142:The Spanish Journal of Psychology 3121:159–78. New York: Guilford Press. 2534:Experimental Analysis of Behavior 2228:. Toronto: The Macmillan Company. 2178:. Toronto: The Macmillan Company. 2098:of severe substance-use disorder. 849:pairing with a different stimulus 835:Primary and secondary reinforcers 314:experimental analysis of behavior 276:learning to avoid electric shocks 103:Addiction and dependence glossary 4795: 4794: 4673:Low-threshold treatment programs 4540:Motivational enhancement therapy 3765:Brechner KC (28 February 2003). 2978:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2012.07990.x 2393:Kohler FW, Greenwood CR (1986). 1890:Reinforcement sensitivity theory 1621:conditioned positive reinforcers 1547: 1303: 988:investigated at great length by 675:reinforcer is delivered. In the 661:Behavior avoids noxious stimulus 4812: 4753:Dopamine dysregulation syndrome 4743:Category:Vaccines against drugs 3682: 3633: 3608: 3579: 3530: 3516: 3478: 3278: 3205: 3176: 3133: 3124: 3071:McGreevy PD, Boakes RA (2007). 3064: 3020:"Pleasure systems in the brain" 2859: 2804: 2748: 2705: 2680: 2633: 2600: 2551: 2524: 2497: 2470: 2435: 2386: 2371: 2330: 2287: 2252: 2060:New England Journal of Medicine 1921:Retrieved on January 30th, 2024 1880:Pavlovian-instrumental transfer 1717:Consumer demand tests (animals) 1586: 756:Reinforcement versus punishment 281: 3617:Contemporary learning theories 2866:Killeen PR (4 February 2010). 2531:Iversen IH, Lattal KA (1991). 2150: 2103: 1912: 1785: 1020:Continuous reinforcement (CRF) 731:aversive situation or stimulus 95: 29:Reinforcement (disambiguation) 13: 1: 4825:Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 4376:Adverse childhood experiences 3825:Dinsmoor JA (November 2004). 3810:10.1080/15021149.2019.1685247 3379:The Elementary School Journal 2872:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1906: 1822: 1677:A chicken riding a skateboard 1613:a primary positive reinforcer 1459:two-alternative forced choice 743: 4837:10.1080/02791072.2011.601990 4605:Nicotine replacement therapy 4590:Intensive outpatient program 4578:Residential treatment center 4518:Cognitive behavioral therapy 3749:10.1016/0022-1031(77)90054-3 3458:Weisz JR, Kazdin AE (2010). 3264:10.1097/CHI.0b013e31816765c2 3036:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018 2456:10.1016/0891-4222(92)90013-v 2009:Nestler EJ (December 2013). 1842:differential outcomes effect 1704: 715:high probability instruction 44:Operant conditioning chamber 7: 4203:Internet addiction disorder 2347:10.1007/978-1-4615-3030-5_9 1847: 1812:monetization of video games 1611:; that is, it functions as 1520: 1435:approach–avoidance conflict 1323:. The specific problem is: 707:desirable event or stimulus 274:experimente involving dogs 10: 4913: 4638:List of twelve-step groups 4038:Scholarpedia Reinforcement 3879:Schedules of reinforcement 3560:"Are loot boxes gambling?" 3558:Hood V (12 October 2017). 3537:Hopson J (27 April 2001). 3348:10.1177/019459989210600211 2960:Berridge KC (April 2012). 2914:10.1016/bs.pbr.2015.07.005 2726:10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103574 2564:The Behavior Analyst Today 2506:The Behavior Analyst Today 2479:The Behavior Analyst Today 2211:The Power of Reinforcement 1949:10.1152/physrev.00023.2014 1810:As part of a trend in the 1803: 1789: 1763: 1744: 1729: 1714: 1708: 1692:Parent management training 1689: 1666: 1524: 1501: 1497: 1400:schedules of reinforcement 1374:schedules of reinforcement 982:schedules of reinforcement 810:Further ideas and concepts 652:following correct behavior 595:Remove appetitive stimulus 568:following correct behavior 365: 335: 46:for reinforcement training 26: 4790: 4720: 4703:Supervised injection site 4646: 4633:Addiction recovery groups 4625: 4585:Heroin-assisted treatment 4563: 4545:Motivational interviewing 4508: 4487: 4474: 4399: 4368: 4359: 4228: 4155: 4109: 4100: 3922:The behavior of organisms 3904:. New York: McGraw-Hill. 2884:10.1017/S0140525X00033628 2380:Control of human behavior 2308:10.1177/01454455980224005 2136:10.1126/science.7.181.818 2110:Thorndike E (June 1898). 1855:Applied behavior analysis 1740: 875:Other reinforcement terms 635: 633: 631: 623: 619: 613: 555: 553: 551: 543: 541: 539: 531: 527: 521: 511: 507: 501: 455: 453: 451: 449: 447: 445: 437: 433: 431: 425: 423: 421: 347:The Behavior of Organisms 310:applied behavior analysis 234: 107: 102: 4386:Psychological dependence 4220:Digital media addictions 3979:10.1901/jeab.1968.11-405 3843:10.1901/jeab.2004.82-311 3771:Economic and Game Theory 3728:Arizona State University 3691:Behavioral Interventions 3539:"Behavioral Game Design" 2829:10.1177/0145445511433821 2773:10.1177/0145445520945810 2766:(1): 254. 24 July 2020. 1875:Overjustification effect 1649:psychological dependence 1595:Addiction and dependence 1057:(FI) – reinforced after 845:unconditioned reinforcer 183:psychological dependence 4688:Needle exchange program 4678:Managed alcohol program 4656:Category:Harm reduction 3961:Zeiler MD (July 1968). 3658:10.1901/jeab.2011.96-63 3303:10.1901/jaba.1988.21-65 3226:10.4037/ajcc1992.1.1.54 2537:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 1931:Schultz W (July 2015). 1870:Learned industriousness 1609:intrinsically rewarding 1607:. An addictive drug is 1041:Variable ratio schedule 865:pairing with a stimulus 800:Negative reinforcement 786:Positive reinforcement 695:punishment (psychology) 650:Remove noxious stimulus 566:Add appetitive stimulus 352:behavioral modification 4708:Tobacco harm reduction 4528:Contingency management 4495:Alcohol detoxification 4208:Internet sex addiction 4048:2 October 2011 at the 1678: 1406:, such as when humans 1295:Superimposed schedules 1288:Higher-order schedules 1270:Interlocking schedules 1255: 1226:Alternative schedules' 1009: 861:conditioned reinforcer 843:, sometimes called an 778:(unpleasant) stimulus 725:Negative reinforcement 701:Positive reinforcement 681:unconditional stimulus 677:classical conditioning 574:Negative reinforcement 563:Positive reinforcement 217:substance use disorder 79:negative reinforcement 75:positive reinforcement 71:"wanting" and "liking" 47: 4770:Motivational salience 4698:Stimulant maintenance 4683:Moderation Management 4595:Methadone maintenance 4043:scienceofbehavior.com 3942:American Psychologist 3789:Learning and Behavior 3183:Kazdin, Alan (1978). 2817:Behavior Modification 2760:Behavior Modification 2609:"Chapter 7: Learning" 2296:Behavior Modification 2072:10.1056/NEJMra1511480 1937:Physiological Reviews 1715:Further information: 1676: 1647:and sweating) and/or 1253: 1232:Conjunctive schedules 1007: 882:motivating operations 859:, sometimes called a 794:Removing/taking away 717:(HPI) treatment is a 320:models, particularly 90:behavior modification 52:behavioral psychology 42: 4693:Responsible drug use 4550:Motivational therapy 4215:Video game addiction 3756:Brechner KC (1987). 3722:Brechner KC (1974). 3499:Chrissie Sanderson. 2399:The Behavior Analyst 1799:video game addiction 1711:Behavioral economics 1504:Shaping (psychology) 1455:operant conditioning 1449:Concurrent schedules 1443:force field analysis 1330:improve this section 1319:to meet Knowledge's 1258:Concurrent schedules 857:secondary reinforcer 797:Negative punishment 789:Positive punishment 772:(pleasant) stimulus 685:conditional stimulus 672:operant conditioning 584:Add noxious stimulus 389:Operant conditioning 368:Operant conditioning 362:Operant conditioning 86:operant conditioning 27:For other uses, see 4887:Behavioral concepts 4617:Twelve-step program 4500:Drug detoxification 4381:Physical dependence 3919:Skinner BF (1938). 2170:Skinner BF (1948). 2128:1898Sci.....7..818T 1641:physical dependence 1540:Mathematical models 936:In his 1967 paper, 592:Negative punishment 581:Positive punishment 167:physical dependence 64:antecedent stimulus 4775:Incentive salience 4763:Inhibitory control 4738:Category:Addiction 4728:Addiction medicine 4523:Relapse prevention 4460:Tanning dependence 3464:. Guilford Press. 3437:10.1353/etc.0.0007 2411:10.1007/bf03391926 1679: 1626:drug paraphernalia 1617:incentive salience 1559:. You can help by 1483:variable intervals 1256: 1238:Multiple schedules 1217:Compound schedules 1010: 905:Premack principle. 841:primary reinforcer 783:Adding/presenting 597:following behavior 586:following behavior 318:psychopharmacology 147:drug sensitization 48: 4808: 4807: 4758:Cognitive control 4716: 4715: 4600:Smoking cessation 4555:Physical exercise 4470: 4469: 4456:Non-drug stimuli 4355: 4354: 4199:Internet-related 4011:on 13 April 2007. 3787:Chance P (2003). 3626:978-0-89859-915-2 3601:978-0-87822-261-2 3511:978-1-84642-811-1 3082:978-0-521-68691-4 2698:978-0-12-813563-1 2626:978-1-4292-3719-2 2356:978-1-4613-6321-7 2282:Thomson/Wadsworth 1766:Traumatic bonding 1760:Traumatic bonding 1637:self-administered 1577: 1576: 1358: 1357: 1350: 1321:quality standards 1312:This section may 1276:Chained schedules 1065:Variable interval 895:Premack principle 804: 803: 667: 666: 489:Decrease behavior 472:Increase behavior 306:special education 272:Martin Seligman’s 263: 262: 152:reverse tolerance 16:(Redirected from 4904: 4882:Behavior therapy 4867: 4866: 4856: 4816: 4798: 4797: 4485: 4484: 4366: 4365: 4291:G9a-like protein 4107: 4106: 4079: 4072: 4065: 4056: 4055: 4021: 4012: 4000: 3990: 3957: 3954:10.1037/h0047662 3936: 3915: 3898:Lewin K (1935). 3894: 3882: 3864: 3854: 3821: 3792: 3783: 3774: 3761: 3752: 3731: 3707: 3706: 3703:10.1002/bin.1489 3686: 3680: 3679: 3669: 3637: 3631: 3630: 3612: 3606: 3605: 3593: 3583: 3577: 3576: 3574: 3572: 3555: 3549: 3548: 3534: 3528: 3527: 3520: 3514: 3497: 3491: 3490: 3482: 3476: 3475: 3455: 3449: 3448: 3420: 3411: 3410: 3374: 3368: 3367: 3331: 3325: 3324: 3314: 3282: 3276: 3275: 3247: 3238: 3237: 3209: 3203: 3202: 3190: 3180: 3174: 3173: 3137: 3131: 3128: 3122: 3112: 3106: 3096: 3087: 3086: 3068: 3062: 3061: 3047: 3015: 3004: 3003: 2989: 2957: 2946: 2945: 2901: 2888: 2887: 2863: 2857: 2856: 2808: 2802: 2801: 2775: 2752: 2746: 2745: 2709: 2703: 2702: 2684: 2678: 2677: 2658:10.1002/jaba.468 2637: 2631: 2630: 2604: 2598: 2597: 2587: 2576:10.1037/h0100083 2555: 2549: 2548: 2528: 2522: 2521: 2518:10.1037/h0099952 2501: 2495: 2494: 2491:10.1037/h0100611 2474: 2468: 2467: 2439: 2433: 2432: 2422: 2390: 2384: 2383: 2375: 2369: 2368: 2334: 2328: 2327: 2291: 2285: 2278: 2259: 2256: 2250: 2249: 2247: 2236: 2230: 2229: 2221: 2215: 2214: 2209:Flora S (2004). 2206: 2197: 2196: 2189:Honig W (1966). 2186: 2180: 2179: 2177: 2167: 2161: 2156:Skinner, B. F. " 2154: 2148: 2147: 2107: 2101: 2100: 2083: 2051: 2045: 2044: 2030: 2006: 2000: 1999: 1981: 1975: 1974: 1960: 1928: 1922: 1916: 1572: 1569: 1551: 1544: 1353: 1346: 1342: 1339: 1333: 1307: 1306: 1299: 1282:Tandem schedules 1000:Simple schedules 764: 763: 658:Active avoidance 373: 372: 342:Edward Thorndike 255: 248: 241: 176:delirium tremens 100: 99: 77:. There is also 21: 4912: 4911: 4907: 4906: 4905: 4903: 4902: 4901: 4872: 4871: 4870: 4831:(sup1): 40–50. 4817: 4813: 4809: 4804: 4786: 4782:Sober companion 4712: 4666:Reagent testing 4642: 4621: 4565: 4559: 4510: 4504: 4479: 4477: 4466: 4395: 4351: 4238:Transcriptional 4230: 4224: 4151: 4137:Methylphenidate 4132:Methamphetamine 4096: 4083: 4050:Wayback Machine 4029: 4024: 4003: 3933: 3912: 3891: 3717: 3715:Further reading 3710: 3687: 3683: 3638: 3634: 3627: 3613: 3609: 3602: 3584: 3580: 3570: 3568: 3556: 3552: 3535: 3531: 3522: 3521: 3517: 3498: 3494: 3483: 3479: 3472: 3456: 3452: 3421: 3414: 3375: 3371: 3332: 3328: 3283: 3279: 3248: 3241: 3210: 3206: 3199: 3181: 3177: 3138: 3134: 3129: 3125: 3113: 3109: 3097: 3090: 3083: 3069: 3065: 3016: 3007: 2958: 2949: 2941: 2938: 2924: 2902: 2891: 2864: 2860: 2809: 2805: 2754: 2753: 2749: 2710: 2706: 2699: 2685: 2681: 2638: 2634: 2627: 2605: 2601: 2556: 2552: 2545: 2529: 2525: 2502: 2498: 2475: 2471: 2440: 2436: 2391: 2387: 2376: 2372: 2357: 2335: 2331: 2292: 2288: 2279: 2262: 2257: 2253: 2245: 2237: 2233: 2222: 2218: 2207: 2200: 2187: 2183: 2168: 2164: 2155: 2151: 2122:(181): 818–24. 2108: 2104: 2096: 2052: 2048: 2007: 2003: 1996: 1982: 1978: 1929: 1925: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1904: 1860:Behavioral cusp 1850: 1825: 1808: 1794: 1792:Compulsion loop 1788: 1772:cycles of abuse 1768: 1762: 1749: 1743: 1734: 1728: 1719: 1713: 1707: 1699:progress charts 1694: 1688: 1671: 1669:Animal training 1665: 1663:Animal training 1657:drug withdrawal 1605:drug dependence 1597: 1589: 1573: 1567: 1564: 1557:needs expansion 1542: 1529: 1523: 1506: 1500: 1491:R.J. Herrnstein 1451: 1354: 1343: 1337: 1334: 1327: 1308: 1304: 1297: 1244:Mixed schedules 1219: 1138: 1075:amount of time. 1061:amount of time. 1002: 977: 942:Charles Ferster 934: 877: 837: 822:reinforcement). 812: 806: 758: 752: 746: 740: 727: 712: 703: 668: 660: 651: 649: 596: 594: 585: 583: 567: 565: 488: 471: 370: 364: 338: 284: 259: 159:drug withdrawal 117:biopsychosocial 98: 35: 32: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4910: 4900: 4899: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4869: 4868: 4810: 4806: 4805: 4803: 4802: 4791: 4788: 4787: 4785: 4784: 4779: 4778: 4777: 4767: 4766: 4765: 4755: 4750: 4745: 4740: 4735: 4730: 4724: 4722: 4718: 4717: 4714: 4713: 4711: 4710: 4705: 4700: 4695: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4669: 4668: 4658: 4652: 4650: 4648:Harm reduction 4644: 4643: 4641: 4640: 4635: 4629: 4627: 4626:Support groups 4623: 4622: 4620: 4619: 4614: 4613: 4612: 4607: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4582: 4581: 4580: 4569: 4567: 4561: 4560: 4558: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4532: 4531: 4530: 4525: 4514: 4512: 4506: 4505: 4503: 4502: 4497: 4491: 4489: 4488:Detoxification 4482: 4472: 4471: 4468: 4467: 4465: 4464: 4463: 4462: 4454: 4453: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4425:Benzodiazepine 4422: 4417: 4412: 4403: 4401: 4397: 4396: 4394: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4372: 4370: 4363: 4357: 4356: 4353: 4352: 4350: 4349: 4348: 4347: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4329: 4324: 4319: 4314: 4307: 4300: 4293: 4288: 4275: 4274: 4273: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4257: 4252: 4247: 4234: 4232: 4226: 4225: 4223: 4222: 4217: 4212: 4211: 4210: 4205: 4197: 4196: 4195: 4190: 4182: 4180:Palatable food 4177: 4176: 4175: 4170: 4161: 4159: 4153: 4152: 4150: 4149: 4144: 4139: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4119: 4113: 4111: 4104: 4098: 4097: 4082: 4081: 4074: 4067: 4059: 4053: 4052: 4040: 4035: 4028: 4027:External links 4025: 4023: 4022: 4013: 4001: 3958: 3937: 3931: 3916: 3910: 3895: 3889: 3865: 3822: 3793: 3784: 3775: 3762: 3753: 3732: 3726:(PhD thesis). 3718: 3716: 3713: 3709: 3708: 3697:(4): 357–369. 3681: 3632: 3625: 3607: 3600: 3578: 3550: 3529: 3515: 3492: 3477: 3470: 3450: 3431:(1): 351–380. 3412: 3391:10.1086/461229 3385:(5): 269–278. 3369: 3326: 3277: 3239: 3204: 3197: 3175: 3132: 3123: 3107: 3088: 3081: 3063: 3005: 2972:(7): 1124–43. 2947: 2922: 2889: 2878:(1): 105–135. 2858: 2823:(5): 630–649. 2803: 2747: 2704: 2697: 2679: 2652:(3): 502–520. 2632: 2625: 2599: 2550: 2543: 2523: 2512:(4): 341–349. 2496: 2469: 2450:(4): 393–417. 2434: 2385: 2370: 2355: 2329: 2286: 2260: 2251: 2231: 2216: 2198: 2181: 2162: 2149: 2102: 2066:(4): 363–371. 2046: 2021:(4): 431–443. 2001: 1994: 1976: 1943:(3): 853–951. 1923: 1910: 1908: 1905: 1903: 1902: 1897: 1892: 1887: 1882: 1877: 1872: 1867: 1862: 1857: 1851: 1849: 1846: 1824: 1821: 1804:Main article: 1790:Main article: 1787: 1784: 1764:Main article: 1761: 1758: 1745:Main article: 1742: 1739: 1730:Main article: 1727: 1724: 1709:Main article: 1706: 1703: 1690:Main article: 1687: 1684: 1667:Main article: 1664: 1661: 1596: 1593: 1588: 1585: 1575: 1574: 1554: 1552: 1541: 1538: 1525:Main article: 1522: 1519: 1502:Main article: 1499: 1496: 1494:in schedules. 1450: 1447: 1419:flows through 1356: 1355: 1311: 1309: 1302: 1296: 1293: 1292: 1291: 1285: 1279: 1273: 1267: 1261: 1247: 1241: 1235: 1229: 1218: 1215: 1214: 1213: 1212: 1211: 1208: 1202: 1201: 1200: 1197: 1190: 1189: 1188: 1187: 1186: 1176: 1165: 1158: 1155: 1152: 1149: 1142: 1137: 1134: 1133: 1132: 1126: 1120: 1110: 1104: 1089: 1088: 1082: 1076: 1062: 1055:Fixed interval 1052: 1038: 1024: 1023: 1017: 1014:Ratio schedule 1001: 998: 976: 973: 968: 967: 964: 961: 958: 933: 930: 929: 928: 924: 917: 906: 902: 891: 888: 885: 876: 873: 836: 833: 832: 831: 827: 823: 819: 816: 811: 808: 802: 801: 798: 795: 791: 790: 787: 784: 780: 779: 773: 767: 757: 754: 745: 742: 726: 723: 702: 699: 665: 663: 662: 655: 653: 644: 642: 639: 638: 636: 634: 632: 630: 628: 625: 624: 622: 620: 618: 616: 614: 612: 610: 608: 606: 604: 601: 599: 598: 589: 587: 578: 576: 571: 569: 559: 558: 556: 554: 552: 550: 548: 546: 544: 542: 540: 538: 536: 533: 532: 530: 528: 526: 524: 522: 520: 518: 516: 514: 512: 510: 508: 506: 504: 502: 500: 498: 496: 493: 491: 490: 481: 479: 477: 475: 473: 464: 462: 459: 458: 456: 454: 452: 450: 448: 446: 444: 442: 439: 438: 436: 434: 432: 430: 428: 426: 424: 422: 420: 418: 416: 414: 412: 409: 407: 406: 399: 397: 395: 393: 391: 386: 384: 382: 380: 378: 376: 371: 366:Main article: 363: 360: 337: 334: 283: 280: 261: 260: 258: 257: 250: 243: 235: 232: 231: 230: 229: 221: 213: 205: 196: 187: 179: 163: 155: 143: 135: 133:reward systems 128:addictive drug 124: 105: 104: 97: 94: 33: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4909: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4879: 4877: 4864: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4815: 4811: 4801: 4793: 4792: 4789: 4783: 4780: 4776: 4773: 4772: 4771: 4768: 4764: 4761: 4760: 4759: 4756: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4725: 4723: 4719: 4709: 4706: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4691: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4671: 4667: 4664: 4663: 4662: 4661:Drug checking 4659: 4657: 4654: 4653: 4651: 4649: 4645: 4639: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4630: 4628: 4624: 4618: 4615: 4611: 4608: 4606: 4603: 4602: 4601: 4598: 4596: 4593: 4591: 4588: 4586: 4583: 4579: 4576: 4575: 4574: 4571: 4570: 4568: 4562: 4556: 4553: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4543: 4541: 4538: 4536: 4533: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4520: 4519: 4516: 4515: 4513: 4507: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4492: 4490: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4473: 4461: 4458: 4457: 4455: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4407: 4405: 4404: 4402: 4398: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4373: 4371: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4358: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4328: 4325: 4323: 4320: 4318: 4315: 4313: 4312: 4308: 4306: 4305: 4301: 4299: 4298: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4286: 4282: 4281: 4280: 4277: 4276: 4271: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4245: 4241: 4240: 4239: 4236: 4235: 4233: 4227: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4209: 4206: 4204: 4201: 4200: 4198: 4194: 4191: 4189: 4186: 4185: 4183: 4181: 4178: 4174: 4171: 4169: 4166: 4165: 4163: 4162: 4160: 4158: 4154: 4148: 4145: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4135: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4118: 4115: 4114: 4112: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4086:Reinforcement 4080: 4075: 4073: 4068: 4066: 4061: 4060: 4057: 4051: 4047: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4034: 4031: 4030: 4019: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3989: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3973:(4): 405–14. 3972: 3968: 3964: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3948:(5): 221–33. 3947: 3943: 3938: 3934: 3932:9780996453905 3928: 3924: 3923: 3917: 3913: 3911:9781447497134 3907: 3903: 3902: 3896: 3892: 3890:0-13-792309-0 3886: 3881: 3880: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3853: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3794: 3790: 3785: 3781: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3763: 3759: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3743:(6): 552–64. 3742: 3738: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3720: 3719: 3712: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3685: 3677: 3673: 3668: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3636: 3628: 3622: 3618: 3611: 3603: 3597: 3592: 3591: 3582: 3567: 3566: 3561: 3554: 3546: 3545: 3540: 3533: 3525: 3519: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3503: 3496: 3488: 3481: 3473: 3471:9781606235256 3467: 3463: 3462: 3454: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3419: 3417: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3373: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3330: 3322: 3318: 3313: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3281: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3258:(5): 505–14. 3257: 3253: 3246: 3244: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3208: 3200: 3198:9780839112051 3194: 3189: 3188: 3179: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3136: 3127: 3120: 3118: 3111: 3104: 3102: 3095: 3093: 3084: 3078: 3074: 3067: 3060: 3055: 3051: 3046: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3030:(3): 646–64. 3029: 3025: 3021: 3014: 3012: 3010: 3002: 2997: 2993: 2988: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2956: 2954: 2952: 2944: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2923:9780444635457 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2900: 2898: 2896: 2894: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2862: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2807: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2774: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2751: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2708: 2700: 2694: 2690: 2683: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2636: 2628: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2603: 2595: 2591: 2586: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2570:(2): 234–48. 2569: 2565: 2561: 2554: 2546: 2544:9781483291260 2540: 2536: 2535: 2527: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2500: 2492: 2488: 2485:(2): 175–86. 2484: 2480: 2473: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2438: 2430: 2426: 2421: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2389: 2381: 2374: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2333: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2302:(4): 529–47. 2301: 2297: 2290: 2283: 2277: 2275: 2273: 2271: 2269: 2267: 2265: 2255: 2244: 2243: 2235: 2227: 2220: 2212: 2205: 2203: 2194: 2193: 2185: 2176: 2175: 2166: 2159: 2153: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2106: 2099: 2091: 2087: 2082: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2050: 2043: 2038: 2034: 2029: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2005: 1997: 1995:9780071481274 1991: 1987: 1980: 1973: 1968: 1964: 1959: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1927: 1920: 1915: 1911: 1901: 1900:Token economy 1898: 1896: 1895:Reward system 1893: 1891: 1888: 1886: 1883: 1881: 1878: 1876: 1873: 1871: 1868: 1866: 1863: 1861: 1858: 1856: 1853: 1852: 1845: 1843: 1837: 1834: 1830: 1820: 1818: 1817:skin gambling 1813: 1807: 1802: 1800: 1793: 1783: 1779: 1777: 1773: 1767: 1757: 1753: 1748: 1738: 1733: 1723: 1718: 1712: 1702: 1700: 1693: 1683: 1675: 1670: 1660: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1633: 1631: 1627: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1592: 1584: 1582: 1571: 1568:February 2024 1562: 1558: 1555:This section 1553: 1550: 1546: 1545: 1537: 1533: 1528: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1505: 1495: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1446: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1431: 1429: 1424: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1395: 1391: 1389: 1384: 1379: 1375: 1370: 1367: 1363: 1352: 1349: 1341: 1331: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1317: 1310: 1301: 1300: 1289: 1286: 1283: 1280: 1277: 1274: 1271: 1268: 1265: 1262: 1259: 1252: 1248: 1245: 1242: 1239: 1236: 1233: 1230: 1227: 1224: 1223: 1222: 1209: 1206: 1205: 1203: 1198: 1195: 1194: 1191: 1184: 1183: 1181: 1180: 1177: 1174: 1173:slot machines 1170: 1166: 1163: 1159: 1156: 1153: 1150: 1147: 1143: 1140: 1139: 1130: 1127: 1124: 1121: 1118: 1114: 1111: 1108: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1094: 1093: 1092: 1086: 1085:Variable time 1083: 1080: 1077: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1063: 1060: 1056: 1053: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1039: 1036: 1032: 1029: 1028: 1027: 1021: 1018: 1015: 1012: 1011: 1006: 997: 995: 991: 985: 983: 972: 965: 962: 959: 956: 955: 954: 950: 948: 947:token economy 943: 939: 925: 922: 918: 915: 911: 907: 903: 900: 899:David Premack 896: 892: 889: 886: 883: 879: 878: 872: 868: 866: 862: 858: 853: 850: 846: 842: 828: 824: 820: 817: 814: 813: 807: 799: 796: 793: 792: 788: 785: 782: 781: 777: 774: 771: 768: 766: 765: 762: 753: 750: 741: 738: 736: 732: 722: 720: 716: 710: 708: 698: 696: 692: 691:Reinforcement 688: 686: 682: 678: 673: 664: 659: 648: 640: 637: 629: 627: 626: 621: 617: 615: 611: 609: 602: 600: 593: 582: 575: 564: 560: 557: 549: 547: 545: 537: 535: 534: 529: 525: 523: 519: 517: 509: 505: 503: 499: 497: 494: 492: 487: 486: 470: 469: 468:Reinforcement 460: 457: 443: 441: 440: 435: 429: 427: 419: 417: 410: 408: 405: 404: 390: 374: 369: 359: 355: 353: 349: 348: 343: 333: 331: 327: 323: 319: 315: 311: 307: 303: 298: 294: 292: 288: 279: 277: 273: 267: 256: 251: 249: 244: 242: 237: 236: 233: 227: 226: 222: 219: 218: 214: 211: 210: 209:sensitization 206: 203: 201: 197: 194: 192: 188: 185: 184: 180: 177: 173: 169: 168: 164: 161: 160: 156: 153: 149: 148: 144: 141: 140: 136: 134: 130: 129: 125: 122: 118: 114: 113: 109: 108: 106: 101: 93: 91: 87: 82: 80: 76: 72: 67: 65: 61: 57: 56:reinforcement 53: 45: 41: 37: 30: 19: 4828: 4824: 4814: 4309: 4302: 4295: 4283: 4242: 4184:Sex-related 4085: 4017: 4009:the original 3970: 3966: 3945: 3941: 3921: 3900: 3878: 3837:(3): 311–6. 3834: 3830: 3801: 3797: 3788: 3779: 3770: 3757: 3740: 3736: 3723: 3711: 3694: 3690: 3684: 3652:(1): 63–86. 3649: 3645: 3635: 3616: 3610: 3589: 3581: 3569:. Retrieved 3563: 3553: 3542: 3532: 3518: 3500: 3495: 3486: 3480: 3460: 3453: 3428: 3424: 3382: 3378: 3372: 3342:(2): 214–5. 3339: 3335: 3329: 3297:(1): 65–71. 3294: 3290: 3280: 3255: 3251: 3220:(1): 54–64. 3217: 3213: 3207: 3186: 3178: 3148:(3): 922–9. 3145: 3141: 3135: 3126: 3115: 3110: 3099: 3072: 3066: 3057: 3027: 3023: 2999: 2969: 2965: 2935: 2905: 2875: 2871: 2861: 2820: 2816: 2806: 2763: 2759: 2750: 2717: 2713: 2707: 2688: 2682: 2649: 2645: 2635: 2612: 2602: 2567: 2563: 2553: 2533: 2526: 2509: 2505: 2499: 2482: 2478: 2472: 2447: 2443: 2437: 2405:(1): 19–26. 2402: 2398: 2388: 2379: 2373: 2338: 2332: 2299: 2295: 2289: 2254: 2241: 2234: 2225: 2219: 2210: 2191: 2184: 2173: 2165: 2152: 2119: 2115: 2105: 2093: 2063: 2059: 2049: 2040: 2018: 2014: 2004: 1985: 1979: 1970: 1940: 1936: 1926: 1914: 1865:Dog training 1838: 1832: 1826: 1809: 1795: 1780: 1769: 1754: 1750: 1735: 1720: 1695: 1680: 1634: 1598: 1590: 1587:Applications 1578: 1565: 1561:adding to it 1556: 1534: 1530: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1487:matching law 1480: 1476: 1472: 1452: 1432: 1428:social traps 1425: 1404:social traps 1396: 1392: 1378:B.F. Skinner 1371: 1365: 1359: 1344: 1338:January 2024 1335: 1328:Please help 1324: 1313: 1287: 1281: 1275: 1269: 1263: 1257: 1243: 1237: 1231: 1225: 1220: 1128: 1122: 1112: 1106: 1095: 1090: 1084: 1078: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1058: 1054: 1051:th response. 1048: 1044: 1040: 1034: 1030: 1025: 1019: 1013: 990:B.F. Skinner 986: 981: 978: 969: 951: 937: 935: 913: 869: 860: 856: 854: 844: 840: 838: 805: 759: 751: 747: 739: 734: 728: 711: 704: 690: 689: 684: 680: 671: 669: 657: 646: 591: 580: 573: 562: 483: 467: 466: 401: 356: 345: 339: 302:reproducible 299: 295: 287:B.F. Skinner 285: 282:Introduction 268: 264: 223: 215: 207: 198: 190: 189: 181: 165: 157: 151: 145: 137: 126: 110: 83: 78: 74: 68: 60:consequences 55: 49: 36: 4892:Behaviorism 4509:Behavioral 4420:Barbiturate 4415:Amphetamine 4193:Pornography 4188:Intercourse 4122:Amphetamine 4088:disorders: 3804:(2): 1–16. 3487:Victimology 1786:Video games 1467:Skinner box 1413:social trap 1408:overharvest 1332:if you can. 1031:Fixed ratio 971:criterion. 719:behaviorist 291:behaviorism 191:reinforcing 96:Terminology 18:Reinforcing 4876:Categories 4733:Allen Carr 4573:Drug rehab 4564:Treatment 4480:management 4476:Treatment 4410:Alcoholism 4391:Withdrawal 4361:Dependence 4279:Epigenetic 4231:mechanisms 4164:Financial 4157:Behavioral 4094:dependence 3873:Skinner BF 3869:Ferster CB 3571:12 October 2720:: 103574. 2613:Psychology 2174:Walden Two 1907:References 1885:Punishment 1823:Criticisms 1776:punishment 1439:Kurt Lewin 1362:psychology 1162:extinction 1146:extinction 1100:extinction 1079:Fixed time 921:extinction 744:Extinction 735:punishment 485:Punishment 403:Extinction 330:compulsion 326:dependence 312:, and the 139:dependence 58:refers to 4897:Addiction 4845:0279-1072 4511:therapies 4400:Disorders 4102:Addiction 4090:addiction 3818:210503231 3565:Eurogamer 3544:Gamasutra 3445:145087451 3407:144444174 3170:144193503 2837:0145-4455 2798:241136859 2782:0145-4455 2742:210922007 2666:0021-8855 1705:Economics 1653:anhedonia 1601:addiction 1117:punishing 770:Rewarding 670:The term 322:addiction 225:tolerance 200:rewarding 112:addiction 4863:22185038 4800:Category 4721:See also 4566:programs 4445:Nicotine 4435:Cannabis 4430:Caffeine 4369:Concepts 4229:Cellular 4173:Shopping 4168:Gambling 4142:Nicotine 4046:Archived 3875:(1957). 3861:15693525 3676:21765546 3513:. p. 84. 3364:23782303 3321:16795713 3272:18356768 3162:23156902 3054:25950633 2996:22487042 2932:26806771 2853:29108702 2845:22327267 2790:32706269 2734:31982827 2674:29761485 2594:23372459 2429:22478644 2324:21542125 2144:17769765 2090:26816013 2037:24459410 1967:26109341 1848:See also 1829:circular 1806:Loot box 1732:Gambling 1527:Chaining 1521:Chaining 1461:task, a 1314:require 1169:gamblers 776:Aversive 4854:3429341 4440:Cocaine 4127:Cocaine 4117:Alcohol 3997:5672249 3988:1338502 3852:1285013 3667:3136894 3399:1001606 3356:1310808 3312:1286094 3234:1307879 3045:4425246 2987:3325516 2585:3558524 2464:1509180 2420:2741872 2365:1284187 2316:9755650 2284:, 2008. 2124:Bibcode 2116:Science 2081:6135257 2028:3898681 1958:4491543 1833:because 1651:(e.g., 1645:tremors 1643:(e.g., 1630:relapse 1498:Shaping 1421:systems 1316:cleanup 994:pigeons 336:History 202:stimuli 193:stimuli 172:somatic 121:alcohol 4861: 4851: 4843: 4450:Opioid 4406:Drugs 4332:HDAC10 4147:Opioid 3995: 3985: 3929: 3908: 3887: 3859: 3849: 3816: 3674: 3664: 3623: 3598: 3509: 3468: 3443: 3405: 3397: 3362: 3354: 3319: 3309: 3270: 3232: 3195: 3168: 3160: 3079: 3052: 3042: 3024:Neuron 2994: 2984: 2930: 2920: 2851: 2843: 2835: 2796: 2788: 2780: 2740: 2732: 2695: 2672: 2664: 2623: 2617:284–85 2592: 2582: 2541: 2462: 2427: 2417: 2363: 2353: 2322: 2314: 2142: 2088: 2078: 2035: 2025: 1992: 1965: 1955: 1747:Praise 1741:Praise 1463:pigeon 1417:energy 1383:pigeon 992:using 910:causal 826:tasks. 687:(CS). 647:Escape 328:, and 4342:SIRT2 4337:SIRT1 4327:HDAC9 4322:HDAC5 4317:HDAC4 4311:HDAC3 4304:HDAC2 4297:HDAC1 4270:NF-κB 4265:GluR2 4250:c-Fos 4244:ΔFosB 3814:S2CID 3441:S2CID 3403:S2CID 3395:JSTOR 3360:S2CID 3166:S2CID 2849:S2CID 2794:S2CID 2738:S2CID 2320:S2CID 2246:(PDF) 1465:in a 1364:term 830:term. 4859:PMID 4841:ISSN 4478:and 4260:CREB 4255:Cdk5 4110:Drug 4092:and 3993:PMID 3927:ISBN 3906:ISBN 3885:ISBN 3857:PMID 3672:PMID 3621:ISBN 3596:ISBN 3573:2017 3507:ISBN 3489:(7). 3466:ISBN 3352:PMID 3317:PMID 3268:PMID 3230:PMID 3193:ISBN 3158:PMID 3077:ISBN 3050:PMID 2992:PMID 2928:PMID 2918:ISBN 2841:PMID 2833:ISSN 2786:PMID 2778:ISSN 2730:PMID 2693:ISBN 2670:PMID 2662:ISSN 2621:ISBN 2590:PMID 2539:ISBN 2460:PMID 2425:PMID 2361:PMID 2351:ISBN 2312:PMID 2140:PMID 2086:PMID 2033:PMID 1990:ISBN 1963:PMID 1603:and 1360:The 1103:out. 893:The 713:The 115:– a 88:and 4849:PMC 4833:doi 4346:... 4285:G9a 3983:PMC 3975:doi 3950:doi 3847:PMC 3839:doi 3806:doi 3745:doi 3699:doi 3662:PMC 3654:doi 3433:doi 3387:doi 3344:doi 3340:106 3307:PMC 3299:doi 3260:doi 3222:doi 3150:doi 3040:PMC 3032:doi 2982:PMC 2974:doi 2910:doi 2880:doi 2825:doi 2768:doi 2722:doi 2654:doi 2580:PMC 2572:doi 2514:doi 2487:doi 2452:doi 2415:PMC 2407:doi 2343:doi 2304:doi 2132:doi 2076:PMC 2068:doi 2064:374 2023:PMC 1953:PMC 1945:doi 1844:. 1563:. 1453:In 1388:rat 1376:by 1171:at 914:not 150:or 50:In 4878:: 4857:. 4847:. 4839:. 4829:43 4827:. 4823:. 3991:. 3981:. 3971:11 3969:. 3965:. 3946:11 3944:. 3871:, 3855:. 3845:. 3835:82 3833:. 3829:. 3812:. 3802:21 3800:. 3741:13 3739:. 3695:32 3693:. 3670:. 3660:. 3650:96 3648:. 3644:. 3562:. 3541:. 3439:. 3429:31 3427:. 3415:^ 3401:. 3393:. 3383:81 3381:. 3358:. 3350:. 3338:. 3315:. 3305:. 3295:21 3293:. 3289:. 3266:. 3256:47 3254:. 3242:^ 3228:. 3216:. 3164:. 3156:. 3146:15 3144:. 3091:^ 3056:. 3048:. 3038:. 3028:86 3026:. 3022:. 3008:^ 2998:. 2990:. 2980:. 2970:35 2968:. 2964:. 2950:^ 2934:. 2926:. 2916:. 2892:^ 2876:17 2874:. 2870:. 2847:. 2839:. 2831:. 2821:36 2819:. 2815:. 2792:. 2784:. 2776:. 2764:46 2762:. 2758:. 2736:. 2728:. 2718:98 2716:. 2668:. 2660:. 2650:51 2648:. 2644:. 2619:. 2611:. 2588:. 2578:. 2566:. 2562:. 2508:. 2481:. 2458:. 2448:13 2446:. 2423:. 2413:. 2401:. 2397:. 2359:. 2349:. 2318:. 2310:. 2300:22 2298:. 2263:^ 2201:^ 2138:. 2130:. 2118:. 2114:. 2092:. 2084:. 2074:. 2062:. 2058:. 2039:. 2031:. 2019:15 2017:. 2013:. 1969:. 1961:. 1951:. 1941:95 1939:. 1935:. 1801:. 1659:. 1423:. 1175:). 996:. 940:, 855:A 839:A 697:. 332:. 324:, 308:, 278:. 54:, 4865:. 4835:: 4078:e 4071:t 4064:v 3999:. 3977:: 3956:. 3952:: 3935:. 3914:. 3893:. 3863:. 3841:: 3820:. 3808:: 3773:. 3751:. 3747:: 3730:. 3705:. 3701:: 3678:. 3656:: 3629:. 3604:. 3575:. 3547:. 3526:. 3474:. 3447:. 3435:: 3409:. 3389:: 3366:. 3346:: 3323:. 3301:: 3274:. 3262:: 3236:. 3224:: 3218:1 3201:. 3172:. 3152:: 3119:, 3103:, 3085:. 3034:: 2976:: 2912:: 2886:. 2882:: 2855:. 2827:: 2800:. 2770:: 2744:. 2724:: 2701:. 2676:. 2656:: 2629:. 2596:. 2574:: 2568:7 2547:. 2520:. 2516:: 2510:2 2493:. 2489:: 2483:8 2466:. 2454:: 2431:. 2409:: 2403:9 2367:. 2345:: 2326:. 2306:: 2146:. 2134:: 2126:: 2120:7 2070:: 1998:. 1947:: 1570:) 1566:( 1351:) 1345:( 1340:) 1336:( 1148:. 1073:n 1069:n 1059:n 1049:n 1045:n 1035:n 254:e 247:t 240:v 178:) 31:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index