Productivity-improving technologies

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typically recorded on circle charts or strip charts. Until the 1930s control was typically "open loop", meaning that it did not use feedback. Operators made various adjustments by such means as turning handles on valves. If done from a control room a message could be sent to an operator in the plant by color coded light, letting him know whether to increase or decrease whatever was being controlled. The signal lights were operated by a switchboard, which soon became automated. Automatic control became possible with the feedback controller, which sensed the measured variable, measured the deviation from the setpoint and perhaps the rate of change and time weighted amount of deviation, compared that with the setpoint and automatically applied a calculated adjustment. A stand-alone controller may use a combination of mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic or electronic analogs to manipulate the controlled device. The tendency was to use electronic controls after these were developed, but today the tendency is to use a computer to replace individual controllers.

1508: 711: 922: 571:“ A good horse on an ordinary turnpike road can draw two thousand pounds, or one ton. A party of gentlemen were invited to witness the experiment, that the superiority of the new road might be established by ocular demonstration. Twelve wagons were loaded with stones, till each wagon weighed three tons, and the wagons were fastened together. A horse was then attached, which drew the wagons with ease, six miles in two hours, having stopped four times, in order to show he had the power of starting, as well as drawing his great load.” 4231: 2102: 1009: 5344: 4612: 3313: 3138: 2528: 2195: 1851:, beginning in the 1920s, uses reflected sound waves to map subsurface geology to help locate potential oil reservoirs. This was a great improvement over previous methods, which involved mostly luck and good knowledge of geology, although luck continued to be important in several major discoveries. Rotary drilling was a faster and more efficient way of drilling oil and water wells. It became popular after being used for the initial discovery of the East Texas field in 1930. 1081: 2244: 780: 1149: 1092:(Bridgewater foundry) in the late 1830s. Hydraulic powered cranes became widely used in the late 19th century, especially at British ports. Some cities, such as London, had public utility hydraulic service networks to power. Steam cranes were also used in the late 19th century. Electric cranes, especially the overhead type, were introduce in factories at the end of the 19th century. Steam cranes were usually restricted to rails. 269: 741: 257:'s highly efficient turbine developed in the late 1820s eventually replaced waterwheels. Fourneyron type turbines can operate at 95% efficiency and used in today's large hydro-power installations. Hydro-power continued to be the leading source of industrial power in the United States until past the mid 19th century because of abundant sites, but steam power overtook water power in the UK decades earlier. 2236: 1165: 1579:, which became widespread after 1800. Puddling involved stirring molten cast iron until small globs sufficiently decarburized to form globs of hot wrought iron that were then removed and hammered into shapes. Puddling was extremely labor-intensive. Puddling was used until the introduction of the Bessemer and open hearth processes in the mid and late 19th century, respectively. 20: 1284:(also called the domestic system) whereby work was done at home. Putting out work included spinning, weaving, leather cutting and, less commonly, specialty items such as firearms parts. Merchant capitalists or master craftsmen typically provided the materials and collected the work pieces, which were made into finished product in a central workshop. 2191:. Control theory was successfully applied to steering ships in the 1890s, but after meeting with personnel resistance it was not widely implemented for that application until after the First World War. Servomechanisms are extremely important in providing automatic stability control for airplanes and in a wide variety of industrial applications. 156:, which recycled what would have otherwise been waste heat, was one of engineering's key technologies. It had the immediate effect of dramatically reducing the energy required to produce pig iron, but reuse of heat was eventually applied to a variety of industries, particularly steam boilers, chemicals, petroleum refining and pulp and paper. 627:

offered less resistance to wagon wheels and horses hooves and feet did not sink in the mud. Plank roads also came into use in the U.S. in the 1810s–1820s. Improved roads were costly, and although they cut the cost of land transportation in half or more, they were soon overtaken by railroads as the major transportation infrastructure.

1603:. In 1780, before the introduction of hot blast in 1829, it required seven times as much coke as the weight of the product pig iron. The hundredweight of coke per short ton of pig iron was 35 in 1900, falling to 13 in 1950. By 1970 the most efficient blast furnaces used 10 hundredweight of coke per short ton of pig iron. 183:, there is no strong linkage between the 17th century scientific revolution (Descartes, Newton, etc.) and the Industrial Revolution. However, an important mechanism for the transfer of technical knowledge was scientific societies, such as The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, better known as the 253:, the "father of civil engineering," significantly improved the efficiency of the water wheel by applying scientific principles, thereby adding badly needed power for the Industrial Revolution. However water wheels remained costly, relatively inefficient and not well suited to very large power dams. 2539:

The gains in standards of living have been accomplished largely through increases in productivity. In the U.S. the amount of personal consumption that could be bought with one hour of work was about $ 3.00 in 1900 and increased to about $ 22 by 1990, measured in 2010 dollars. For comparison, a U.S.

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software that allowed data to be stored in different tables. For example, a theoretical airline may have numerous tables such as: airplanes, employees, maintenance contractors, caterers, flights, airports, payments, tickets, etc. each containing a narrower set of more specific information than would

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contributed to productivity of converting steel to structural shapes by eliminating the intermittent step of making slabs, billets (square cross-section) or blooms (rectangular) which then usually have to be reheated before rolling into shapes. Thin slab casting, introduced in 1989, reduced labor to

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is the transporting of trailers or entire trucks on rail cars, which is a more fuel efficient means of shipping and saves loading, unloading and sorting labor. Wagons had been carried on rail cars in the 19th century, with horses in separate cars. Trailers began being carried on rail cars in the U.S.

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The seed drill is a mechanical device for spacing and planting seed at the appropriate depth. It originated in ancient China before the 1st century BC. Saving seed was extremely important at a time when yields were measured in terms of seeds harvested per seed planted, which was typically between 3

337:

c. 1917). Tractors replaced horses and mules for pulling reapers and combine harvesters, but in the 1930s self powered combines were developed. Output per man hour in growing wheat rose by a factor of about 10 from the end of World War II until about 1985, largely because of powered machinery, but

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The concept of the feedback loop to control the dynamic behavior of the system: this is negative feedback, because the sensed value is subtracted from the desired value to create the error signal, which is processed by the controller, which provides proper corrective action. A typical example would

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are available that have superior properties for special applications like automobiles, pipelines and drill bits. High speed or tool steels, whose development began in the late 19th century, allowed machine tools to cut steel at much higher speeds. High speed steel and even harder materials were an

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ammonia process. Nitrogen fertilizer is applied in many parts of Asia in amounts subject to diminishing returns, which however does still give a slight increase in yield. Crops in Africa are in general starved for NPK and much of the world's soils are deficient in zinc, which leads to deficiencies

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By handling freight in standardized containers in compartmentalized ships, either loading or unloading could typically be accomplished in one day. Containers can be more efficiently filled than break bulk because containers can be stacked several high, doubling the freight capacity for a given size

412:

Electrical generation was the sector with the highest productivity growth in the U.S. in the early twentieth century. After the turn of the century large central stations with high pressure boilers and efficient steam turbines replaced reciprocating steam engines and by 1960 it took 0.9 lb coal per

299:

Excavation was done with shovels until the late 19th century when steam shovels came into use. It was reported that a laborer on the western division of the Erie Canal was expected to dig 5 cubic yards per day in 1860; however, by 1890 only 3-1/2 yards per day were expected. Today's large electric

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was installed for pumping water from a mine, a job that typically was done by large teams of horses, of which some mines used as many as 500. Animals convert feed to work at an efficiency of about 5%, but while this was much more than the less than 1% efficiency of the early Newcomen engine, in coal

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The computer and computer-like semiconductor devices used in automation are the most significant productivity-improving technologies developed in the final decades of the twentieth century; however, their contribution to overall productivity growth was disappointing. Most of the productivity growth

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Household appliances followed household electrification in the 1920s, with consumers buying electric ranges, toasters, refrigerators and washing machines. As a result of appliances and convenience foods, time spent on meal preparation and clean up, laundry and cleaning decreased from 58 hours/week

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The continuous wide strip rolling mill, developed by ARMCO in 1928, was most important development in steel industry during the inter-war years. Continuous wide strip rolling started with a thick, coarse ingot. It produced a smoother sheet with more uniform thickness, which was better for stamping

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Bessemer steel became brittle with age because nitrogen was introduced when air was blown in. The Bessemer process was also restricted to certain ores (low phosphate hematite). By the end of the 19th century the Bessemer process was displaced by the open hearth furnace (OHF). After World War II the

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The blister steel could be heated and hammered with wrought iron to make shear steel, which was used for cutting edges like scissors, knives and axes. Shear steel was of non uniform quality and a better process was needed for producing watch springs, a popular luxury item in the 18th century. The

1563:

was known before the 3rd century AD in China. Cast iron production reached Europe in the 14th century and Britain around 1500. Cast iron was useful for casting into pots and other implements, but was too brittle for making most tools. However, cast iron had a lower melting temperature than wrought

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Business administration, which includes management practices and accounting systems is another important form of work practices. As the size of businesses grew in the second half of the 19th century they began being organized by departments and managed by professional managers as opposed to being

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During the industrial revolution much production took place in workshops, which were typically located in the rear or upper level of the same building where the finished goods were sold. These workshops used tools and sometimes simple machinery, which was usually hand or animal powered. The master

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Coal seam undercutting machines appeared around 1890 and were used for 75% of coal production by 1934. Coal loading was still being done manually with shovels around 1930, but mechanical pick up and loading machines were coming into use. The use of the coal boring machine improved productivity of

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The first commercially successful glass bottle blowing machine was introduced in 1905. The machine, operated by a two-man crew working 12-hour shifts, could produce 17,280 bottles in 24 hours, compared to 2,880 bottles made a crew of six men and boys working in a shop for a day. The cost of making

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Farm machinery and higher crop yields reduced the labor to produce 100 bushels of corn from 35 to 40 hours in 1900 to 2 hours 45 minutes in 1999. The conversion of agricultural mechanization to internal combustion power began after 1915. The horse population began to decline in the 1920s after the

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Sailing ships could transport goods for over a 3000 miles for the cost of 30 miles by wagon. A horse that could pull a one-ton wagon could pull a 30-ton barge. During the English or First Industrial Revolution, supplying coal to the furnaces at Manchester was difficult because there were few roads

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Better lubrication, such as from petroleum oils, reduced friction losses in mills and factories. Anti-friction bearings were developed using alloy steels and precision machining techniques available in the last quarter of the 19th century. Anti-friction bearings were widely used on bicycles by the

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Improvements in productivity affected the relative sizes of various economic sectors by reducing prices and employment. Agricultural productivity released labor at a time when manufacturing was growing. Manufacturing productivity growth peaked with factory electrification and automation, but still

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semiconductor innovation. Part of the early decline was attributed to increased governmental regulation since the 1960s, including stricter environmental regulations. Part of the decline in productivity growth is due to exhaustion of opportunities, especially as the traditionally high-productivity

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The need for instrumentation grew with the rapidly growing central electric power stations after the First World War. Instrumentation was also important for heat treating ovens, chemical plants and refineries. Common instrumentation was for measuring temperature, pressure or flow. Readings were

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and gave a nice painted surface. It was good for automotive body steel and appliances. It used only a fraction of the labor of the discontinuous process, and was safer because it did not require continuous handling. Continuous rolling was made possible by improved sectional speed control: See:

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Keeping livestock indoors in winter reduces the amount of feed needed. Also, feeding chopped hay and ground grains, particularly corn (maize), was found to improve digestibility. The amount of feed required to produce a kg of live weight chicken fell from 5 in 1930 to 2 by the late 1990s and the

1793:

is the material that the outer layers of corrugated boxes are made of. Until Kraft corrugated boxes were available, packaging consisted of poor quality paper and paperboard boxes along with wood boxes and crates. Corrugated boxes require much less labor to manufacture than wooden boxes and offer

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Modern business enterprise (MBE) is the organization and management of businesses, particularly large ones. MBE's employ professionals who use knowledge based techniques such areas as engineering, research and development, information technology, business administration, finance and accounting.

1228:

on and off ships typically took several days. It was strenuous and somewhat dangerous work. Losses from damage and theft were high. The work was erratic and most longshoreman had a lot of unpaid idle time. Sorting and keeping track of break bulk cargo was also time-consuming, and holding it in

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coming into use in the early 19th century. These roads were crowned to shed water and had drainage ditches along the sides. The top layer of stones eventually crushed to fines and smoothed the surface somewhat. The lower layers were of small stones that allowed good drainage. Importantly, they

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increased crop yields by a factor of 3 for soybeans and between 4 and 5 for corn (maize), wheat, rice and some other crops. Using data for corn (maize) in the U.S., yields increased about 1.7 bushels per acre from the early 1940s until the first decade of the 21st century when concern was being

820:

for pounding rags into pulp for making paper and for crushing ore. Just before the Industrial revolution water power was applied to bellows for iron smelting in Europe. (Water powered blast bellows were used in ancient China.) Wind and water power were also used in sawmills. The technology of

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used for adjusting the mill stones was copied by James Watt for controlling speed of steam engines in response to changes in heat load to the boiler; however, if the load on the engine changed the governor only held the speed steady at the new rate. It took much development work to achieve the

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in the 18th century. However, technological and economic progress did not proceed at a significant rate until the English Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century, and even then productivity grew about 0.5% annually. High productivity growth began during the late 19th century in what is

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were the common form of power transmission in factories from the earliest industrial steam engines until factory electrification. Line shafts limited factory arrangement and suffered from high power losses. Hydraulic power came into use in the mid 19th century. It was used extensively in the

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Chronic hunger and malnutrition were the norm for the majority of the population of the world including England and France, until the latter part of the 19th century. Until about 1750, in large part due to malnutrition, life expectancy in France was about 35 years, and only slightly higher in

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The U.S. economy achieved a growth rate of labour productivity of 2.48 per cent per year for 81 years, followed by 24 years of 1.32 per cent, then a temporary recovery back to 2.48 per cent per cent, and a final slowdown to 1.35 per cent. The similarity of the growth rates in 1891–1972 with

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The Newcomen and Watt engines operated near atmospheric pressure and used atmospheric pressure, in the form of a vacuum caused by condensing steam, to do work. Higher pressure engines were light enough, and efficient enough to be used for powering ships and locomotives. Multiple expansion

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Pneumatic power began being used industry and in mining and tunneling in the last quarter of the 19th century. Common applications included rock drills and jack hammers. Wire ropes supported by large grooved wheels were able to transmit power with low loss for a distance of a few miles or

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With the widespread availability of machine tools, improved steam engines and inexpensive transportation provided by railroads, the machinery industry became the largest sector (by profit added) of the U.S. economy by the last quarter of the 19th century, leading to an industrial economy.

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and 5. The seed drill also saved planting labor. Most importantly, the seed drill meant crops were grown in rows, which reduced competition of plants and increase yields. It was reinvented in 16th century Europe based on verbal descriptions and crude drawings brought back from China.

2473:"As industrialization has proceeded, its effects, relatively speaking, have become less, not more, revolutionary"...."There has, in effect, been a general progression in industrial commodities from a deficiency to a surplus of capital relative to internal investments". Alan Sweezy, 1943 1521:

expressed about reaching limits of photosynthesis. Because of the constant nature of the yield increase, the annual percentage increase has declined from over 5% in the 1940s to 1% today, so while yields for a while outpaced population growth, yield growth now lags population growth.

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Automatic telephone switching originally used electro-mechanical switches controlled by vacuum tube devices, which consumed a large amount of electricity. Call volume eventually grew so fast that it was feared the telephone system would consume all electricity production, prompting

2406:(SDFP, one of the most expensive industries as of 2022) various approaches were undertaken and many technologies were investigated since 1960s both by state (e.g. US) and private businesses in order to speed up production process and increase design & fabrication productivity. 2147:

Today automation usually refers to feedback control. An example is cruise control on a car, which applies continuous correction when a sensor on the controlled variable (Speed in this example) deviates from a set-point and can respond in a corrective manner to hold the setting.

1535:

Land is considered a form of capital, but otherwise has received little attention relative to its importance as a factor of productivity by modern economists, although it was important in classical economics. However, higher crop yields effectively multiplied the amount of land.

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since 1979 to 1995: I, II, and III. Evidently, the productivity grew hundredfold by migration from generation I to III. Thanks to ever-evolving EDA it became possible to spend the same amount of time on designing complex ASICs that would be spent years ago on a less complex one.

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Electric lights were far more efficient than oil or gas lighting and did not generate smoke, fumes nor as much heat. Electric light extended the work day, making factories, businesses and homes more productive. Electric light was not a great fire hazard like oil and gas light.

737:(c. 1794) simplified the operation and allowed it to use animal power. By the 1860s threshing machines were widely introduced and ultimately displaced as much as a quarter of agricultural labor. In Europe, many of the displaced workers were driven to the brink of starvation. 670:

Highways with internal combustion powered vehicles completed the mechanization of overland transportation. When trucks appeared c. 1920 the price transporting farm goods to market or to rail stations was greatly reduced. Motorized highway transport also reduced inventories.

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software has been developed for both steady state and dynamic simulation, the latter able to give the user a very similar experience to operating a real process like a refinery or paper mill, allowing the user to optimize the process or experiment with process modifications.

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Changes to traditional work processes that were done after analyzing the work and making it more systematic greatly increased the productivity of labor and capital. This was the changeover from the European system of craftsmanship, where a craftsman made a whole item, to the

860:(Ptd. 1794). Steam power eventually was used as a supplement to water during the Industrial Revolution, and both were used until electrification. A graph of productivity of spinning technologies can be found in Ayres (1989), along with much other data related this article. 1024:

and loaders to handle high volumes of ores, coal, grains, sand, gravel, crushed stone, etc. Bulk materials handling systems are used at mines, for loading and unloading ships and at factories that process bulk materials into finished goods, such as steel and paper mills.

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use vapor from a high temperature effect to evaporate a lower temperature boiling fluid. In the recovery of kraft pulping chemicals the spent black liquor can be evaporated five or six times by reusing the vapor from one effect to boil the liquor in the preceding effect.

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economic growth cannot continue indefinitely … If the flow of energy is fixed, but we posit continued economic growth, then GDP continues to grow while energy remains at a fixed scale. This means that energy—a physically-constrained resource, mind—must become arbitrarily

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Losses of agricultural products to spoilage, insects and rats contributed greatly to productivity. Much hay stored outdoors was lost to spoilage before indoor storage or some means of coverage became common. Pasteurization of milk allowed it to be shipped by railroad.

284:. Until the late 19th century most coal and other minerals were mined with picks and shovels and crops were harvested and grain threshed using animal power or by hand. Heavy loads like 382 pound bales of cotton were handled on hand trucks until the early 20th century. 815:

The most important mechanical devices before the Industrial Revolution were water and wind mills. Water wheels date to Roman times and windmills somewhat later. Water and wind power were first used for grinding grain into flour, but were later adapted to power

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and computer control. Common applications of automation are for controlling temperature, flow and pressure. Automatic speed control is important in many industrial applications, especially in sectional drives, such as found in metal rolling and paper drying.

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As a result of productivity increases, the work week declined considerably over the 19th century. By the 1920s the average work week in the U.S. was 49 hours, but the work week was reduced to 40 hours (after which overtime premium was applied) as part of the

1410:. Commercial standards includes such things as bed sizes. Architectural standards cover numerous dimensions including stairs, doors, counter heights and other designs to make buildings safe, functional and in some cases allow a degree of interchangeability. 1511:

Wheat yields in developing countries, 1950 to 2004, kg/HA baseline 500. The steep rise in crop yields in the U.S. began in the 1940s. The percentage of growth was fastest in the early rapid growth stage. In developing countries maize yields are still rapidly

159:

Before the 17th century scientific knowledge tended to stay within the intellectual community, but by this time it became accessible to the public in what is called "open science". Near the beginning of the Industrial Revolution came publication of the

1777:(c. 1801) which made a continuous sheet. Paper making was severely limited by the supply of cotton and linen rags from the time of the invention of the printing press until the development of wood pulp (c. 1850s)in response to a shortage of rags. The 1961:

The early use of telephones was primarily for business. Monthly service cost about one third of the average worker's earnings. The telephone along with trucks and the new road networks allowed businesses to reduce inventory sharply during the 1920s.

952:, which all came into use between 1800 and 1840. However, around 1900, it was the combination of small electric motors, specialty steels and new cutting and grinding materials that allowed machine tools to mass-produce steel parts. Production of the 1594:

Production of steel and other metals was hampered by the difficulty in producing sufficiently high temperatures for melting. An understanding of thermodynamic principles such as recapturing heat from flue gas by preheating combustion air, known as

1405:

formalized time zones. Industrial standards included screw sizes and threads and later electrical standards. Shipping container standards were loosely adopted in the late 1960s and formally adopted ca. 1970. Today there are vast numbers of

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was practiced in antiquity but became increasingly specialized during the Industrial Revolution, so that instead of a shoemaker cutting out leather as part of the operation of making a shoe, a worker would do nothing but cut out leather. In

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with small boxes was used in both world wars, particularly WW II, but became commercial in the late 1950s. Containerization left large numbers of warehouses at wharves in port cities vacant, freeing up land for other development. See also:

936:, which cut, grind and shape metal parts, were another important mechanical innovation of the Industrial Revolution. Before machine tools it was prohibitively expensive to make precision parts, an essential requirement for many machines and 2270:

The usefulness of tabulating machines was demonstrated by compiling the 1890 U.S. census, allowing the census to be processed in less than a year and with great labor savings compared to the estimated 13 years by the previous manual method.

1902:

is the reduction of use of materials in manufacturing, construction, packaging or other uses. In the U.S. the quantity of raw materials per unit of output decreased approx 60% since 1900. In Japan the reduction has been 40% since 1973.

1839:

began to replace copper wire in the telephone network during the 1980s. Optical fibers are very small diameter, allowing many to be bundled in a cable or conduit. Optical fiber is also an energy efficient means of transmitting signals.

143:

and the first steam engines were designed specifically for pumping water from mines. The significance of the blast furnace goes far beyond its capacity for large scale production of cast iron. The blast furnace was the first example of

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during the Industrial Revolution, which was the inspiration for continuous rolling. It began being widely used in chemical and petroleum refining industries in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It was later applied to

441:

Steam locomotives that used up to 20% of the U.S. coal production were replaced by diesel locomotives after World War II, saving a great deal of energy and reducing manpower for handling coal, boiler water and mechanical maintenance.

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mines there was low quality coal with little market value available. Fossil fuel energy first exceeded all animal and water power in 1870. The role energy and machines replacing physical work is discussed in Ayres-Warr (2004, 2009).

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and allowed long span bridges, high rise buildings, automobiles and other items. Steel also made superior threaded fasteners (screws, nuts, bolts), nails, wire and other hardware items. Steel rails lasted over 10 times longer than

1481:

Early steam engines did not supply power at a constant enough load for many continuous applications ranging from cotton spinning to rolling mills, restricting their power source to water. Advances in steam engines such as the

1028:

Mechanical stokers for feeding coal to locomotives were in use in the 1920s. A completely mechanized and automated coal handling and stoking system was first used to feed pulverized coal to an electric utility boiler in 1921.

1906:

Dematerialization is made possible by substitution with better materials and by engineering to reduce weight while maintaining function. Modern examples are plastic beverage containers replacing glass and paperboard, plastic

899:, invented and improved during the early 19th century and produced in large numbers by the 1870s, increased productivity by more than 500%. The sewing machine was an important productivity tool for mechanized shoe production. 248:

Before the industrial revolution the only sources of power were water, wind and muscle. Most good water power sites (those not requiring massive modern dams) in Europe were developed during the medieval period. In the 1750s

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OHF was displaced by the basic oxygen furnace (BOF), which used oxygen instead of air and required about 35–40 minutes to produce a batch of steel compared to 8 to 9 hours for the OHF. The BOF also was more energy efficient.

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were used on a limited scale from the 1960s but began their rapid growth phase in the mid-1980s after the widespread availability of microprocessors used for their control. By 2000 there were over 700,000 robots worldwide.

325:

in the late 19th century. There were steam engines that moved around on wheels under their own power that were used for supplying temporary power to stationary farm equipment such as threshing machines. These were called

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Computers used paper tape and punched cards for data and programming input until the 1980s when it was still common to receive monthly utility bills printed on a punched card that was returned with the customer's payment.

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Christainsen and Haveman suggest that federal regulations are responsible for from 12 to 21 percent of the slowdown in the growth of labor productivity in U.S. manufacturing during 1973–77 as compared to 1958–65 (1981, p

2353:, paying bills, trading stocks, managing bank accounts and renewing auto registrations. This is the ultimate form of back office automation because the transaction information is transferred directly to the database. 2152:

is the usual form of automation that allows industrial operations like oil refineries, steam plants generating electricity or paper mills to be run with a minimum of manpower, usually from a number of control rooms.

1490:

led to more constant engine speeds, which made steam power useful for sensitive tasks such as cotton spinning. AC motors, which run at constant speed even with load variations, were well suited to such processes.

4987: 662:, trolleys or streetcars) were in the final phase of railroad building from the late 1890s and first two decades of the 20th century. Street railways were soon displaced by motor buses and automobiles after 1920. 654:

Railroads greatly reduced the cost of overland transportation. It is estimated that by 1890 the cost of wagon freight was U.S. 24.5 cents/ton-mile versus 0.875 cents/ton-mile by railroad, for a decline of 96%.

856:(1779) allowed a large number of threads to be spun by a single machine using water power. A change in consumer preference for cotton at the time of increased cloth production resulted in the invention of the 682:

Pipelines are the most energy efficient means of transportation. Iron and steel pipelines came into use during latter part of the 19th century, but only became a major infrastructure during the 20th century.

1735:. A great advance was the perfection of rotary cement kilns in the 1890s, the method still being used today. Reinforced concrete, which is suitable for structures, began being used in the early 20th century. 172:(1751–72). It contained many articles on science and was the first general encyclopedia to provide in depth coverage on the mechanical arts, but is far more recognized for its presentation of thoughts of the 1915:

has been occurring in the U. S. steel industry where the peak in consumption occurred in 1973 on both an absolute and per capita basis. At the same time, per capita steel consumption grew globally through

2314:

was an early adopter of POS. The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimated that bar code scanners at checkout increased ringing speed by 30% and reduced labor requirements of cashiers and baggers by 10–15%.

1266:

much production took place in the household, such as spinning and weaving, and was for household consumption. This was partly due to the lack of transportation infrastructures, especially in America.

2267:, through which the flow of punched cards was arranged in a program-like sequence to allow sophisticated data processing. Unit record equipment was widely used before the introduction of computers. 5351: 5349: 5347: 2356:

Computers also greatly increased productivity of the communications sector, especially in areas like the elimination of telephone operators. In engineering, computers replaced manual drafting with

863:

With a cotton gin (1792) in one day a man could remove seed from as much upland cotton as would have previously taken a woman working two months to process at one pound per day using a roller gin.

4617: 4615: 3320: 3318: 3316: 3151: 3149: 3147: 3145: 3143: 3141: 2202:. Robots are commonly used for hazardous jobs like paint spraying, and for repetitive jobs requiring high precision such as welding and the assembly and soldering of electronics like car radios. 580:

in the decades before factory electrification and it was the pre-bearing shafts that were largely responsible for their high power losses, which were commonly 25 to 30% and often as much as 50%.

495:

created economies of scale and were much more efficient at producing power than reciprocating steam engines. Electric motors greatly reduced the capital cost of power compared to steam engines.

1180:

was a significant improvement over using hand trucks or carrying sacks or boxes by hand and greatly speeded up loading and unloading of trucks, rail cars and ships. Pallets can be handled with

640:, which opened in 1761, bringing coal from Worsley to Manchester. The Bridgewater Canal's success started a frenzy of canal building that lasted until the appearance of railroads in the 1830s. 421:(multi-stage) engines were developed in the 1870s and were efficient enough for the first time to allow ships to carry more freight than coal, leading to great increases in international trade. 367:

were in the conversion of heat to work, the reuse of heat and the reduction of friction. There was also a dramatic reduction energy required to transmit electronic signals, both voice and data.

1425:

in a systematic arrangement along the flow of the work. Electrification was a practical way to motorize conveyors to transfer parts and assemblies to workers, which was a key step leading to

6004: 46:

Productivity is often measured as the ratio of (aggregate) output to (aggregate) input in the production of goods and services. Productivity is increased by lowering the amount of labor,

2335:

without having to pull up a whole table. This, for example, makes it easy to find a passenger's seat assignment by a variety of means such as ticket number or name, and provide only the

1299:

craftsman, foreman or merchant capitalist supervised the work and maintained quality. Workshops grew in size but were displaced by the factory system in the early 19th century. Under the

768:(Ptd. 1834) freed up five men for military service in the U.S. Civil War. By 1890 two men and two horses could cut, rake and bind 20 acres of wheat per day. In the 1880s the reaper and 68:

Productivity-improving technologies date back to antiquity, with rather slow progress until the late Middle Ages. Important examples of early to medieval European technology include the

2791: 2493:

Because of reduced population growth in the U.S. and a peaking of productivity growth, sustained U.S. GDP growth has never returned to the 4% plus rates of the pre-World War I decades.

2167:

Automation of the telephone system allowed dialing local numbers instead of having calls placed through an operator. Further automation allowed callers to place long-distance calls by

776:. These machines required large teams of horses or mules to pull. Over the entire 19th century the output per man hour for producing wheat rose by about 500% and for corn about 250%. 567:

Reducing friction was one of the major reasons for the success of railroads compared to wagons. This was demonstrated on an iron plate covered wooden tramway in 1805 at Croydon, U.K.

1685:

As a result of these innovations, between 1920 and 2000 labor requirements in the steel industry decreased by a factor of 1,000, from more than 3 worker-hours per tonne to just 0.003.

1660:

The size of blast furnaces grew greatly over the 20th century and innovations like additional heat recovery and pulverized coal, which displaced coke and increased energy efficiency.

2360:, with a 500% average increase in a draftsman's output. Software was developed for calculations used in designing electronic circuits, stress analysis, heat and material balances. 1072:(c. 1913), although Ford used various industrial trucks, overhead cranes, slides and whatever devices necessary to minimize labor in handling parts in various parts of the factory. 133:

Mining and metal refining technologies played a key role in technological progress. Much of our understanding of fundamental chemistry evolved from ore smelting and refining, with

2027:

in the late 1970s. Fiber optics greatly increased the transmission capacity of information over previous copper wires and further lowered the cost of long-distance communication.

1789:) pulping process was commercialized in the 1930s. Pulping chemicals are recovered and internally recycled in the kraft process, also saving energy and reducing pollution. Kraft 852:(Ptd. 1768) adapted water power to spinning, but it could only spin one thread at a time. The water frame was easy to operate and many could be located in a single building. The 1781:

for making wood pulp started operation in Sweden in 1874. Paper made from sulfite pulp had superior strength properties than the previously used ground wood pulp (c. 1840). The

2287:

which were much more reliable and used relatively little electricity. By the 1960s thousands of transistors and other electronic components could be manufactured on a silicon

2117:

The earliest applications of process control were mechanisms that adjusted the gap between mill stones for grinding grain and for keeping windmills facing into the wind. The

1330:

were achieved by using fixtures to hold and precisely align parts being machined, jigs to guide the machine tools and gauges to measure critical dimensions of finished parts.

50:, energy or materials that go into producing any given amount of economic goods and services. Increases in productivity are largely responsible for the increase in per capita 3339: 102:, which led to a large increase in the number of books and titles published. Books on science and technology eventually began to appear, such as the mining technical manual 1699:

Sodium compounds: carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxide are important industrial chemicals used in important products like making glass and soap. Until the invention of the

1239:

Loading and unloading labor for containers is a fraction of break bulk, and damage and theft are much lower. Also, many items shipped in containers require less packaging.

288: 959:

Modern manufacturing began around 1900 when machines, aided by electric, hydraulic and pneumatic power, began to replace hand methods in industry. An early example is the

4998: 2388:, had already been in existence for decades, although computers did allow more sophisticated control, which led to improved product quality and process optimization. See: 2251:

program: Z(1) = Y + W(1). The punched card carried over from tabulating machines to stored-program computers before being replaced by terminal input and magnetic storage.

1878:

From 1935 to 1955 machining cutting speeds increased from 120 to 200 ft/min to 1000 ft/min due to harder cutting edges, causing machining costs to fall by 75%.

339: 122:. Bacon stated that the technologies that distinguished Europe of his day from the Middle Ages were paper and printing, gunpowder and the magnetic compass, known as the 1828:

can be inexpensively made into everyday items and have significantly lowered the cost of a variety of goods including packaging, containers, parts and household piping.

792:

conversion of agriculture and transportation to internal combustion. In addition to saving labor, this freed up much land previously used for supporting draft animals.

3401:"Economic growth, technological progress and energy use in the U.S. over the last century: Identifying common trends and structural change in macroeconomic time series" 2505:. Gordon's (2013) analysis of productivity in the U.S. gives two possible surges in growth, one during 1891–1972 and the second in 1996–2004 due to the acceleration in 2412:(EDA) software tools had a major impact on delivery and success of many modern electronic device and products. As the integration of semiconductor and emergence of the 1822:, some of which are used by themselves or in blends with rubber and other compounds for seals and gaskets, shock absorbing bumpers and a variety of other applications. 515:

and for cranes at ports, especially in the UK. London and a few other cities had hydraulic utilities that provided pressurized water for industrial over a wide area.

1568:

was the material used for making many hardware items, tools and other implements. Before cast iron was made in Europe, wrought iron was made in small batches by the

2513:

remains significant. However, as the relative size of the manufacturing sector shrank the government and service sectors, which have low productivity growth, grew.

2089:

means automatic control, meaning a process is run with minimum operator intervention. Some of the various levels of automation are: mechanical methods, electrical

1445:

Business administration as we know it was developed by railroads who had to keep up with trains, railcars, equipment, personnel and freight over large territories.

978:

and pneumatic tires in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Until then much mining work was mostly done with pneumatic drills, jackhammers, picks and shovels.

622:

Unimproved roads were extremely slow, costly for transport and dangerous. In the 18th century layered gravel began being increasingly used, with the three layer

1711:

beginning in the 1860s. With the widespread availability of inexpensive electricity, much sodium is produced along with chlorine by electro-chemical processes.

1667:

By 1913, 80% of steel was being made from molten pig iron directly from the blast furnace, eliminating the step of casting the "pigs" (ingots) and remelting.

1088:

Cranes are an ancient technology but they became widespread following the Industrial Revolution. Industrial cranes were used to handle heavy machinery at the

881:

machines (1794), and steam engine allowed slender pieces of lumber such as 2"×4"s to be efficiently produced and then nailed together in what became known as

1953:

appeared in 1910 and had replaced between 80 and 90% of Morse code operators by 1929. It is estimated that one teletypist replaced 15 Morse code operators.

5602: 1634:. By the end of the 19th century, Gilchirst-Thomas “basic” process had reduced production costs by 90% compared to the puddling process of the mid-century. 1039:

Conversion to powered material handling increased during WW 1 as shortages of unskilled labor developed and unskilled wages rose relative to skilled labor.

479:

Electricity consumption and economic growth are strongly correlated. Per capita electric consumption correlates almost perfectly with economic development.

559:

Industrial process have undergone numerous minor improvements which collectively made significant reductions in energy consumption per unit of production.

1947:

appeared around the beginning of the railroad era and railroads typically installed telegraph lines along their routes for communicating with the trains.

1682:

less than one hour per ton. Continuous thin slab casting and the BOF were the two most important productivity advancements in 20th-century steel making.

1172:

is the lever for a hydraulic jack, which can easily lift loads up to 2-1/2 tonnes, depending on rating. Commonly used in warehouses and in retail stores.

2890: 2468:"The years 1929–1941 were, in the aggregate, the most technologically progressive of any comparable period in U.S. economic history." Alexander J. Field 2038:

came into use in the 1960s and today carry a variety of information including credit card transaction data, radio, television and telephone calls. The

974:

Large mining machines, such as steam shovels, appeared in the mid-nineteenth century, but were restricted to rails until the widespread introduction of

318:. Dynamite increased productivity of mining, tunneling, road building, construction and demolition and made projects such as the Panama Canal possible. 6137:

Whaples, Robert (June 1991). "The Shortening of the American Work Week: An Economic and Historical Analysis of Its Context, Causes, and Consequences".

6076: 3340:

Committee on Electricity in Economic Growth Energy Engineering Board Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems National Research Council (1986).

840:, a simple device that doubled the productivity of weaving. Spinning thread had been a limiting factor in cloth making requiring 10 spinners using the 714: 295:

were more common than the skid shown. Railroads descended from minecarts. In Britain laws passed in 1842 and 1844 improved working conditions in mines.

2061:

Before public water was supplied to households it was necessary for someone annually to haul up to 10,000 gallons of water to the average household.

4635: 1524:

High yields would not be possible without significant applications of fertilizer, particularly nitrogen fertilizer which was made affordable by the

608:

The relative energy required for transport of a tonne-km for various modes of transport are: pipelines=1(basis), water 2, rail 3, road 10, air 100.

2501:

is among those who questioned whether computers lived up to the great innovations of the past, such as electrification. This issue is known as the

2477:

U.S. productivity growth has been in long-term decline since the early 1970s, with the exception of a 1996–2004 spike caused by an acceleration of

535:

to make pig iron in 1828. Later heat reuse included the Siemens-Martin process which was first used for making glass and later for steel with the

4121: 4069: 1156:

operating a forklift. Pallets placed in rear of truck are moved around inside with a pallet jack (below). Where available pallets are loaded at

6019: 5039:

there exists a constant link between rates of energy consumption and the time integral of inflation-adjusted economic production at global scales

1920:

of manufacturing to developing countries. Cumulative global GDP or wealth has grown in direct proportion to energy consumption since 1970, while

929:. 1: milling cutter 2: spindle 3: top slide or overarm 4: column 5: table 6: Y-axis slide 7: knee 8: base 828:

was a medieval invention that increased thread making productivity by a factor greater than ten. One of the early developments that preceded the

556:

is a process that uses high pressure steam to generate electricity and then uses the resulting low pressure steam for process or building heat.

1466: 2053:(short for facsimile) machines of various types had been in existence since the early 1900s but became widespread beginning in the mid-1970s. 543:

below). Today heat is reused in many basic industries such as chemicals, oil refining and pulp and paper, using a variety of methods such as

3586:

A ton of goods could be brought 3000 miles from Europe for about $ 9, but for that same sum it could be moved only 30 miles in this country.

1232:

Old style ports with warehouses were congested and many lacked efficient transportation infrastructure, adding to costs and delays in port.

5552: 5523: 2540:

worker today earns more (in terms of buying power) working for ten minutes than subsistence workers, such as the English mill workers that

3831: 1110:

or bridge cranes-travel on a rail and have trolleys that move the hoist to any position inside the crane frame. Widely used in factories.

636:

and because of the high cost of using wagons. However, canal barges were known to be workable, and this was demonstrated by building the

4070:"The American Society of Mechanical Engineers Designates the Owens "AR" Bottle Machine as an International Historic Engineering Landmark" 2279:

The first digital computers were more productive than tabulating machines, but not by a great amount. Early computers used thousands of

1130:

In the early 20th century, electric operated cranes and motorized mobile loaders such as forklifts were used. Today non-bulk freight is

445:

Improvements in steam engine efficiency caused a large increase in the number of steam engines and the amount of coal used, as noted by

2604: 6113: 4783: 4681: 4310: 3868: 3547: 1599:, resulted in much higher energy efficiency and higher temperatures. Preheated combustion air was used in iron production and in the 1572:

process, which was never used in China. Wrought iron could be made from cast iron more cheaply than it could be made with a bloomery.

5446: 2283:(thermionic valves) which used a lot of electricity and constantly needed replacing. By the 1950s the vacuum tubes were replaced by 2263:, the holes in the cards allowing electrical contact to increment electronic counters. Tabulating machines were in a category called 1465:

is a method by which a process operates without interruption for long periods, perhaps even years. Continuous production began with

1277:'s famous example of a pin factory, workers each doing a single task were far more productive than a craftsmen making an entire pin. 795:

The peak years for tractor sales in the U.S. were the 1950s. There was a large surge in horsepower of farm machinery in the 1950s.

2531:

An hour's work in 1998 bought 11 times as much chicken as in 1900. Many consumer items show similar declines in terms of work time.

1126:

In a fixed position but can usually rotate full circle. The most familiar example is the tower crane used to erect tall buildings.

1924:

posits that efficiency improvement leads to increased energy consumption. Access to energy globally constrains dematerialization.

4208: 2428: 1364: 674:

The high productivity growth in the U.S. during the 1930s was in large part due to the highway building program of that decade.

592:

The efficiency of electric lights has continuously improved from the first incandescent lamps to tungsten filament lights. The

108:, which was the most important technology book of the 16th century and was the standard chemistry text for the next 180 years. 5756: 5243:

A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering Achievements That Transformed Our Lives, Chapter 11, Water supply and distribution

2122:

degree of steadiness necessary to operate textile machinery. A mathematical analysis of control theory was first developed by

1875:

around 1900. High speed steel held its hardness even when it became red hot. It was followed by a number of modern alloys.

744:

Threshing machine from 1881. Steam engines were also used instead of horses. Today both threshing and reaping are done with a

726:

patented a version in 1700; however, it was expensive and unreliable. Reliable seed drills appeared in the mid 19th century.

413:

kw-hr. Counting the improvements in mining and transportation the total improvement was by a factor greater than 10. Today's

6059: 5873: 5846: 5427: 5391: 5335: 5310: 5285: 5251: 5147: 4971: 4763: 4645: 4603: 4278: 3951: 3811: 3769: 3722: 3660: 3609: 3519: 3383: 3351: 3276: 3129: 3012: 2987:

James Dunn started working in a mine at age eight circa 1843 and describes work conditions and living conditions at the time.

2980: 2955: 2928: 2717: 276:

on the Volga River. Pushing was done with poles and manual pulling using overhanging tree branches. Horses were also used.

1303:

capitalists hired workers and provided the buildings, machinery and supplies and handled the sale of the finished products.

1192:

built to architectural standards allow trucks or rail cars to load and unload at the same elevation as the warehouse floor.

1057:

and industrial trucks began being used for handling materials and goods in various stages of production in factories. See:

330:

and Henry Ford seeing one as a boy was inspired to build an automobile. Steam tractors were used but never became popular.

1344:

Other work processes involved minimizing the number of steps in doing individual tasks, such as bricklaying, by performing

985:

There is currently a transition going under way from more labor-intensive methods of mining to more mechanization and even

430:

launched in 1912. By 1950 one-third of merchant shipping was diesel powered. Today the most efficient prime mover is the

3803:

A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering Achievements That Transformed Our Lives, Chapter 7, Agricultural Mechanization

2443:

significantly. In 2003 three generations of EDA suits were reported in regard to amount of logical gates of a devices per

2427:(which was previously done by hand). They have provided a continuous increase in design & prototyping productivity of 1723:, which is one of the most widely used construction materials today because of its low cost, versatility and durability. 95:

making, whose technology reached Sicily sometime in the 12th century. Cheap paper was a factor in the development of the

6083: 3627: 2832: 2536:

England. The U.S. population of the time was adequately fed, were much taller and had life expectancies of 45–50 years.

3758:

From the American System to Mass Production, 1800–1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States

2632: 2003:

began being used for long-distance telephony and transmitting television programming to local stations for rebroadcast.

5224: 5199: 4482: 4465: 4411: 4383: 4027: 3304: 2853: 2144:

to engage motor starters. Other controls such as interlocks, timers and limit switches could be added to the circuit.

417:

have efficiencies in the 40% range. Most electricity today is produced by thermal power stations using steam turbines.

1811:

made the pneumatic tire possible, which in turn enabled the development of on and off-road vehicles as we know them.

6231: 6184: 5485: 5174: 3975: 2753: 907:

bottles by machine was 10 to 12 cents per gross compared to $ 1.80 per gross by the manual glassblowers and helpers.

821:

building mills and mechanical clocks was important to the development of the machines of the Industrial Revolution.

5898: 4926: 2570:

has remained loosely relevant within the contemporary workplace due to the various possible benefits it may yield.

2560: 2403: 1319: 1020:

systems use a variety of stationary equipment such as conveyors, stackers, reclaimers and mobile equipment such as

338:

also because of increased crop yields. Corn manpower showed a similar but higher productivity increase. See below:

223:. Most major innovations of the Second Industrial Revolution were based on the modern scientific understanding of 214:

Probably the first period in history in which economic progress was observable after one generation was during the

6198: 6177:

The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present

873:

In the 1830s, several technologies came together to allow an important shift in wooden building construction. The

300:

shovels have buckets that can hold 168 cubic meters (220 cubic yards) and consume the power of a city of 100,000.

5641: 2522: 2378:

and banking are areas where computers are practically essential. Modern military systems also rely on computers.

215: 5928: 2306:(POS) terminals in which electronic cash registers were networked to the store mainframe computer. By the 1980s 2187:

are commonly position or speed control devices that use feedback. Understanding of these devices is covered in

2160:

By the late 1930s feedback control was gaining widespread use. Feedback control was an important technology for

1582:

Blister steel was made from wrought iron by packing wrought iron in charcoal and heating for several days. See:

1326:. The process took decades to perfect at great expense because interchangeable parts were more costly at first. 91:

spread to Western Europe in the 13th century. The spinning wheel increased the supply of rags used for pulp in

3999: 3761: 3056: 2594: 1532:

The greatest period of agricultural productivity growth in the U.S. occurred from World War 2 until the 1970s.

882: 2897: 787:

Lexion 570 combine with enclosed, air-conditioned cab with rotary thresher and laser-guided hydraulic steering

6272: 5787: 5659: 2584: 2432: 2219: 2068:

in 1900 to 18 hours/week by 1975. Less time spent on housework allowed more women to enter the labor force.

1912: 1899: 1894: 6237: 6087: 5969:"The onset and persistence of secular stagnation in the U.S. economy: 1910–1990, Journal of Economic Issues" 4579: 4559: 1475: 6118: 3268:

Recent Economic Changes and Their Effect on Production and Distribution of Wealth and Well-Being of Society

3000:

Recent Economic Changes and Their Effect on Production and Distribution of Wealth and Well-Being of Society

2436: 2413: 2409: 1969:

until the automatic switchboard was introduced in 1892. By 1929, 31.9% of the Bell system was automatic.

1247: 1089: 1058: 810: 484: 431: 220: 4651: 5139:

A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering Achievements That Transformed Our Lives, Chapter 9: Telephone

5105: 2490:

called the phenomenon of the great productivity gains preceding the Great Depression a "one time event."

2375: 2094: 1469:

in ancient times and became popular with mechanized processes following the invention of the Fourdrinier

964: 723: 364: 351: 4076: 208: 5968: 5509: 5023: 4132: 1206: 1201: 760:

was introduced, significantly increasing the productivity of hand labor. It was estimated that each of

548: 169: 127: 87:

Technological progress was aided by literacy and the diffusion of knowledge that accelerated after the

6242: 2486:

considered productivity to be "one big wave" that crested and is now receding to a lower level, while

2381:

In 1959 Texaco's Port Arthur refinery became the first chemical plant to use digital process control.

963:

automatic glass bottle blowing machine, which reduced labor in making bottles by over 80%. See also:

867: 4057: 2039: 2024: 1280:

Starting before and continuing into the industrial revolution, much work was subcontracted under the

649: 5989: 5953: 5808: 4719: 4520: 4348: 4193: 3906: 491:

for distributing power and dramatically increased the productivity of factories. Very large central

280:

While steamboats were used in some areas, as recently as the late 19th Century thousands of workers

6282: 4779: 4677: 4306: 3864: 2916: 2368: 2035: 3004: 3549:

The Rise and Fall of Infrastructures: Dynamics of Evolution and Technological Change in Transport

3223: 2168: 1872: 1868: 1507: 1353: 1153: 1017: 596:, which became commercial in the late 1930s, is much more efficient than incandescent lighting. 503: 380: 149: 5684: 5584: 3120:

A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 3: The Transmission of Power

2664: 2239:

Early IBM tabulating machine. Common applications were accounts receivable, payroll and billing.

1043: 6277: 5865:

The Evolution of Progress: The End of Economic Growth and the Beginning of Human Transformation

5277: 5271: 4959:

The Evolution of Progress: The End of Economic Growth and the Beginning of Human Transformation

3835: 3371:

The Evolution of Progress: The End of Economic Growth and the Beginning of Human Transformation

2452: 2371:(ATM's) became popular in recent decades and self checkout at retailers appeared in the 1990s. 2000: 1994: 1003: 688: 446: 228: 6195:

Forging Global Fordism: Nazi Germany, Soviet Russia, and the Contest over the Industrial Order

5838:

The Way It Worked and Why It Won't: Structural Change and the Slowdown of U.S. Economic Growth

5637: 5563: 5164: 4963: 4957: 3714: 3708: 3375: 3369: 2947: 2941: 188: 5976: 5940: 5795: 4706: 4596:

Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production

4507: 4335: 4180: 3893: 2745: 2609: 2357: 2264: 2230: 2161: 1944: 1848: 1619: 1576: 1462: 1390: 1358: 1345: 1339: 1327: 1323: 1312: 949: 937: 866:

An early example of a large productivity increase by special purpose machines is the c. 1803

829: 804: 710: 492: 394: 384: 261: 191:. Scotland was the first place where science was taught (in the 18th century) and was where 145: 123: 119: 63: 4790: 4688: 4317: 3965: 3875: 3556: 6247: 6123: 5070: 3202:

Creating the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations of 1867–1914 and Their Lasting Impact

2502: 2390: 2323:

a flat file, such as a spreadsheet. These tables are related by common data fields called

2118: 2056: 1966: 1938: 1917: 1815:

became important during the Second World War when supplies of natural rubber were cut off.

1483: 1322:

which used special purpose machines and machine tools that made parts with precision to be

960: 878: 597: 173: 5414:

The End of Work: The Decline of the Global Labor Force and the Dawn of the Post-Market Era

3041:. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. p. machine tools 173, poultry yield 144. 1703:

in 1791, sodium carbonate was made, at high cost, from the ashes of seaweed and the plant

1107: 254: 8: 6252:

Miller, Doug, Towards Sustainable Labour Costing in UK Fashion Retail (February 5, 2013)

2579: 2319: 2292: 2123: 2012: 1627: 1618:

The Bessemer and open hearth processes were much more efficient than making steel by the

1600: 1583: 941: 617: 536: 152:

process, various types of which are also used today in chemical and petroleum refining.

47: 5074: 3266: 2998: 1113: 921: 892:

Following mechanization in the textile industry was mechanization of the shoe industry.

6154: 5836: 5764: 5625: 5578: 5503: 5419: 5086: 5060: 4270:

The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger

4169: 3753: 3200: 2687: 2420:) without using specialized tools. EDA software tools are widely applied in modern-day 2361: 2346: 2260: 2127: 1794:

good protection to their contents. Shipping containers reduce the need for packaging.

1678: 1407: 1281: 1123: 435: 406: 311: 51: 5305:. London: Peter Peregrinus Ltd. On behalf of the Institution of Electrical Engineers. 5051:

Garrett, T. J. (2014). "Long-run evolution of the global economy: 1. Physical basis".

3242: 1008: 6209: 6180: 6158: 6055: 5869: 5863: 5842: 5633: 5629: 5559: 5491: 5481: 5423: 5387: 5331: 5306: 5281: 5247: 5220: 5195: 5170: 5143: 5090: 4967: 4916:

See publications by the Technical Association for the Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI)

4759: 4752: 4641: 4599: 4461: 4455: 4407: 4379: 4274: 4023: 4017: 3995: 3971: 3947: 3939: 3930: 3807: 3783: 3775: 3765: 3718: 3656: 3605: 3599: 3515: 3379: 3347: 3300: 3272: 3179: 3125: 3118: 3008: 2976: 2951: 2924: 2849: 2749: 2738: 2713: 2691: 2683: 2459:

also helped to boost production rates at lower cost even at their own expensiveness.

2178: 1269: 870:. With these machines 10 men could produce as many blocks as 110 skilled craftsmen. 773: 769: 745: 734: 637: 451: 402: 388: 322: 115: 5772: 4170:"Needed: A Theory of Total Factor Productivity, Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis" 1859:

Numerous new hard materials were developed for cutting edges such as in machining.

1401:

standardization and standards for rail cars allowed inter-connection of railroads.

1188:

which began being used in industry in the 1930s and became widespread by the 1950s.

1120:. They are widely used in construction, mining, excavation handling bulk materials. 1116:

Usually gasoline or diesel powered and travel on wheels for on or off-road, rail or

483:

was the first technology to enable long-distance transmission of power with minimal

27:

greatly increased the productivity of thread manufacturing, compared to the earlier

6253: 6204: 6146: 5907: 5709: 5699: 5617: 5383:

A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering Achievements That Transformed Our Lives

5217:

A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering Achievements That Transformed Our Lives

5192:

A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering Achievements That Transformed Our Lives

5078: 4734: 3400: 3238: 2679: 2589: 2498: 2483: 2328: 2206: 1882: 1864: 1812: 1694: 1623: 1517: 1242: 1225: 1219: 1131: 1117: 1093: 1033: 986: 975: 684: 593: 512: 76:, the spinning wheel, the three-field system (after 1500 the four-field system—see 6234:: contains international comparisons of productivity rates, historical and present 4268: 2101: 1385:

and interchangeability are considered to be main reasons for U.S. exceptionality.

187:, and the Académie des Sciences. There were also technical colleges, such as the 5726: 5621: 3924: 3509: 2599: 2541: 2527: 2487: 2384:

Computers did not revolutionize manufacturing because automation, in the form of

2350: 2307: 2181:(NC) in the 1950s. This soon evolved into computerized numerical control (CNC). 2133: 2107: 2081: 1778: 1756: 1724: 1700: 1657:

blades, which have to withstand extreme mechanical stress and high temperatures.

1643: 1453:“Before railroad accounting we were moles burrowing in the dark." Andrew Carnegie 1426: 1418: 1394: 1386: 1382: 1377: 1100: 1062: 945: 761: 480: 468: 346: 334: 135: 104: 6238:

Productivity Statistics – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

4824:

Transforming the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations and Their Consequences

3487: 3341: 3079:"The Greatest Century That Ever Was: 25 Miraculous Trends of the last 100 Years" 3039:

Transforming the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations and Their Consequences

2416:

devices grew over the years it became impossible to keep up with pace (see also

2345:

Since the mid-1990s, interactive web pages have allowed users to access various

1773:

Paper was made one sheet at a time by hand until development of the Fourdrinier

161: 6005:"U.S. Productivity Growth: The Slowdown Has Returned After a Temporary Revival" 3634: 2665:"A Postmortem Technology Assessment of the Spinning Wheel: The Last 1000 Years" 2506: 2478: 2440: 2417: 2385: 2188: 2184: 2149: 2111: 1921: 1764: 1708: 1588: 1487: 1300: 1293: 1263: 1185: 1054: 896: 886: 845: 841: 837: 833: 825: 544: 456: 232: 99: 88: 28: 6150: 5412: 3787: 2194: 434:

developed in the 1920s, now ranging in size to over 100,000 horsepower with a

179:

Economic historians generally agree that, with certain exceptions such as the

6266: 4489: 2846:

The Most Powerful Idea in the World: A Story of Steam, Industry and Invention

2614: 2567: 2456: 2303: 2288: 1836: 1808: 1782: 1774: 1760: 1752: 1650: 1525: 1470: 1430: 1069: 1050: 853: 700: 532: 462: 414: 307: 196: 184: 165: 111: 81: 77: 24: 6012:

International Productivity Monitor, Centre for the Study of Living Standards

5553:"Technological Change and Economic Growth: The Interwar Years and the 1990s" 5495: 5381: 5241: 5137: 4930: 3801: 3678: 3420:

See various engineering texts on thermodynamics, heat transfer, distillation

6047: 2553: 2256: 2174: 2137: 2126:. Control theory was developed to its "classical" form by the 1950s. See: 1860: 1748: 1612: 1607: 1565: 1422: 1402: 1189: 1157: 1021: 953: 933: 916: 874: 757: 553: 398: 376: 315: 250: 238: 192: 180: 130:

included the horse collar, cast iron, an improved plow and the seed drill.

96: 73: 40: 3078: 1591:, which was made by melting wrought iron and blister steel in a crucible. 6257: 5728: 5682: 5475: 5082: 4483:"The Growth of Modern Business Enterprise in the Twentieth Century, NBER" 2497:

occurred in the new industry computer and related industries. Economist

2280: 2243: 2064:

Natural gas began being supplied to households in the late 19th century.

1950: 1908: 1728: 1654: 1638: 1398: 1181: 1080: 849: 817: 426: 200: 69: 5912: 5894:"Does The 'New Economy' Measure Up To The Great Inventions Of The Past?" 5893: 5768: 5729:"Information Processing Equipment and Software in the National Accounts" 5657: 5583:. By Harris, Seymour E. New York, London: McGraw Hill Book Co. pp. 2213: 2106:

be to control the opening of a valve to hold a liquid level in a tank.

2057:

Home economics: Public water supply, household gas supply and appliances

519:

kilometers. Wire rope systems appeared shortly before electrification.

6179:. Cambridge, New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. 5713: 5704: 3052: 2921:

The Economic Growth Engine: How useful work creates material prosperity

2331:) Data can be retrieved in various specific configurations by posing a 2284: 2086: 2077: 1978: 1790: 1768: 1622:

because they used the carbon in the pig iron as a source of heat. The

1356:

who is the best known developer of this method, which is also known as

1274: 885:(1832). This was the beginning of the decline of the ancient method of 857: 577: 507: 499: 488: 474: 204: 16:

Technological innovations that have historically increased productivity

5788:"U.S. Economic Growth in the Gilded Age, Journal of Macroeconomics 31" 2023:

The diffusion of telephony to households was mature by the arrival of

345:

One of the greatest periods of productivity growth coincided with the

3601:

Railroads and American Economic Growth: Essays in Econometric History

2873:. Vol. 2: Steam Power. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. 2424: 2421: 1974: 1819: 1803: 1596: 1560: 1550: 1349: 1210:

in 1956. Piggyback was 1% of freight in 1958, rising to 15% in 1986.

779: 729:

Since the beginning of agriculture threshing was done by hand with a

528: 349:

of factories which took place between 1900 and 1930 in the U.S. See:

224: 153: 4149: 3943: 1688: 1672: 1148: 982:

sub-surface coal mining by a factor of three between 1949 and 1969.

5727:

Bruce T. Grimm; Brent R. Moulton & David B. Wasshausen (2002).

2774:

The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention

2637:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781139565981 2444: 2311: 1825: 1720: 1569: 1169: 527:

Recovery of heat for industrial processes was first widely used as

303: 292: 140: 39:

are the technological innovations that have historically increased

5065: 4058:

Economics 323-2: Economic History of the United States Since 1865

2071: 1539: 268: 5967:

Vatter, Harold G.; Walker, John F.; Alperovitz, Gar (June 2005).

5685:"A Retrospective Look at the U.S. Productivity Growth Resurgence" 4219: 3335: 3333: 2833:

Mark Overton: Agricultural Revolution in England 1500–1850 (2011)

2248: 2199: 2171:. Eventually almost all operators were replaced with automation. 1704: 1575:

The inexpensive process for making good quality wrought iron was

623: 397:

was about 0.5% efficient and was improved to slightly over 1% by

281: 273: 4937: 4457:

The Visible Hand: The Management Revolution in American Business

3967:

Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in Antebellum America

3934: 3779: 836:(loom) of c. 1589. Later in the Industrial Revolution came the 740: 363:

In engineering and economic history the most important types of

333:

With internal combustion came the first mass-produced tractors (

6035:

1996–2004, and of 1972–1996 with 1996–2011 is quite remarkable.

5273:

Pursuing Happiness: American Consumers in the Twentieth Century

4108:

Mechanization in Industry, National Bureau of Economic Research

3653:

A Great Leap Forward: 1930s Depression and U.S. Economic Growth

2635:

Measurement of Productivity and Efficiency: Theory and Practice

2310:

were added. These technologies automated inventory management.

1348:

to determine the one best method, the system becoming known as

1177: 1143: 1084:

P & H 4100 XPB cable loading shovel, a type of mobile crane

765: 753: 3330: 2318:

Data storage became better organized after the development of

2235: 1911:

used in shipping and light weight plastic packing materials.

752:

Before c. 1790 a worker could harvest 1/4 acre per day with a

4051: 3231:

Insead's Center for the Management of Environmental Resources

2871:

A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930

2141: 2090: 2018: 1990: 1744: 1631: 1564:

iron and was much easier to make with primitive technology.

1554: 784: 730: 235:

and other principles known to the profession of engineering.

92: 19: 4736:

Railroads of the United States: Their History and Statistics

4640:. London: Maney Publishing, for the Institute of Materials. 3432:

Railroads of the United States, Their History and Statistics

2973:

From Coal Mine Upwards: or Seventy Years of an Eventful Life

2402:

In a lengthy, costly, complicated, and intricate process of

1881:

One of the most important new hard materials for cutting is

1164: 1096:(caterpillar tread) was developed in the late 19th century. 6228: 5683:

Dale W. Jorgenson; Mun S. Ho & Kevin J. Stiroh (2008).

4128: 4019:

The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States

3346:. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. pp. 16, 40. 2462: 1732: 1068:

A well known application of conveyors is Ford. Motor Co.'s

659: 5658:

Dale W. Jorgenson; Mun S. Ho & Jon D. Samuels (2014).

4569:. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 3946:); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, ( 3842: 3633:. Transportation Quarterly. pp. 45–66. Archived from 463:

Electrification and the pre-electric transmission of power

291:

A young "drawer" pulling a coal tub along a mine gallery.

287: 211:

as a means to improve the efficiency of the steam engine.

139:

being the leading chemistry text. Railroads evolved from

5734:. U.S. Department of Commerce Bureau of Economic Analysis 5480:. Dirk Jansen. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 2003. 4754:

A Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America 1985-1925

4404:

Frederick W. Taylor and the Rise of Scientific Management

3710:

A Farewell to Alms: A Brief Economic History of the World

3555:. Heidelberg and New York: Physica-Verlag. Archived from 3463:

Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology

3438: 3111: 3109: 3107: 3105: 3103: 3101: 3099: 3097: 3095: 2792:"Long Term Economic Growth and the History of Technology" 2710:

The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing, 1450-1800

2340: 2050: 5379: 5239: 5214: 5189: 5163:

Hempstead, Colin; Worthington, William E., eds. (2005).

5135: 4758:. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press. 4420: 3465:. Cambridge, MA, USA and London, England: The MIT Press. 3434:. Philadelphia: John. E. Potter and Co. pp. 12, 13. 1393:, but was also facilitated by the railroad industry and 691:

are efficient means of pumping liquids and natural gas.

239:

Major sources of productivity growth in economic history

4830: 4560:"Can Technology Deliver on the Yield Challenge to 2050" 4432: 4047:. Urbana, Il: University of Illinois Press. p. 26. 3938:. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 ( 3469: 3224:"Exergy, Power and Work in the U. S. Economy 1900–1998" 3161: 2731: 2729: 498:

The main forms of pre-electric power transmission were

5966: 5361: 3092: 1731:

limestone and other naturally occurring minerals in a

630: 6052:

The Escape from Hunger and Premature Death, 1700–2100

5660:"Long-term Estimates of U.S. Productivity and Growth" 5577:

Alan Sweezy (1943). "Chapter IV Secular Stagnation".

5276:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 4893: 4881: 4869: 4842: 4355: 2214:

Computers, data processing and information technology

6119:

EH.Net Encyclopedia of Economic and Business History

5162: 4658: 4287: 3688: 3680:

The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power

2767: 2765: 2726: 6229:

Productivity and Costs – Bureau of Labor Statistics

4539: 3832:"Economic History of Tractors in the United States" 3799: 2740:

Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution

2703: 2701: 2397: 2295:, which are universally used in today's computers. 2255:Early electric data processing was done by running 1863:, which was developed in 1868, was a forerunner of 1649:Some of the most important specialty materials are 1504:time required fell from three months to six weeks. 6208: 5411: 5169:. Vol. 2. Taylor & Francis. p. 605. 4929:. Maine Pulp and Paper Association. Archived from 4751: 4557: 4527: 3677: 3217: 3215: 3213: 3199: 3117: 2891:"Accounting for Growth: The Role of Physical Work" 2737: 2516: 5265: 5263: 5131: 5129: 3929:, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 3604:. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins Press. 3580:U.S. Government (1834). "U.S. Senate Committee". 2912: 2910: 2884: 2882: 2880: 2762: 2140:, whereby push buttons could be used to activate 1689:Sodium carbonate (soda ash) and related chemicals 1449:MBE's typically benefit from economies of scale. 848:a spinner could spin eight threads at once. The 164:, written by numerous contributors and edited by 6264: 5750: 5748: 4449: 4447: 3994:. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 2004. 12–13. 3748: 3746: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3738: 3736: 3734: 3290: 3288: 3058:My Life and Work: An Autobiography of Henry Ford 2698: 2110:is a widely used form of automation. See also: 1965:Telephone calls were handled by operators using 1630:(c. 1865) processes greatly reduced the cost of 992: 600:or LED's are highly efficient and long lasting. 243: 5405: 5403: 4558:Fischer, R. A.; Byerlee, Eric; Edmeades, E. O. 4262: 4260: 4258: 4256: 4254: 4252: 4250: 4248: 4246: 4011: 4009: 4007: 3579: 3297:A Short History of Twentieth Century Technology 3210: 3124:. Cambridge, Massachusetts, London: MIT Press. 2451:Advances in photolithography technologies like 2072:Automation, process control and servomechanisms 1984: 1673:Automation, process control and servomechanisms 1540:New materials, processes and de-materialization 1252: 940:. Historically important machine tools are the 6215:Inside the Black Box. Technology and Economics 6168: 5887: 5885: 5830: 5828: 5757:"U.S. Productivity Performance in Perspective" 5546: 5544: 5409: 5260: 5126: 5106:"Exponential Economist Meets Finite Physicist" 4997:. worldsteel Association. 2013. Archived from 4861:"A Retrospective of Twentieth Century Steel". 4784:"Technological Transformations and Long Waves" 4682:"Technological Transformations and Long Waves" 4397: 4395: 4311:"Technological Transformations and Long Waves" 4225: 4206: 4101: 4099: 4097: 4095: 4093: 4091: 4089: 3963: 3869:"Technological Transformations and Long Waves" 3848: 3392: 3221: 3077:Moore, Stephen; Simon, Julian (Dec 15, 1999). 3072: 3070: 3068: 2907: 2877: 2735: 2544:wrote about in 1844, earned in a 12-hour day. 2349:over Internet to engage in e-commerce such as 1818:Rubber inspired a class of chemicals known as 1413: 5745: 5596: 5594: 5319: 5044: 5015: 4460:. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 4444: 4266: 3970:. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 7. 3793: 3731: 3628:"General Motors and the Demise of Streetcars" 3625: 3503: 3501: 3499: 3497: 3495: 3285: 3222:Ayres, R. U.; Ayres, L. W.; Warr, B. (2002). 1854: 1436: 370: 6248:OECD estimates of labour productivity levels 5996: 5933:, Technocracy, Series A, No. 8, August 1936" 5920: 5400: 5097: 4962:. New York, Toronto: Random House. pp. 4826:. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. 4589: 4587: 4243: 4237: 4155: 4004: 3655:. New Haven, London: Yale University Press. 3511:An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology 3374:. New York, Toronto: Random House. pp. 3299:. USA: Oxford University Press. p. 30. 3260: 3258: 3256: 3254: 3252: 3206:. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. 3115: 3051: 3032: 3030: 3028: 3026: 3024: 2939: 2848:. University Of Chicago Press. p. 137. 2785: 2783: 2707: 2030: 6074: 5882: 5825: 5763:. Vol. 26, no. 4. pp. 7–11. 5576: 5541: 5380:Constable, George; Somerville, Bob (2003). 5240:Constable, George; Somerville, Bob (2003). 5215:Constable, George; Somerville, Bob (1964). 5190:Constable, George; Somerville, Bob (1964). 5136:Constable, George; Somerville, Bob (2003). 4817: 4815: 4813: 4739:. Philadelphia: John E. Potter and Company. 4392: 4086: 3825: 3823: 3800:Constable, George; Somerville, Bob (2003). 3455: 3453: 3193: 3191: 3189: 3187: 3065: 2708:Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1976). 2672:Technological Forecasting and Social Change 2274: 2136:brought simple electrical controls such as 2042:(GPS) operates on signals from satellites. 1727:, which was invented 1824–1825, is made by 1707:. The Leblanc process was replaced by the 1421:allowed the placement of machinery such as 409:to 2%. In 1900, it took 7 lbs coal/ kw hr. 5929:"Man Hours and Distribution, Derived from 5591: 5328:A History of Control Engineering 1800–1930 5303:A History of Control Engineering 1930–1955 4980: 4670: 4209:"Automation primed for "explosive growth"" 4042: 3918: 3916: 3541: 3539: 3537: 3535: 3533: 3531: 3492: 3116:Hunter, Louis C.; Bryant, Lynwood (1991). 3076: 2605:List of countries by GNI per capita growth 997: 6203: 5911: 5703: 5477:The electronic design automation handbook 5269: 5064: 4943: 4836: 4584: 4426: 4299: 3752: 3591: 3475: 3399:Ayres, Robert U.; Warr, Benjamin (2006). 3398: 3249: 3167: 3021: 2889:Ayres, Robert U.; Warr, Benjamin (2004). 2888: 2780: 2662: 1494: 705: 6217:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5754: 5603:"U.S. Economic Growth in the Gilded Age" 4912: 4910: 4908: 4810: 4633: 4453: 4438: 4376:The Transportation Revolution, 1815–1860 4167: 3820: 3450: 3294: 3184: 3003:. New York: D. Appleton and Co. p. 2946:. New York: W.W. Norton and Co. p. 2744:. University of Toronto Press. pp. 2633:Sickles, R., & Zelenyuk, V. (2019). 2526: 2463:Long term decline in productivity growth 2242: 2234: 2224: 2193: 2100: 1506: 1457: 1333: 1306: 1163: 1147: 1079: 1049:Around 1900 various types of conveyors ( 1007: 920: 778: 739: 709: 424:The first important diesel ship was the 352:Mass production: Factory electrification 286: 267: 18: 6136: 6111: 6075:Pamuk, Şevket; van Zanden, Jan Luiten. 5926: 5367: 5355: 5325: 5300: 5166:Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Technology 5050: 4805:Fig. 12, machining speed for steel axle 4637:A History of Metallurgy, Second Edition 4580:International Plant Nutrition Institute 4567:Expert Meeting on How to Feed the World 4015: 3913: 3713:. Princeton University Press. pp. 3545: 3528: 3358:<Available as free .pdf download> 2943:A New Economic View of American History 2547: 1867:, which was developed by a team led by 1365:The Principles of Scientific Management 965:Mass production#Factory electrification 925:Vertical milling machine, an important 798: 733:, requiring a great deal of labor. The 207:used knowledge of heat to conceive the 6265: 6174: 6054:. London: Cambridge University Press. 6002: 5891: 5861: 5470: 5468: 5466: 5441: 5439: 5386:. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. 5246:. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. 5142:. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. 5103: 4955: 4899: 4887: 4875: 4848: 4664: 4621: 4401: 4373: 4361: 4105: 4022:. University of North Carolina Press. 3806:. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. 3694: 3675: 3616:Cost is in 1890 gold standard dollars. 3507: 3444: 3367: 3324: 3155: 2940:Atack, Jeremy; Passell, Peter (1994). 2868: 2771: 1797: 583: 6046: 5834: 5785: 5600: 5550: 4905: 4778: 4732: 4676: 4480: 4305: 4293: 3863: 3859: 3857: 3706: 3650: 3597: 3429: 3264: 2996: 2843: 2789: 2650:Medieval Technology and Social Change 2647: 1442:run by sole proprietors or partners. 576:1880s. Bearings began being used on 506:and pneumatic and wire rope systems. 126:, which had origins in China. Other 5447:"Electronic Design Automation (EDA)" 5418:. Putnam Publishing Group. pp. 4821: 4749: 4593: 4545: 4533: 4045:Sweated Industries and Sweated Labor 3197: 3036: 2970: 1888: 1606:Steel has much higher strength than 1257: 562: 358: 6084:Centre for Economic Policy Research 5868:. New York, Toronto: Random House. 5551:Field, Alexander J. (August 2004). 5463: 5436: 5021: 4207:Staff Reporter (February 1, 2018). 3922: 3460: 3088:(364). The Cato Institute. Fig. 13. 2509:-related technological innovation. 1213: 1044:Oliver Evans's automatic flour mill 1032:Liquids and gases are handled with 631:Ocean shipping and inland waterways 540: 37:productivity-improving technologies 13: 5755:Kendrick, John (October 1, 1991). 5601:Field, Alexander J. (March 2009). 3926:English and American Tool Builders 3854: 3180:Graph of steam engine efficiencies 2712:. London and Borrklyn, NY: Verso. 2198:A set of six-axis robots used for 2045: 1371: 1160:which allow forklifts to drive on. 1042:A noteworthy use of conveyors was 889:construction with wooden joinery. 603: 14: 6294: 6232:United States Department of Labor 6222: 6003:Gordon, Robert J. (Spring 2013). 5841:. Westport, CT; London: Praeger. 4406:. University of Wisconsin Press. 3829: 2648:White, Lynn Townsend Jr. (1962). 1927: 1544: 1287: 1195: 1053:, slat, bucket, screw or auger), 6130: 6105: 6068: 6040: 5960: 5899:Journal of Economic Perspectives 5855: 5815: 5779: 5720: 5692:Journal of Economic Perspectives 5676: 5651: 5570: 5516: 5373: 5330:. London: Peter Peregrinus Ltd. 5294: 5233: 5208: 5183: 5156: 4454:Chandler, Alfred D. Jr. (1993). 3271:. New York: D. Appleton and Co. 2566:The push towards implementing a 2561:National Industrial Recovery Act 2404:semiconductor device fabrication 2398:Semiconductor device fabrication 1831: 1320:American system of manufacturing 1137: 910: 694: 522: 487:. Electric motors did away with 118:, which was a key factor in the 6139:The Journal of Economic History 6114:"Hours of Work in U.S. History" 6077:"Standards of Living 1700–1870" 5931:Man Hours: A Declining Quantity 4949: 4919: 4854: 4772: 4743: 4726: 4627: 4573: 4551: 4474: 4367: 4200: 4161: 4114: 4062: 4036: 3984: 3957: 3700: 3669: 3644: 3619: 3584:. Misc II. United States: 287. 3573: 3481: 3423: 3414: 3361: 3173: 3045: 2990: 2964: 2933: 2862: 2837: 2776:. New York: Simon and Schuster. 2523:British Agricultural Revolution 2517:Improvement in living standards 2006: 1036:and compressors, respectively. 956:required 32,000 machine tools. 844:to supply one weaver. With the 432:two stroke marine diesel engine 216:British Agricultural Revolution 4374:Taylor, George Rogers (1969). 4131:. May 17, 1893. Archived from 3762:Johns Hopkins University Press 3343:Electricity in Economic Growth 2826: 2812: 2656: 2641: 2626: 2595:Historical school of economics 1843: 405:improvements, which increased 1: 4988:"World Steel in Figures 2013" 4043:Schmeichen, James A. (1984). 3243:10.1016/S0360-5442(02)00089-0 2620: 2585:Democracy and economic growth 2220:History of computing hardware 1932: 1895:Dematerialization (economics) 993:Mechanized materials handling 244:New forms of energy and power 114:(1561–1626) is known for the 6169:Sources and further reading 5786:Field, Alezander J. (2007). 5622:10.1016/j.jmacro.2007.08.008 4789:. p. 36. Archived from 4168:Prescott, Edward C. (1997). 3992:The tools that built America 3923:Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916), 3651:Field, Alexander J. (2011). 3295:Williams, Trevor I. (1993). 2684:10.1016/0040-1625(79)90008-8 2410:Electronic design automation 1985:Radio frequency transmission 1956: 1253:Work practices and processes 1248:Intermodal freight transport 1229:warehouses tied up capital. 1224:Either loading or unloading 1099:The important categories of 1090:Nasmyth, Gaskell and Company 811:Second Industrial Revolution 677: 665: 643: 306:, a safe to handle blend of 221:Second Industrial Revolution 7: 5270:Lebergott, Stanley (1993). 3055:; Crowther, Samuel (1922). 2799:Handbook of Economic Growth 2573: 2376:Airline Reservations System 1626:(patented in 1855) and the 1478:of steel and other metals. 1414:Rationalized factory layout 549:Multiple-effect evaporators 321:Steam power was applied to 10: 6299: 6175:Landes, David. S. (1969). 5892:Gordon, Robert J. (2000). 5104:Murphy, Tom (2012-04-10). 4226:Musson & Robinson 1969 3849:Musson & Robinson 1969 2663:Marchetti, Cesare (1978). 2652:. Oxford University Press. 2551: 2520: 2482:sectors decline in size. 2228: 2217: 2093:, feedback control with a 2075: 2025:fiber-optic communications 2016: 2010: 1988: 1936: 1892: 1855:Hard materials for cutting 1801: 1742: 1692: 1548: 1437:Modern business management 1389:was part of the change to 1375: 1337: 1310: 1291: 1217: 1202:Piggyback (transportation) 1199: 1141: 1001: 914: 808: 802: 756:. In the early 1800s the 698: 658:Electric street railways ( 647: 615: 472: 466: 374: 371:Conversion of heat to work 61: 57: 6151:10.1017/S0022050700039073 5927:Hubbert, M. King (1940). 5835:Bjork, Gordon J. (1999). 5610:Journal of Macroeconomics 5580:Postwar Economic Problems 5451:Semiconductor Engineering 5278:62; adapted from Fig. 9.1 4273:. Princeton Univ. Press. 3598:Fogel, Robert W. (1964). 3488:History of the Light Bulb 2869:Hunter, Louis C. (1985). 2736:Musson; Robinson (1969). 2369:Automated teller machines 2040:Global Positioning System 2036:Communications satellites 2031:Communications satellites 1977:to begin research on the 1719:Cement is the binder for 1714: 1075: 1059:Types of conveyor systems 969: 717:reaper, late 19th century 650:History of rail transport 6112:Whaples, Robert (2010). 5862:Paepke, C. Owen (1992). 5665:. World KLEMS Conference 4956:Paepke, C. Owen (1992). 4927:"History of Papermaking" 4750:Misa, Thomas J. (1995). 4733:Flint, Henry M. (1868). 4634:Tylecote, R. F. (1992). 4238:Hunter & Bryant 1991 4158:, pp. 135–136, 455. 4156:Hunter & Bryant 1991 3546:Grübler, Arnulf (1990). 3430:Fling, Harry M. (1868). 3368:Paepke, C. Owen (1992). 3265:Wells, David A. (1891). 2997:Wells, David A. (1891). 2275:Stored-program computers 1738: 1012:Unloading cotton c. 1900 611: 504:hydraulic power networks 314:was patented in 1867 by 6018:: 13–19. Archived from 5528:www.laserfocusworld.com 5410:Rifkin, Jeremy (1995). 4402:Nelson, Daniel (1980). 4316:: 16–17. Archived from 3964:Angela Lakwete (2005). 3760:, Baltimore, Maryland: 3707:Clark, Gregory (2007). 3676:Yergin, Daniel (1992). 2844:Rosen, William (2012). 2772:Temple, Robert (1986). 2302:In 1973 IBM introduced 1873:Bethlehem Steel Company 1869:Fredrick Winslow Taylor 1642:essential component of 1587:successful process was 1486:and the development of 1354:Fredrick Winslow Taylor 1346:time and motion studies 1018:bulk materials handling 998:Bulk materials handling 772:were combined into the 689:centrifugal compressors 381:Timeline of steam power 170:Jean le Rond d'Alembert 150:countercurrent exchange 5984:Cite journal requires 5948:Cite journal requires 5803:Cite journal requires 5508:: CS1 maint: others ( 5219:. Joseph Henry Press. 5194:. Joseph Henry Press. 4946:, p. 65, Note 23. 4714:Cite journal requires 4515:Cite journal requires 4343:Cite journal requires 4267:Marc Levinson (2006). 4188:Cite journal requires 4122:"Michael Joseph Owens" 4106:Jerome, Harry (1934). 4075:. 1983. Archived from 4016:Thomson, Ross (1989). 3901:Cite journal requires 3626:Slater, Cliff (1997). 3461:Nye, David E. (1990). 2532: 2475: 2470: 2252: 2240: 2203: 2128:Control theory#History 2114: 2001:microwave transmission 1995:Microwave transmission 1559:The process of making 1513: 1495:Scientific agriculture 1455: 1173: 1161: 1085: 1013: 1004:Bulk material handling 930: 868:Portsmouth Block Mills 788: 749: 718: 706:Mechanized agriculture 573: 455:. This is called the 447:William Stanley Jevons 340:Mechanized agriculture 296: 277: 229:electromagnetic theory 32: 4822:Smil, Vaclav (2006). 4594:Smil, Vaclav (2004). 3582:American State Papers 3514:. London: Routledge. 3198:Smil, Vaclav (2005). 3037:Smil, Vaclav (2006). 2610:Productivity software 2530: 2471: 2466: 2439:devices and cut down 2265:unit record equipment 2246: 2238: 2231:Unit record equipment 2225:Unit record equipment 2197: 2162:continuous production 2104: 2017:Further information: 1743:Further information: 1510: 1463:Continuous production 1458:Continuous production 1451: 1391:interchangeable parts 1359:scientific management 1340:Scientific management 1334:Scientific management 1328:Interchangeable parts 1313:Interchangeable parts 1307:Interchangeable parts 1167: 1151: 1083: 1011: 950:planer (metalworking) 938:interchangeable parts 924: 830:Industrial Revolution 809:Further information: 805:Industrial Revolution 803:Further information: 783:Harvesting oats in a 782: 743: 713: 616:Further information: 598:Light-emitting diodes 569: 473:Further information: 395:Newcomen steam engine 385:Thermal power station 290: 271: 262:Newcomen steam engine 219:sometimes called the 203:and where his friend 146:continuous production 124:four great inventions 120:scientific revolution 64:History of technology 22: 6273:Production economics 6258:10.2139/ssrn.2212100 5326:Bennett, S. (1979). 5301:Bennett, S. (1993). 5083:10.1002/2013EF000171 5030:. University of Utah 4687:: 21. Archived from 3508:McNeil, Ian (1990). 2971:Dunn, James (1905). 2790:Mokyr, Joel (2004). 2548:Decline in work week 2503:productivity paradox 2391:Productivity paradox 2177:were automated with 2119:centrifugal governor 1939:Electrical telegraph 1484:Corliss steam engine 1476:direct strip casting 799:Industrial machinery 547:in many processes. 272:1900s photograph of 6210:"Learning by using" 5913:10.1257/jep.14.4.49 5075:2014EaFut...2..127G 5024:"GDP is not Wealth" 4481:Sukoo, Kim (1999). 4228:, pp. 491–495. 3754:Hounshell, David A. 3447:, pp. 298–299. 3245:. 2002/52/EPS/CMER. 2919:and Benjamin Warr, 2580:Accelerating change 2425:fabrication process 2339:information. See: 2320:relational database 2293:integrated circuits 2261:tabulating machines 2124:James Clerk Maxwell 2013:Optical fiber cable 1849:Seismic exploration 1798:Rubber and plastics 1637:Today a variety of 1601:open hearth furnace 1584:Cementation process 1408:technical standards 1395:mass-produced goods 1168:The handle on this 942:screw-cutting lathe 618:Good Roads Movement 584:Lighting efficiency 537:open hearth furnace 189:École Polytechnique 6093:on 19 January 2012 5761:Business Economics 5705:10.1257/jep.22.1.3 3830:White, William J. 2533: 2362:Process simulation 2253: 2241: 2204: 2115: 1679:continuous casting 1514: 1282:putting out system 1176:Handling goods on 1174: 1162: 1086: 1014: 931: 789: 750: 719: 436:thermal efficiency 407:thermal efficiency 323:threshing machines 312:diatomaceous earth 297: 278: 209:separate condenser 128:Chinese inventions 33: 6205:Rosenberg, Nathan 6061:978-0-521-80878-1 5875:978-0-679-41582-4 5848:978-0-275-96532-7 5429:978-0-87477-779-6 5393:978-0-309-08908-1 5337:978-0-86341-047-5 5312:978-0-86341-280-6 5287:978-0-691-04322-7 5253:978-0-309-08908-1 5149:978-0-309-08908-1 4973:978-0-679-41582-4 4765:978-0-8018-6052-2 4647:978-1-902653-79-2 4605:978-0-262-69313-4 4280:978-0-691-12324-0 3990:Bealer, Alex W.. 3952:978-0-917914-73-7 3813:978-0-309-08908-1 3771:978-0-8018-2975-8 3724:978-0-691-12135-2 3662:978-0-300-15109-1 3611:978-0-8018-1148-7 3521:978-0-415-14792-7 3385:978-0-679-41582-4 3353:978-0-309-03677-1 3278:978-0-543-72474-8 3131:978-0-262-08198-6 3014:978-0-543-72474-8 2982:978-1-4344-6870-3 2957:978-0-393-96315-1 2929:978-1-84844-182-8 2719:978-1-84467-633-0 2207:Industrial robots 2179:numerical control 1913:Dematerialization 1900:Dematerialization 1889:Dematerialization 1809:Vulcanized rubber 1270:Division of labor 1258:Division of labor 1034:centrifugal pumps 774:combine harvester 770:threshing machine 762:Cyrus McCormick's 746:combine harvester 735:threshing machine 685:Centrifugal pumps 638:Bridgewater Canal 563:Reducing friction 452:The Coal Question 389:Engine efficiency 365:energy efficiency 359:Energy efficiency 255:Benoît Fourneyron 116:scientific method 6290: 6243:Greenspan Speech 6218: 6212: 6193:Link, Stefan J. 6190: 6163: 6162: 6134: 6128: 6127: 6122:. Archived from 6109: 6103: 6102: 6100: 6098: 6092: 6086:. Archived from 6081: 6072: 6066: 6065: 6048:Fogel, Robert W. 6044: 6038: 6037: 6031: 6030: 6024: 6009: 6000: 5994: 5993: 5987: 5982: 5980: 5972: 5964: 5958: 5957: 5951: 5946: 5944: 5936: 5924: 5918: 5917: 5915: 5889: 5880: 5879: 5859: 5853: 5852: 5832: 5823: 5819: 5813: 5812: 5806: 5801: 5799: 5791: 5783: 5777: 5776: 5771:. Archived from 5752: 5743: 5742: 5740: 5739: 5733: 5724: 5718: 5717: 5707: 5689: 5680: 5674: 5673: 5671: 5670: 5664: 5655: 5649: 5648: 5646: 5640:. 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Gordon 2453:krypton fluoride 2329:Relational model 2308:bar code readers 1883:tungsten carbide 1865:High speed steel 1813:Synthetic rubber 1695:Sodium carbonate 1646:of automobiles. 1620:puddling process 1518:Green Revolution 1243:Containerization 1226:break bulk cargo 1220:Containerization 1214:Containerization 1118:continuous track 1094:Continuous track 987:automated mining 976:continuous track 594:fluorescent lamp 513:Bessemer process 52:living standards 6298: 6297: 6293: 6292: 6291: 6289: 6288: 6287: 6283:Economic growth 6263: 6262: 6225: 6187: 6171: 6166: 6135: 6131: 6110: 6106: 6096: 6094: 6090: 6079: 6073: 6069: 6062: 6045: 6041: 6028: 6026: 6022: 6007: 6001: 5997: 5985: 5983: 5974: 5973: 5965: 5961: 5949: 5947: 5938: 5937: 5925: 5921: 5890: 5883: 5876: 5860: 5856: 5849: 5833: 5826: 5820: 5816: 5804: 5802: 5793: 5792: 5784: 5780: 5753: 5746: 5737: 5735: 5731: 5725: 5721: 5687: 5681: 5677: 5668: 5666: 5662: 5656: 5652: 5644: 5605: 5599: 5592: 5575: 5571: 5555: 5549: 5542: 5533: 5531: 5522: 5521: 5517: 5501: 5500: 5488: 5474: 5473: 5464: 5455: 5453: 5445: 5444: 5437: 5430: 5408: 5401: 5394: 5378: 5374: 5366: 5362: 5354: 5345: 5338: 5324: 5320: 5313: 5299: 5295: 5288: 5268: 5261: 5254: 5238: 5234: 5227: 5213: 5209: 5202: 5188: 5184: 5177: 5161: 5157: 5150: 5134: 5127: 5114: 5112: 5102: 5098: 5049: 5045: 5033: 5031: 5022:Garrett, T. J. 5020: 5016: 5007: 5005: 5001: 4990: 4986: 4985: 4981: 4974: 4954: 4950: 4942: 4938: 4925: 4924: 4920: 4915: 4906: 4898: 4894: 4886: 4882: 4874: 4870: 4860: 4859: 4855: 4847: 4843: 4835: 4831: 4820: 4811: 4799: 4797: 4793: 4786: 4777: 4773: 4766: 4748: 4744: 4731: 4727: 4715: 4713: 4704: 4703: 4697: 4695: 4691: 4684: 4675: 4671: 4663: 4659: 4648: 4632: 4628: 4620: 4613: 4606: 4592: 4585: 4578: 4574: 4562: 4556: 4552: 4544: 4540: 4532: 4528: 4516: 4514: 4505: 4504: 4498: 4496: 4492: 4485: 4479: 4475: 4468: 4452: 4445: 4437: 4433: 4425: 4421: 4414: 4400: 4393: 4386: 4378:. M.E. Sharpe. 4372: 4368: 4360: 4356: 4344: 4342: 4333: 4332: 4326: 4324: 4320: 4313: 4304: 4300: 4292: 4288: 4281: 4265: 4244: 4236: 4232: 4224: 4220: 4213:Mining Magazine 4205: 4201: 4189: 4187: 4178: 4177: 4172: 4166: 4162: 4154: 4150: 4141: 4139: 4135: 4124: 4120: 4119: 4115: 4104: 4087: 4079: 4072: 4068: 4067: 4063: 4056: 4052: 4041: 4037: 4030: 4014: 4005: 3989: 3985: 3978: 3962: 3958: 3921: 3914: 3902: 3900: 3891: 3890: 3884: 3882: 3878: 3871: 3862: 3855: 3847: 3843: 3828: 3821: 3814: 3798: 3794: 3772: 3751: 3732: 3725: 3705: 3701: 3693: 3689: 3674: 3670: 3663: 3649: 3645: 3637: 3630: 3624: 3620: 3612: 3596: 3592: 3578: 3574: 3565: 3563: 3559: 3552: 3544: 3529: 3522: 3506: 3493: 3486: 3482: 3474: 3470: 3458: 3451: 3443: 3439: 3428: 3424: 3419: 3415: 3403: 3397: 3393: 3386: 3366: 3362: 3354: 3338: 3331: 3323: 3314: 3307: 3293: 3286: 3279: 3263: 3250: 3226: 3220: 3211: 3196: 3185: 3178: 3174: 3166: 3162: 3154: 3139: 3132: 3114: 3093: 3086:Policy Analysis 3081: 3075: 3066: 3050: 3046: 3035: 3022: 3015: 2995: 2991: 2983: 2969: 2965: 2958: 2938: 2934: 2917:Robert U. Ayres 2915: 2908: 2900: 2893: 2887: 2878: 2867: 2863: 2856: 2842: 2838: 2831: 2827: 2818: 2817: 2813: 2804: 2802: 2794: 2788: 2781: 2770: 2763: 2756: 2734: 2727: 2720: 2706: 2699: 2667: 2661: 2657: 2646: 2642: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2600:Kondratiev wave 2576: 2556: 2550: 2542:Fredrick Engels 2525: 2519: 2488:M. King Hubbert 2465: 2400: 2386:control systems 2351:online shopping 2277: 2233: 2227: 2222: 2216: 2185:Servomechanisms 2150:Process control 2134:electrification 2108:Process control 2084: 2082:Process control 2076:Main articles: 2074: 2059: 2048: 2046:Facsimile (fax) 2033: 2021: 2015: 2009: 1997: 1989:Main articles: 1987: 1959: 1941: 1935: 1930: 1897: 1891: 1857: 1846: 1834: 1806: 1800: 1779:sulfite process 1771: 1757:Sulfite process 1741: 1725:Portland cement 1717: 1701:Leblanc process 1697: 1691: 1644:mass production 1557: 1549:Main articles: 1547: 1542: 1497: 1460: 1439: 1427:mass production 1419:Electrification 1416: 1387:Standardization 1383:Standardization 1380: 1378:Standardization 1374: 1372:Standardization 1362:after his work 1342: 1336: 1324:interchangeable 1315: 1309: 1296: 1290: 1260: 1255: 1222: 1216: 1204: 1198: 1186:forklift trucks 1146: 1140: 1078: 1063:mass production 1055:overhead cranes 1046:built in 1785. 1006: 1000: 995: 972: 946:milling machine 919: 913: 883:balloon framing 813: 807: 801: 708: 703: 697: 680: 668: 652: 646: 633: 620: 614: 606: 604:Infrastructures 586: 565: 545:heat exchangers 525: 481:Electrification 477: 471: 469:Electrification 465: 391: 375:Main articles: 373: 361: 347:electrification 246: 241: 136:De re metallica 105:De Re Metallica 66: 60: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6296: 6286: 6285: 6280: 6275: 6261: 6260: 6250: 6245: 6240: 6235: 6224: 6223:External links 6221: 6220: 6219: 6201: 6191: 6185: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6164: 6145:(2): 454–457. 6129: 6126:on 2011-10-26. 6104: 6067: 6060: 6039: 5995: 5986:|journal= 5959: 5950:|journal= 5919: 5881: 5874: 5854: 5847: 5824: 5814: 5805:|journal= 5778: 5775:on 2008-07-08. 5744: 5719: 5675: 5650: 5647:on 2014-07-14. 5590: 5569: 5540: 5530:. October 1996 5515: 5486: 5462: 5435: 5428: 5399: 5392: 5372: 5360: 5343: 5336: 5318: 5311: 5293: 5286: 5259: 5252: 5232: 5226:978-0309089081 5225: 5207: 5201:978-0309089081 5200: 5182: 5175: 5155: 5148: 5125: 5096: 5059:(3): 127–151. 5053:Earth's Future 5043: 5028:inscc.utah.edu 5014: 4979: 4972: 4948: 4944:Rosenberg 1982 4936: 4933:on 2013-10-24. 4918: 4904: 4902:, p. 383. 4892: 4890:, p. 270. 4880: 4878:, p. 466. 4868: 4853: 4851:, p. 475. 4841: 4837:Rosenberg 1982 4829: 4809: 4771: 4764: 4742: 4725: 4716:|journal= 4669: 4657: 4654:on 2015-04-02. 4646: 4626: 4611: 4604: 4583: 4572: 4550: 4548:, p. 243. 4538: 4526: 4517:|journal= 4473: 4467:978-0674940529 4466: 4443: 4441:, p. 133. 4431: 4429:, p. 118. 4427:Rosenberg 1982 4419: 4413:978-0299081607 4412: 4391: 4385:978-0873321013 4384: 4366: 4364:, p. 823. 4354: 4345:|journal= 4298: 4296:, p. 114. 4286: 4279: 4242: 4230: 4218: 4199: 4190:|journal= 4160: 4148: 4113: 4085: 4082:on 2013-04-05. 4061: 4050: 4035: 4029:978-0807818671 4028: 4003: 3983: 3976: 3956: 3912: 3903:|journal= 3853: 3841: 3838:on 2013-10-24. 3819: 3812: 3792: 3770: 3730: 3723: 3699: 3687: 3668: 3661: 3643: 3640:on 2012-04-25. 3618: 3610: 3590: 3572: 3527: 3520: 3491: 3480: 3476:Rosenberg 1982 3468: 3449: 3437: 3422: 3413: 3391: 3384: 3360: 3352: 3329: 3312: 3306:978-0198581598 3305: 3284: 3277: 3248: 3237:(3): 219–273. 3209: 3183: 3172: 3168:Rosenberg 1982 3160: 3137: 3130: 3091: 3064: 3044: 3020: 3013: 2989: 2981: 2963: 2956: 2932: 2906: 2903:on 2017-01-16. 2876: 2861: 2855:978-0226726342 2854: 2836: 2825: 2811: 2779: 2761: 2754: 2725: 2718: 2697: 2655: 2640: 2624: 2622: 2619: 2618: 2617: 2612: 2607: 2602: 2597: 2592: 2587: 2582: 2575: 2572: 2552:Main article: 2549: 2546: 2518: 2515: 2464: 2461: 2441:time-to-market 2399: 2396: 2276: 2273: 2229:Main article: 2226: 2223: 2215: 2212: 2189:control theory 2112:PID controller 2073: 2070: 2058: 2055: 2047: 2044: 2032: 2029: 2011:Main article: 2008: 2005: 1986: 1983: 1958: 1955: 1937:Main article: 1934: 1931: 1929: 1928:Communications 1926: 1922:Jevons paradox 1893:Main article: 1890: 1887: 1856: 1853: 1845: 1842: 1833: 1830: 1802:Main article: 1799: 1796: 1765:Containerboard 1740: 1737: 1716: 1713: 1709:Solvay process 1693:Main article: 1690: 1687: 1628:Siemens-Martin 1589:crucible steel 1546: 1545:Iron and steel 1543: 1541: 1538: 1496: 1493: 1488:control theory 1467:blast furnaces 1459: 1456: 1438: 1435: 1415: 1412: 1376:Main article: 1373: 1370: 1338:Main article: 1335: 1332: 1311:Main article: 1308: 1305: 1301:factory system 1294:Factory system 1292:Main article: 1289: 1288:Factory system 1286: 1264:factory system 1259: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1218:Main article: 1215: 1212: 1200:Main article: 1197: 1196:Piggyback rail 1194: 1142:Main article: 1139: 1136: 1128: 1127: 1121: 1111: 1108:Overhead crane 1077: 1074: 1002:Main article: 999: 996: 994: 991: 971: 968: 915:Main article: 912: 909: 897:sewing machine 846:spinning jenny 842:spinning wheel 838:flying shuttle 834:stocking frame 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5831: 5829: 5818: 5810: 5797: 5789: 5782: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5751: 5749: 5730: 5723: 5715: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5686: 5679: 5661: 5654: 5643: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5604: 5597: 5595: 5586: 5582: 5581: 5573: 5565: 5561: 5554: 5547: 5545: 5529: 5525: 5519: 5511: 5505: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5487:1-4020-7502-2 5483: 5479: 5478: 5471: 5469: 5467: 5452: 5448: 5442: 5440: 5431: 5425: 5421: 5416: 5415: 5406: 5404: 5395: 5389: 5385: 5384: 5376: 5370:, p. 31. 5369: 5364: 5357: 5352: 5350: 5348: 5339: 5333: 5329: 5322: 5314: 5308: 5304: 5297: 5289: 5283: 5279: 5275: 5274: 5266: 5264: 5255: 5249: 5245: 5244: 5236: 5228: 5222: 5218: 5211: 5203: 5197: 5193: 5186: 5178: 5176:9781579584641 5172: 5168: 5167: 5159: 5151: 5145: 5141: 5140: 5132: 5130: 5122: 5111: 5107: 5100: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5067: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5047: 5040: 5029: 5025: 5018: 5004:on 2013-11-01 5000: 4996: 4989: 4983: 4975: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4960: 4952: 4945: 4940: 4932: 4928: 4922: 4913: 4911: 4909: 4901: 4896: 4889: 4884: 4877: 4872: 4864: 4857: 4850: 4845: 4839:, p. 90. 4838: 4833: 4825: 4818: 4816: 4814: 4806: 4796:on 2012-03-01 4792: 4785: 4781: 4780:Ayres, Robert 4775: 4767: 4761: 4756: 4755: 4746: 4738: 4737: 4729: 4721: 4708: 4694:on 2012-03-01 4690: 4683: 4679: 4678:Ayres, Robert 4673: 4667:, p. 82. 4666: 4661: 4653: 4649: 4643: 4639: 4638: 4630: 4623: 4618: 4616: 4607: 4601: 4598:. MIT Press. 4597: 4590: 4588: 4581: 4576: 4568: 4561: 4554: 4547: 4542: 4536:, p. 23. 4535: 4530: 4522: 4509: 4495:on 2011-08-27 4491: 4484: 4477: 4469: 4463: 4459: 4458: 4450: 4448: 4440: 4439:Chandler 1993 4435: 4428: 4423: 4415: 4409: 4405: 4398: 4396: 4387: 4381: 4377: 4370: 4363: 4358: 4350: 4337: 4323:on 2012-03-01 4319: 4312: 4308: 4307:Ayres, Robert 4302: 4295: 4290: 4282: 4276: 4272: 4271: 4263: 4261: 4259: 4257: 4255: 4253: 4251: 4249: 4247: 4239: 4234: 4227: 4222: 4214: 4210: 4203: 4195: 4182: 4171: 4164: 4157: 4152: 4134: 4130: 4123: 4117: 4109: 4102: 4100: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4092: 4090: 4078: 4071: 4065: 4059: 4054: 4046: 4039: 4031: 4025: 4021: 4020: 4012: 4010: 4008: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3987: 3979: 3977:9780801882722 3973: 3969: 3968: 3960: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3927: 3919: 3917: 3908: 3895: 3881:on 2012-03-01 3877: 3870: 3866: 3865:Ayres, Robert 3860: 3858: 3850: 3845: 3837: 3833: 3826: 3824: 3815: 3809: 3805: 3804: 3796: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3749: 3747: 3745: 3743: 3741: 3739: 3737: 3735: 3726: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3711: 3703: 3697:, p. 26. 3696: 3691: 3682: 3681: 3672: 3664: 3658: 3654: 3647: 3636: 3629: 3622: 3613: 3607: 3603: 3602: 3594: 3587: 3583: 3576: 3562:on 2012-03-01 3558: 3551: 3550: 3542: 3540: 3538: 3536: 3534: 3532: 3523: 3517: 3513: 3512: 3504: 3502: 3500: 3498: 3496: 3489: 3484: 3478:, p. 61. 3477: 3472: 3464: 3456: 3454: 3446: 3441: 3433: 3426: 3417: 3409: 3402: 3395: 3387: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3372: 3364: 3355: 3349: 3345: 3344: 3336: 3334: 3326: 3321: 3319: 3317: 3308: 3302: 3298: 3291: 3289: 3280: 3274: 3270: 3269: 3261: 3259: 3257: 3255: 3253: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3225: 3218: 3216: 3214: 3204: 3203: 3194: 3192: 3190: 3188: 3181: 3176: 3170:, p. 65. 3169: 3164: 3157: 3152: 3150: 3148: 3146: 3144: 3142: 3133: 3127: 3122: 3121: 3112: 3110: 3108: 3106: 3104: 3102: 3100: 3098: 3096: 3087: 3080: 3073: 3071: 3069: 3060: 3059: 3054: 3048: 3040: 3033: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3025: 3016: 3010: 3006: 3002: 3001: 2993: 2984: 2978: 2974: 2967: 2959: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2944: 2936: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2913: 2911: 2899: 2892: 2885: 2883: 2881: 2872: 2865: 2857: 2851: 2847: 2840: 2834: 2829: 2821: 2815: 2800: 2793: 2786: 2784: 2775: 2768: 2766: 2757: 2755:9780802016379 2751: 2747: 2742: 2741: 2732: 2730: 2721: 2715: 2711: 2704: 2702: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2666: 2659: 2651: 2644: 2638: 2636: 2629: 2625: 2616: 2615:Working hours 2613: 2611: 2608: 2606: 2603: 2601: 2598: 2596: 2593: 2591: 2588: 2586: 2583: 2581: 2578: 2577: 2571: 2569: 2568:four-day week 2564: 2562: 2555: 2545: 2543: 2537: 2529: 2524: 2514: 2510: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2494: 2491: 2489: 2485: 2480: 2474: 2469: 2460: 2458: 2457:excimer laser 2454: 2449: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2405: 2395: 2393: 2392: 2387: 2382: 2379: 2377: 2372: 2370: 2366: 2363: 2359: 2354: 2352: 2348: 2343: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2321: 2316: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2304:point of sale 2300: 2296: 2294: 2290: 2289:semiconductor 2286: 2282: 2272: 2268: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2257:punched cards 2250: 2245: 2237: 2232: 2221: 2211: 2208: 2201: 2196: 2192: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2180: 2176: 2175:Machine tools 2172: 2170: 2165: 2163: 2158: 2154: 2151: 2145: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2130: 2129: 2125: 2120: 2113: 2109: 2103: 2099: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2083: 2079: 2069: 2065: 2062: 2054: 2052: 2043: 2041: 2037: 2028: 2026: 2020: 2014: 2004: 2002: 1996: 1992: 1982: 1980: 1976: 1970: 1968: 1963: 1954: 1952: 1948: 1946: 1940: 1925: 1923: 1919: 1914: 1910: 1904: 1901: 1896: 1886: 1884: 1879: 1876: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1852: 1850: 1841: 1838: 1837:Optical fiber 1832:Optical fiber 1829: 1827: 1823: 1821: 1816: 1814: 1810: 1805: 1795: 1792: 1788: 1785:(Swedish for 1784: 1780: 1776: 1775:paper machine 1770: 1766: 1762: 1761:Kraft process 1758: 1754: 1753:Paper machine 1750: 1746: 1736: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1712: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1696: 1686: 1683: 1680: 1675: 1674: 1668: 1665: 1661: 1658: 1656: 1652: 1651:steam turbine 1647: 1645: 1640: 1635: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1616: 1614: 1609: 1604: 1602: 1598: 1592: 1590: 1585: 1580: 1578: 1573: 1571: 1567: 1562: 1556: 1552: 1537: 1533: 1530: 1527: 1522: 1519: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1492: 1489: 1485: 1479: 1477: 1472: 1471:paper machine 1468: 1464: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1443: 1434: 1432: 1431:assembly line 1428: 1424: 1423:machine tools 1420: 1411: 1409: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1379: 1369: 1367: 1366: 1361: 1360: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1341: 1331: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1314: 1304: 1302: 1295: 1285: 1283: 1278: 1276: 1271: 1267: 1265: 1250: 1249: 1244: 1240: 1237: 1233: 1230: 1227: 1221: 1211: 1208: 1203: 1193: 1191: 1190:Loading docks 1187: 1183: 1179: 1171: 1166: 1159: 1158:loading docks 1155: 1150: 1145: 1138:Palletization 1135: 1133: 1132:containerized 1125: 1122: 1119: 1115: 1112: 1109: 1106: 1105: 1104: 1102: 1097: 1095: 1091: 1082: 1073: 1071: 1070:assembly line 1066: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1047: 1045: 1040: 1037: 1035: 1030: 1026: 1023: 1022:power shovels 1019: 1010: 1005: 990: 988: 983: 979: 977: 967: 966: 962: 957: 955: 951: 947: 943: 939: 935: 934:Machine tools 928: 923: 918: 911:Machine tools 908: 904: 900: 898: 893: 890: 888: 884: 880: 876: 871: 869: 864: 861: 859: 855: 854:spinning mule 851: 847: 843: 839: 835: 831: 827: 822: 819: 812: 806: 796: 793: 786: 781: 777: 775: 771: 767: 764:horse pulled 763: 759: 755: 747: 742: 738: 736: 732: 727: 725: 716: 712: 702: 701:Mechanization 695:Mechanization 692: 690: 686: 675: 672: 663: 661: 656: 651: 641: 639: 628: 625: 619: 609: 601: 599: 595: 590: 581: 579: 572: 568: 560: 557: 555: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 523:Reuse of heat 520: 516: 514: 509: 505: 501: 496: 494: 490: 486: 482: 476: 470: 460: 458: 454: 453: 448: 443: 439: 437: 433: 429: 428: 422: 418: 416: 410: 408: 404: 400: 396: 390: 386: 382: 378: 368: 366: 356: 354: 353: 348: 343: 341: 336: 331: 329: 328:road engines, 324: 319: 317: 313: 309: 308:nitroglycerin 305: 301: 294: 289: 285: 283: 282:pulled barges 275: 274:barge pullers 270: 266: 263: 258: 256: 252: 236: 234: 230: 226: 222: 217: 212: 210: 206: 202: 198: 197:heat capacity 194: 190: 186: 185:Royal Society 182: 177: 175: 174:Enlightenment 171: 167: 166:Denis Diderot 163: 157: 155: 151: 147: 142: 138: 137: 131: 129: 125: 121: 117: 113: 112:Francis Bacon 109: 107: 106: 101: 98: 94: 90: 85: 83: 82:blast furnace 79: 78:crop rotation 75: 71: 65: 55: 53: 49: 44: 42: 38: 30: 26: 25:spinning mule 21: 6214: 6194: 6176: 6142: 6138: 6132: 6124:the original 6117: 6107: 6095:. Retrieved 6088:the original 6070: 6051: 6042: 6033: 6027:. Retrieved 6020:the original 6015: 6011: 5998: 5977:cite journal 5962: 5941:cite journal 5930: 5922: 5906:(4): 49–74. 5903: 5897: 5864: 5857: 5837: 5817: 5796:cite journal 5781: 5773:the original 5760: 5736:. Retrieved 5722: 5695: 5691: 5678: 5667:. Retrieved 5653: 5642:the original 5613: 5609: 5579: 5572: 5532:. Retrieved 5527: 5518: 5476: 5454:. Retrieved 5450: 5413: 5382: 5375: 5368:Bennett 1993 5363: 5356:Bennett 1993 5327: 5321: 5302: 5296: 5272: 5242: 5235: 5216: 5210: 5191: 5185: 5165: 5158: 5138: 5119: 5113:. Retrieved 5109: 5099: 5056: 5052: 5046: 5038: 5032:. Retrieved 5027: 5017: 5006:. Retrieved 4999:the original 4994: 4982: 4958: 4951: 4939: 4931:the original 4921: 4895: 4883: 4871: 4862: 4856: 4844: 4832: 4823: 4804: 4798:. Retrieved 4791:the original 4774: 4753: 4745: 4735: 4728: 4707:cite journal 4696:. 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Retrieved 2798: 2773: 2739: 2709: 2675: 2671: 2658: 2649: 2643: 2634: 2628: 2565: 2557: 2554:Working time 2538: 2534: 2511: 2495: 2492: 2476: 2472: 2467: 2455:(KrF)-based 2450: 2408: 2401: 2389: 2383: 2380: 2373: 2367: 2355: 2344: 2336: 2332: 2324: 2317: 2301: 2297: 2281:vacuum tubes 2278: 2269: 2254: 2247:Card from a 2205: 2183: 2173: 2166: 2159: 2155: 2146: 2138:ladder logic 2131: 2116: 2085: 2066: 2063: 2060: 2049: 2034: 2022: 2007:Fiber optics 1998: 1971: 1967:switchboards 1964: 1960: 1951:Teleprinters 1949: 1942: 1905: 1898: 1880: 1877: 1861:Mushet steel 1858: 1847: 1835: 1824: 1817: 1807: 1786: 1772: 1749:Pulp (paper) 1718: 1698: 1684: 1676: 1669: 1666: 1662: 1659: 1648: 1639:alloy steels 1636: 1617: 1613:wrought iron 1608:wrought iron 1605: 1593: 1581: 1574: 1566:Wrought iron 1558: 1534: 1531: 1523: 1515: 1502: 1498: 1480: 1461: 1452: 1447: 1444: 1440: 1417: 1403:Railway time 1381: 1363: 1357: 1343: 1316: 1297: 1279: 1268: 1261: 1241: 1238: 1234: 1231: 1223: 1205: 1182:pallet jacks 1175: 1129: 1114:Mobile crane 1098: 1087: 1067: 1048: 1041: 1038: 1031: 1027: 1015: 984: 980: 973: 958: 954:Ford Model T 932: 927:machine tool 926: 917:Machine tool 905: 901: 894: 891: 887:timber frame 875:circular saw 872: 865: 862: 823: 818:trip hammers 814: 794: 790: 758:grain cradle 751: 728: 720: 681: 673: 669: 657: 653: 634: 621: 607: 591: 587: 574: 570: 566: 558: 554:Cogeneration 526: 517: 497: 485:power losses 478: 450: 444: 440: 425: 423: 419: 411: 399:John Smeaton 392: 377:Steam engine 362: 350: 344: 332: 327: 320: 316:Alfred Nobel 302: 298: 279: 259: 251:John Smeaton 247: 213: 193:Joseph Black 181:steam engine 178: 162:Encyclopédie 158: 134: 132: 110: 103: 97:movable type 86: 74:horse collar 67: 45: 41:productivity 36: 34: 5714:10419/60598 5616:: 173–190. 5524:"StackPath" 5358:, p. . 5110:Do the Math 4964:200, Note 2 4900:McNeil 1990 4888:Landes 1969 4876:McNeil 1990 4849:Landes 1969 4665:Landes 1969 4624:, p. . 4622:Temple 1986 4362:McNeil 1990 4240:, p. . 3695:Temple 1986 3445:Landes 1969 3327:, p. . 3325:McNeil 1990 3158:, p. . 3156:Landes 1969 3053:Ford, Henry 2507:Moore's law 2479:Moore's law 2418:Moore's law 2285:transistors 2169:direct dial 1999:After WWII 1918:outsourcing 1909:shrink wrap 1844:Oil and gas 1677:After 1950 1655:gas turbine 1529:in humans. 1526:Haber-Bosch 1399:track gauge 1397:. Railroad 1262:Before the 1154:U.S. airman 1124:Fixed crane 850:water frame 724:Jethro Tull 578:line shafts 508:Line shafts 500:line shafts 489:line shafts 427:MS Selandia 201:latent heat 195:discovered 70:water wheel 6267:Categories 6029:2014-07-19 5790:: 173–190. 5738:2014-05-15 5669:2014-05-27 5534:2022-06-14 5456:2022-06-14 5115:2014-07-22 5034:2014-07-22 5008:2014-07-22 4995:worldsteel 4800:2010-11-01 4698:2010-11-01 4499:2011-06-13 4327:2010-11-01 4294:Field 2011 4142:2007-06-21 4000:0486437531 3885:2010-11-01 3788:1104810110 3566:2010-11-01 2820:Why Europe 2805:2021-12-02 2621:References 2521:See also: 2218:See also: 2095:controller 2087:Automation 2078:Automation 1979:transistor 1933:Telegraphy 1820:elastomers 1791:paperboard 1769:Paperboard 1275:Adam Smith 948:and metal 858:cotton gin 648:See also: 475:Line shaft 393:The early 260:In 1711 a 205:James Watt 141:mine carts 80:) and the 62:See also: 6159:153813437 5630:154848228 5504:cite book 5091:204937958 5066:1306.3554 4863:New Steel 4546:Misa 1995 4534:Misa 1995 2692:154202306 2678:: 91–93. 2563:of 1933. 2445:man-years 2422:photomask 2291:wafer as 1975:Bell Labs 1957:Telephone 1945:telegraph 1804:Elastomer 1729:calcining 1597:hot blast 1561:cast iron 1551:Cast iron 1350:Taylorism 1207:Piggyback 678:Pipelines 666:Motorways 644:Railroads 529:hot blast 293:Minecarts 225:chemistry 154:Hot blast 148:and is a 6207:(1982). 6050:(2004). 5769:23485828 5698:: 3–24. 5496:52566037 4782:(1989). 4680:(1989). 4309:(1989). 3944:27-24075 3935:16011753 3867:(1989). 3780:83016269 3756:(1984), 2923:, 2009. 2574:See also 2327:. (See: 2312:Wal-Mart 2259:through 2132:Factory 1826:Plastics 1721:concrete 1624:Bessemer 1577:puddling 1570:bloomery 1429:and the 1170:pumpjack 879:cut nail 877:(1777), 832:was the 715:Adriance 539:. 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