255:
that artists could create. Another perspective points to evidence such as the fact that "race records were distinguished by numerical series… in effect, segregated lists", to support the claim that white-owned companies aimed to maintain the racial divisions in society through race records. Media companies even implemented racial stereotypes in advertising to invoke black sentiments and sell more records. Others regard the investments as being motivated simply by profit, namely by the low cost of production resulting from the easy exploitation of black writers and musicians, combined with the ease of distribution to a highly targeted class of consumers who have little access to a fully competitive marketplace.
275:
an economic ideal for
African Americans to strive towards, proving that they could overcome social barriers and be successful. Hence, Black Swan paid fair wages and allowed artists to showcase their race records using their real names. Pace urged record companies owned by white individuals to recognize the demands of African Americans and increase the flow of race records in the future. Black Swan was eventually purchased by Paramount Records in 1924.
31:
163:, a black artist who did not fit the mold of popular white music. In 1920, Smith created her "Crazy Blues"/"It's Right Here for You" recording, which sold 75,000 copies to a majority-black audience in the first month. Okeh did not anticipate these sales and attempted to recreate their success by recruiting more black blues singers. Other big companies sought to profit from this new trend of race records.
271:. Black Swan was formed to integrate the black community into a primarily white music industry, issuing around five hundred race records per year. The creation of this company brought widespread support for race records from the African American community. However some white companies in the music industry were strongly against Black Swan and threatened the company on multiple occasions.
340:
Race' was a common term then, a self-referral used by blacks...On the other hand, 'Race
Records' didn't sit well...I came up with a handle I thought suited the music well – 'rhythm and blues.'... a label more appropriate to more enlightened times." The chart has since undergone further name changes,
274:
Pace not only issued jazz, blues, and gospel records, but he put out race records that deviated from popular
African American categories. These genres included classical, opera, and spirituals, chosen by Pace to encourage the advancement of African American culture. He intended the company to provide
286:
destroyed the race record market, leaving most
African American musicians jobless. Almost every major music company removed race records from their catalogs as the country turned to the radio. Black listenership for the radio consistently stayed below ten percent of the total black population during
254:
Perspectives on the reason white record companies invested in marketing race records vary, with some claiming it was "for the purpose of exploiting markets and expanding the capital of producers." Advocates of this philosophy emphasize the control that the companies had on the type and form of songs
250:
Companies like Okeh and
Paramount enforced their objectives in the 1920s by sending field scouts to Southern states to record black artists in a one-time deal. Scouts neglected the aspirations of many singers to continue working with their companies. Field recordings were presented to the public as
136:
in 1901, followed by black artists employed by other companies. Yet, the
African American artists that major record companies hired before the 1920s were not properly compensated or acknowledged. This was because contracts were given to black artists on the basis of a single record, so their future
247:. They carefully implemented words and images that would draw in their targeted audience. Race records ads frequently reminded readers of their shared experience, claiming the music could help African Americans who moved to the North stay connected with their Southern roots.
797:
based on sales reports from
Rainbow Music Shop, Harvard Radio Shop, Lehman Music Company, Harlem De Luxe Music Store, Ray's Music Shop and Frank's Melody Music Shop, New York." Andy Kirk and His Clouds of Joy topped the inaugural tally with "Take It and
108:
prevented most
African Americans from listening to recorded music. At the turn of the twentieth century, the cost of listening to music went down, providing a majority of Americans with the ability to afford records. The primary purpose of
302:
It has been noted that "whole areas of black vocal tradition have been overlooked, or at best have received a few tangential references." Though not studied comprehensively, race records have been preserved. Publications like
324:
published a Race
Records chart between 1945 and 1949, initially covering juke box plays and from 1948 also covering sales. This was a revised version of the Harlem Hit Parade chart, which it had introduced in 1942.
76:. These records were, at the time, the majority of commercial recordings of African American artists in the U.S., and few African American artists were marketed to white audiences. Race records were marketed by
120:
Mainstream records during the 1890s and the first two decades of the 1900s were mainly made by and targeted towards white, middle class, and urban
Americans. There were some exceptions, including
243:
brought competition to the record industry. To maximize exposure, record labels advertised in catalogs, brochures, and newspapers popular among African Americans, like the
167:
was the first to follow Okeh into the race records industry in 1921, while Paramount Records began selling race records in 1922 and Vocalion entered in the mid-1920s.
113:
was to spur on the sale of phonographs, which were most commonly distributed in furniture stores. The stores white and black people shopped at were separate due to
372:
965:. Music of the African Diaspora, 7. Berkeley and London: University of California Press; Chicago, Illinois: Center for Black Music Research, Columbia College.
175:
The term "race records" was coined in 1922 by Okeh Records. Such records were labeled "race records" in reference to their marketing to African Americans, but
287:
this time, as the music they enjoyed did not get airtime. The exclusion of black artists on the radio was further cemented when commercial networks like
224:. It listed the “most popular records in Harlem" and began to replace the term "race music" in the industry. The Harlem concept was replaced by R&B
573:
Roy, William (2004). ""Race Records" and "Hillbilly Music": Institutional Origins of Racial Categories in the American Commercial Recording Industry".
151:, a famous black composer, sparked a transition that displayed the potential for African American artists. Bradford persuaded the white executive of
221:
220:
began publishing charts of hit songs in 1940. Two years later, the company's list of songs popular among African Americans was created:
529:
Suisman, David (2004). "Co-Workers in the Kingdom of Culture: Black Swan Records and the Political Economy of African American Music".
114:
469:
443:
622:
Barretta, Paul (2017). "Tracing the Color Line in the American Music Market and Its Effect on Contemporary Music Marketing".
283:
193:
as "Our Race Artist". Most of the major recording companies issued "race" series of records from the mid-1920s to the 1940s.
906:"'race music' and 'race records' were terms used to categorize practically all types of African-American music in the 1940s"
780:
124:, a whistler who is widely believed to be the first black artist ever to record commercially, in 1890. Broadway stars
970:
931:
824:
212:
to refer to an African-American individual who showed pride in and support for African-American people and culture.
418:
133:
89:
200:
may seem derogatory; in the early 20th century, however, the African-American press routinely used the term
17:
1046:
299:
that rhythm and blues, a term spanning most sub-genres of race records, gained prevalence on the radio.
147:
consumed in the 1800s. Still, there were not any primarily black genres of music sold in early records.
186:
129:
121:
905:
1007:
724:
360:
225:
140:
1041:
841:
992:
350:
1015:
1056:
945:
365:
336:, the magazine changed the name of the chart to Rhythm & Blues Records. Wexler wrote, "
320:
216:
311:
list the names of race records that were commercially recorded and recorded in the field.
8:
755:
1023:
886:
669:
546:
304:
264:
156:
814:
179:
gradually began to purchase such records as well. In the 16 October 1920 issue of the
966:
927:
890:
869:
Dolan, Mark (2007). "Extra! Chicago Defender Race Records Ads Show South from Afar".
820:
473:
369:
R&B record chart, known as the Race Records chart from February 1945 to June 1949
110:
93:
49:
45:
447:
878:
661:
631:
582:
538:
408:
Oliver, Paul. "Race record". Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. 13 Feb. 2015.
181:
164:
85:
69:
27:
78-rpm phonograph records marketed to African Americans between the 1920s and 1940s
586:
144:
81:
1051:
355:
240:
176:
148:
1035:
810:
635:
125:
239:
Marketing race records was especially important in the late 1920s, when the
333:
296:
295:
started to hire white singers to cover black music. It was not until after
152:
77:
65:
882:
341:
becoming the Soul chart in August 1969, and the Black chart in June 1982.
251:
chance encounters to seem more genuine, yet they typically were arranged.
263:
The control of white owned music companies was tested in the 1920s, when
190:
160:
673:
550:
268:
105:
53:
30:
495:
378:
34:
The cover of race records catalogue of Victor Talking Machine Company
665:
652:
Barlow, William (1995). "Black Music on Radio during the Jazz Age".
542:
117:, and the type of music available to white and black people varied.
496:"Watch Jazz | A Film by Ken Burns | PBS | Ken Burns"
231:
The term "rhythm and blues" fully replaced the term "race music".
781:"Weekly Chart Notes: Baauer Continues The 'Harlem' Hit Parade'"
104:
Before the rise of the record industry in America, the cost of
73:
42:
57:
61:
292:
288:
373:
List of number-one rhythm and blues hits (United States)
267:
was founded in 1921 by the African American businessman
712:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 8–13.
56:, comprising various African-American musical genres,
52:
between the 1920s and 1940s. They primarily contained
1026:
Black and White: Crossing the Border, Closing the Gap
903:
694:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 160.
314:
1033:
963:Race Music: Black Cultures from Bebop to Hip-Hop
803:
189:, an advertisement for Okeh Records identified
924:Rhythm and the Blues: A Life in American Music
995:Mamie Smith and the Birth of the Blues Market
204:to refer to African Americans as a whole and
143:greatly influenced the popular media that
722:
809:
621:
29:
1008:St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture,
976:
946:"Black Music Charts: What's in a Name?"
833:
528:
14:
1034:
981:. University Microfilms International.
943:
839:
816:Top R&B/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942–1995
707:
689:
651:
604:. Chicago: U of Illinois P. p. 5.
599:
910:St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture
868:
864:
862:
743:The Oxford Companion to Popular Music
729:St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture
703:
701:
685:
683:
647:
645:
258:
617:
615:
613:
611:
568:
566:
564:
562:
560:
524:
522:
520:
518:
516:
404:
402:
400:
398:
396:
394:
922:Wexler, Jerry; Ritz, David (1993).
842:"The Real History of Rock and Roll"
572:
328:In June 1949, at the suggestion of
137:opportunities were not guaranteed.
24:
859:
698:
680:
642:
309:Blues and Gospel Records 1902-1943
25:
1068:
1001:
840:Menand, Louis (9 November 2015).
608:
557:
513:
391:
961:Ramsey, Guthrie P., Jr. (2003).
944:George, Nelson (June 26, 1982).
819:. Record Research. p. xii.
977:Foreman, Ronald C. Jr. (1969).
937:
916:
897:
773:
748:
735:
716:
531:The Journal of American History
96:, and several other companies.
979:Jazz and Race Records, 1920–32
904:Killmeier, Matthew A. (2002).
723:Killmeier, Matthew A. (2002).
593:
488:
462:
436:
411:
315:Transition to rhythm and blues
170:
134:Victor Talking Machine Company
90:Victor Talking Machine Company
13:
1:
926:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
384:
986:
587:10.1016/j.poetic.2004.06.001
234:
7:
344:
10:
1073:
278:
187:African-American newspaper
99:
756:"Race Music: Chapter One"
361:Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs
636:10.1108/AAM-08-2016-0016
141:African-American culture
741:Gammond, Peter (1991).
654:African American Review
363:, for a history of the
196:In hindsight, the term
692:Seems Like Murder Here
375:(Billboard, 1942–1959)
351:African American music
35:
883:10.1353/scu.2007.0027
708:Oliver, Paul (1984).
690:Cussow, Adam (2002).
33:
710:Songsters and Saints
600:Brooks, Tim (2004).
284:The Great Depression
787:. February 22, 2013
624:Arts and the Market
1047:Gospel music media
476:on 8 February 2007
450:on 12 October 2008
265:Black Swan Records
259:Black Swan Records
46:phonograph records
36:
871:Southern Cultures
222:Harlem Hit Parade
122:George W. Johnson
94:Paramount Records
50:African Americans
16:(Redirected from
1064:
982:
954:
953:
941:
935:
920:
914:
913:
901:
895:
894:
866:
857:
856:
854:
852:
837:
831:
830:
807:
801:
800:
794:
792:
777:
771:
770:
768:
766:
752:
746:
739:
733:
732:
720:
714:
713:
705:
696:
695:
687:
678:
677:
649:
640:
639:
619:
606:
605:
597:
591:
590:
581:(3–4): 265–279.
570:
555:
554:
537:(4): 1295–1324.
526:
511:
510:
508:
506:
492:
486:
485:
483:
481:
472:. Archived from
466:
460:
459:
457:
455:
446:. Archived from
440:
434:
433:
431:
429:
415:
409:
406:
339:
245:Chicago Defender
182:Chicago Defender
165:Columbia Records
86:Vocalion Records
70:rhythm and blues
21:
1072:
1071:
1067:
1066:
1065:
1063:
1062:
1061:
1032:
1031:
1004:
989:
958:
957:
942:
938:
921:
917:
902:
898:
867:
860:
850:
848:
838:
834:
827:
808:
804:
790:
788:
779:
778:
774:
764:
762:
754:
753:
749:
740:
736:
721:
717:
706:
699:
688:
681:
666:10.2307/3042311
650:
643:
620:
609:
598:
594:
571:
558:
543:10.2307/3660349
527:
514:
504:
502:
494:
493:
489:
479:
477:
468:
467:
463:
453:
451:
442:
441:
437:
427:
425:
417:
416:
412:
407:
392:
387:
347:
337:
317:
281:
261:
237:
177:white Americans
173:
145:white Americans
102:
82:Emerson Records
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1070:
1060:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1042:Recorded music
1030:
1029:
1021:
1013:
1003:
1002:External links
1000:
999:
998:
988:
985:
984:
983:
974:
956:
955:
936:
915:
896:
877:(3): 107–110.
858:
846:The New Yorker
832:
825:
811:Whitburn, Joel
802:
772:
747:
734:
715:
697:
679:
660:(2): 325–328.
641:
607:
592:
556:
512:
487:
461:
435:
410:
389:
388:
386:
383:
382:
381:
376:
370:
358:
356:Cover versions
353:
346:
343:
316:
313:
307:and Godrich's
280:
277:
260:
257:
236:
233:
228:in June 1949.
226:chart listings
172:
169:
149:Perry Bradford
101:
98:
41:is a term for
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1069:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1039:
1037:
1028:
1027:
1022:
1020:
1019:
1014:
1012:
1011:
1006:
1005:
997:
996:
991:
990:
980:
975:
972:
971:0-520-21048-4
968:
964:
960:
959:
952:. p. 10.
951:
947:
940:
933:
932:0-224-03963-6
929:
925:
919:
911:
907:
900:
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
865:
863:
847:
843:
836:
828:
826:0-89820-115-2
822:
818:
817:
812:
806:
799:
786:
782:
776:
761:
757:
751:
744:
738:
730:
726:
719:
711:
704:
702:
693:
686:
684:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
648:
646:
637:
633:
629:
625:
618:
616:
614:
612:
603:
596:
588:
584:
580:
576:
569:
567:
565:
563:
561:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
525:
523:
521:
519:
517:
501:
497:
491:
475:
471:
465:
449:
445:
439:
424:
420:
414:
405:
403:
401:
399:
397:
395:
390:
380:
377:
374:
371:
368:
367:
362:
359:
357:
354:
352:
349:
348:
342:
335:
331:
326:
323:
322:
312:
310:
306:
300:
298:
294:
290:
285:
276:
272:
270:
266:
256:
252:
248:
246:
242:
232:
229:
227:
223:
219:
218:
213:
211:
207:
203:
199:
194:
192:
188:
184:
183:
178:
168:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
135:
132:recorded for
131:
130:George Walker
127:
126:Bert Williams
123:
118:
116:
112:
107:
97:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
44:
40:
32:
19:
1057:Jazz culture
1025:
1018:Race records
1017:
1009:
994:
978:
962:
949:
939:
923:
918:
909:
899:
874:
870:
849:. Retrieved
845:
835:
815:
805:
796:
791:September 4,
789:. Retrieved
784:
775:
763:. Retrieved
759:
750:
742:
737:
728:
725:"Race Music"
718:
709:
691:
657:
653:
627:
623:
601:
595:
578:
574:
534:
530:
503:. Retrieved
499:
490:
478:. Retrieved
474:the original
464:
452:. Retrieved
448:the original
438:
426:. Retrieved
422:
413:
364:
334:Jerry Wexler
329:
327:
319:
318:
308:
301:
297:World War II
282:
273:
262:
253:
249:
244:
238:
230:
215:
214:
209:
205:
201:
197:
195:
180:
174:
159:, to record
153:Okeh Records
139:
119:
103:
78:Okeh Records
66:gospel music
48:marketed to
39:Race records
38:
37:
18:Race records
851:23 February
760:Ucpress.edu
602:Lost Sounds
423:Indiana.edu
332:journalist
198:race record
191:Mamie Smith
171:Terminology
161:Mamie Smith
115:segregation
106:phonographs
1036:Categories
1010:Race music
630:(2): 217.
385:References
269:Harry Pace
210:race woman
157:Fred Hager
54:race music
987:Listening
950:Billboard
891:144836496
785:Billboard
745:. p. 477.
379:Race film
366:Billboard
330:Billboard
321:Billboard
235:Marketing
217:Billboard
72:and also
813:(1996).
345:See also
206:race man
202:the Race
674:3042311
575:Poetics
551:3660349
500:Pbs.org
470:"Photo"
444:"Photo"
419:"Photo"
279:Decline
111:records
100:History
969:
930:
889:
823:
765:8 June
672:
549:
505:8 June
480:8 June
454:8 June
428:8 June
74:comedy
64:, and
43:78-rpm
1052:Blues
1024:NPR,
1016:PBS,
993:NPR,
887:S2CID
798:Git."
670:JSTOR
547:JSTOR
338:'
305:Dixon
241:radio
185:, an
58:blues
967:ISBN
928:ISBN
853:2021
821:ISBN
793:2023
767:2021
507:2021
482:2021
456:2021
430:2021
291:and
128:and
62:jazz
879:doi
662:doi
632:doi
583:doi
539:doi
293:CBS
289:NBC
208:or
1038::
948:.
908:.
885:.
875:13
873:.
861:^
844:.
795:.
783:.
758:.
727:.
700:^
682:^
668:.
658:29
656:.
644:^
626:.
610:^
579:32
577:.
559:^
545:.
535:90
533:.
515:^
498:.
421:.
393:^
155:,
92:,
88:,
84:,
80:,
68:,
60:,
973:.
934:.
912:.
893:.
881::
855:.
829:.
769:.
731:.
676:.
664::
638:.
634::
628:7
589:.
585::
553:.
541::
509:.
484:.
458:.
432:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
