21:
1142:, pp. 117–119. William N. Dunn wrote in 1988: "In the absence of appropriate problem-structuring methods, how can we expect to formulate problems that encompass the proper elements, for example, the proper policy objectives, alternatives, and expected outcomes? Given a particular problem formulation, how do we know whether all important elements have been included in the set? In short, how do we know when we have formulated an approximate solution to the right problem, as distinguished from an exact solution to the wrong problem?" (
20:
650:
about, or that generate mutual understanding of multiple perspectives on, a complex situation. Other problem solving methods are better suited to situations toward the tame or "hard" side where a reliable and optimal solution is needed to a problem that can be clearly and uncontroversially defined.
659:
Problem structuring methods constitute a family of approaches that have differing purposes and techniques, and many of them had been developed independently before people began to notice their family resemblance. Several scholars have noted the common and divergent characteristics among PSMs.
836:
and that reported practical applications of PSMs. Their literature survey covered the period up to 1998, which was "relatively early in the development of interest in PSMs", and categorized 51 reported applications under the following application areas: general organizational applications;
824:(PRA). Mingers and Rosenhead pointed out that in situations where people have low literacy, the nonliterate (oral and visual) techniques developed in PRA would be a necessary complement to PSMs, and the approaches to modeling in PSMs could be (and have been) used by practitioners of PRA.
667:
The methods focus on creating "a model that is populated with data that is specific to the problem situation". These cause–effect models can be analyzed (albeit in different ways by different methods), and the models are intended to facilitate conversation and negotiation between the
629:(or puzzles or technical challenges) have relatively precise, straightforward formulations that are often amenable to solution with some predetermined technical fix or algorithm. It is clear when these situations have changed in such a way that the problem can be called solved.
483:) is a well known example of such types. The following table lists similar (but not exactly equivalent) distinctions made by a number of thinkers between two types of "problem" situations, which can be seen as a continuum between a left and right extreme:
804:, and others. PSMs and large group methods both bring people together to talk about, and to share different perspectives on, a situation or state of affairs that some people want to change. However, PSMs always focus on creating a sufficiently rigorous
387:
methods that assume that all the relevant issues and constraints and goals that constitute the problem are defined in advance or are uncontroversial, PSMs assume that there is no single uncontested representation of what constitutes the problem.
671:
The methods seek to increase the overall productivity of group processes. Productivity includes creating better agreements that are more likely to be implemented, and realizing (to the extent possible in the given situation) ideals such as
2236:
Herrera, Hugo J.; McCardle-Keurentjes, Marleen H. F.; Videira, Nuno (November 2016). "Evaluating facilitated modelling processes and outcomes: an experiment comparing a single and a multimethod approach in group model building".
908:
and related methods; a similar program is called Wisdom. Such software can serve a variety of functions, such as simple technical assistance to the group facilitator during a single event, or more long-term online group
687:
of effective group processes requires some attention to, and open conversation about, power and politics within and between organizations. Power and politics can become especially important when major change is being
474:
In discussions of problem structuring methods, it is common to distinguish between two different types of situations that could be considered to be problems. Rittel and Webber's distinction between tame problems and
920:, but such use of computers is standard in some PSMs such as SODA and dialogue mapping, in which computer display of models or maps is intended to guide conversation in the most efficient way.
837:
information systems; technology, resources, planning; health services; and general research. Examples of applications reported included: designing a parliamentary briefing system, modeling the
3611:
Mendoza, Guillermo A.; Martins, H. (July 2006). "Multi-criteria decision analysis in natural resource management: a critical review of methods and new modelling paradigms".
2372:
Mackenzie, Adrian; Pidd, Michael; Rooksby, John; Sommerville, Ian; Warren, Ian; Westcombe, Mark (April 2006). "'Wisdom', decision support and paradigms of decision making".
758:
An early literature review of problem structuring proposed grouping the texts reviewed into "four streams of thought" that describe some major differences between methods:
3291:
Belton, Valerie; Stewart, Theodor (2010). "Problem
Structuring and Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis". In Ehrgott, Matthias; Figueira, José; Greco, Salvatore (eds.).
3443:
Kopainsky, Birgit; Luna-Reyes, Luis F. (July 2008). "Closing the loop: promoting synergies with other theory building approaches to improve system dynamics practice".
889:. After PSMs have been used in a group work session, it is normal for a record of the session's display to be shared with participants and with other relevant people.
849:
strategy, planning livestock management in Nepal, regional planning in South Africa, modeling hospital outpatient services, and eliciting knowledge about pesticides.
691:
The methods provide techniques and skills for facilitation of group processes, and they appreciate that such techniques and skills are essential for effective
4092:
812:
of the situation, whereas large group methods do not necessarily emphasize modeling, and PSMs are not necessarily used with large groups of people.
923:
In some situations additional software that is not used only for PSMs may be incorporated into the problem structuring process; examples include
3647:
3528:
2986:"Visualized problem structuring for stakeholder consultations: enabling informed decision-making with argument maps and the argument browser"
2875:
Veldhuis, Guido Arjan; Scheepstal, Peter van; Rouwette, Etiënne; Logtens, Tom (June 2015). "Collaborative problem structuring using MARVEL".
3086:
2590:
751:
Facilitate the problem structuring process from the bottom-up as much as possible, not only top-down from formal organizational leadership.
2126:
3655:
3547:
3141:
2786:
2471:
2314:
2063:
1664:
1616:
2502:
Pfeiffer, Constanze; Glaser, Stephanie; Vencatesan, Jayshree; Schliermann-Kraus, Elke; Drescher, Axel; Glaser, RĂĽdiger (November 2008).
267:
3204:
3094:
2961:
2446:
2374:
2134:
75:
3445:
1827:
Learning for action: a short definitive account of soft systems methodology and its use for practitioner, teachers, and students
928:
787:, which "regards the definition of problems as a function of people's perceptions" as described by Checkland, Eden, and others.
2127:"From stakeholders analysis to cognitive mapping and Multi-Attribute Value Theory: an integrated approach for policy support"
754:
Aim to preserve options in the face of unavoidable uncertainty, rather than to base decisions on a prediction of the future.
741:
as possible to and that clarify conflicts of interpretation, rather than hiding conflicts behind neutral technical language.
4260:
3369:
Putting perspectives into participation: constructive conflict methodology for problem structuring in stakeholder dialogues
892:
Software programs for supporting problem structuring include Banxia
Decision Explorer and Group Explorer, which implement
2409:
Rational analysis for a problematic world revisited: problem structuring methods for complexity, uncertainty and conflict
2007:
Dunn, William N. (June 1988). "Methods of the second type: coping with the wilderness of conventional policy analysis".
4232:
4203:
4068:
4034:
3969:
3935:
3897:
3862:
3827:
3794:
3736:
3701:
2688:
2420:
2289:
2177:
1909:
1802:
1764:
1728:
1584:
418:
Thinkers who later came to be recognized as significant early contributors to the theory and practice of PSMs include:
323:
45:
3507:
IASTED Proceedings of the
Conference on Graphics and Visualization in Engineering (GVE 2007), Clearwater, Florida, USA
4147:
4000:
3591:
3481:
3423:
3384:
3347:
3312:
3279:
3246:
3050:
3009:
2931:
2848:
2764:
2562:
2216:
1987:
1942:
1838:
1751:(1975). "The development of systems thinking by systems practice: a methodology from an action research program". In
1608:
1546:
407:
The term "problem structuring methods" as a label for these techniques began to be used in the 1980s in the field of
3235:
29th
International Conference of the System Dynamics Society 2011: Washington, DC, USA, 24–28 July 2011: proceedings
4167:
Conklin, E. Jeffrey; Yakemovic, K. C. Burgess (September 1991). "A process-oriented approach to design rationale".
3198:; Cavana, Robert Y.; Brocklesby, John; Foote, Jeff L.; Wood, David R. R.; Ahuriri-Driscoll, Annabel (August 2013).
646:
PSMs were developed for situations that tend toward the wicked or "soft" side, when methods are needed that assist
3172:
Metcalfe, Mike; Sastrowardoyo, Saras (November 2013). "Complex project conceptualisation and argument mapping".
2677:
Rational analysis for a problematic world: problem structuring methods for complexity, uncertainty, and conflict
901:
413:
Rational
Analysis for a Problematic World: Problem Structuring Methods for Complexity, Uncertainty and Conflict
166:
80:
1018:
3613:
932:
916:
Some practitioners prefer not to use computers during group work sessions because of the effect they have on
821:
700:
257:
2639:"Soft system dynamics methodology (SSDM): combining soft systems methodology (SSM) and system dynamics (SD)"
719:
Rosenhead provided another list of common characteristics of PSMs, formulated in a more prescriptive style:
1859:
352:
3087:"The non-codified use of problem structuring methods and the need for a generic constitutive definition"
3540:"Problem structuring without workshops?: experiences with distributed interaction within a PSM process"
820:
There is significant overlap or shared characteristics between PSMs and some of the techniques used in
3037:. Advanced information and knowledge processing (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. pp. 401–421.
3473:
943:(GMB) and have concluded "that GMB is another PSM". GMB has also been used in combination with SODA.
673:
360:
40:
3627:
3502:
2743:
Rosenhead, Jonathan (2013). "Problem
Structuring Methods". In Gass, Saul I.; Fu, Michael C. (eds.).
2388:
775:, which is primarily modeling of relationships between variables, as described by Ackoff and others,
663:
Eden and
Ackermann identified four characteristics that problem structuring methods have in common:
978:
371:
832:
In 2004, Mingers and
Rosenhead published a literature review of papers that had been published in
4225:
Creative solution finding: the triumph of breakthrough thinking over conventional problem solving
3295:. International series in operations research & management science. Vol. 142. New York:
3238:
910:
738:
684:
65:
1931:
The heretic's guide to best practices: the reality of managing complex problems in organisations
3992:
The change handbook: the definitive resource on today's best methods for engaging whole systems
3882:
Heijden, Kees A. van der; Bradfield, Ron; Burt, George; Cairns, George; Wright, George (2002).
3622:
2383:
988:
862:
316:
252:
3756:
List, Dennis (February 2004). "Multiple pasts, converging presents, and alternative futures".
2985:
2957:"Issues mapping: a problem structuring method for addressing science and technology conflicts"
1963:
1716:
The handbook of large group methods: creating systemic change in organizations and communities
1655:
Andersen, David F.; Vennix, Jac A. M.; Richardson, George P.; Rouwette, Etiënne (April 2007).
796:
Mingers and
Rosenhead have noted that there are similarities and differences between PSMs and
3850:
The solution path: a step-by-step guide to turning your workplace problems into opportunities
3407:
Dealing with real-world complexity: limits, enhancements and new approaches for policy makers
3031:"Integrating Argument Mapping with Systems Thinking Tools: Advancing Applied Systems Science"
2208:
2102:
Eden, Colin; Sims, David (January 1979). "On the nature of problems in consulting practice".
973:
963:
897:
801:
769:
problem structuring as it came to be defined in PSMs, so this stream does not apply to PSMs),
469:
176:
50:
3072:"Deliberative methods for complex issues: a typology of functions that may need scaffolding"
4195:
3889:
3819:
3728:
3583:
2832:
2784:
Woolley, Robert N.; Pidd, Michael (March 1981). "Problem structuring—a literature review".
2680:
2412:
2169:
1901:
1830:
1794:
1576:
1023:
866:
191:
186:
2469:
Norris, Michael (September 1985). "Review: Operational research and the social sciences".
639:
and uncertainties and no definitive formulation. These situations are complex and have no
8:
4139:
1003:
636:
408:
85:
2504:"Facilitating participatory multilevel decision-making by using interactive mental maps"
2061:
Eden, Colin; Ackermann, Fran (June 2006). "Where next for problem structuring methods".
711:(guiding interactions between people through nonlinear applications of the methods) and
4132:
4116:
4024:
3921:
3672:
3564:
3522:
3353:
3158:
3136:
3121:
2919:
Visual strategy: a workbook for strategy mapping for public and nonprofit organizations
2902:
2811:
2803:
2729:
2672:
2658:
2623:
2615:
2488:
2339:
2331:
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2088:
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2020:
1882:
1699:
1691:
1641:
1633:
983:
846:
677:
456:
451:
196:
60:
3769:
3231:"Problem structuring methods in system dynamics modeling: a cognitive fit perspective"
2459:
4238:
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4209:
4199:
4153:
4143:
4096:
4074:
4064:
4058:
4040:
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4006:
3996:
3975:
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3941:
3931:
3903:
3893:
3868:
3858:
3833:
3823:
3800:
3790:
3742:
3732:
3707:
3697:
3693:
3597:
3587:
3510:
3487:
3477:
3429:
3419:
3390:
3380:
3357:
3343:
3308:
3275:
3252:
3242:
3230:
3071:
3056:
3046:
3030:
3015:
3005:
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2927:
2906:
2854:
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2770:
2760:
2709:
2694:
2684:
2568:
2558:
2525:
2426:
2416:
2295:
2285:
2258:
2222:
2212:
2183:
2173:
2115:
1993:
1983:
1948:
1938:
1915:
1905:
1844:
1834:
1808:
1798:
1788:
1770:
1760:
1734:
1724:
1645:
1604:
1590:
1580:
1570:
1566:
1552:
1542:
1538:
1013:
958:
882:
842:
838:
833:
537:
431:
309:
231:
3125:
2815:
2662:
2638:
2627:
2343:
2092:
1886:
1703:
4180:
4176:
4120:
4108:
3765:
3676:
3664:
3632:
3568:
3556:
3454:
3411:
3372:
3335:
3300:
3213:
3185:
3181:
3162:
3150:
3111:
3103:
3038:
2997:
2970:
2892:
2884:
2836:
2795:
2752:
2721:
2650:
2607:
2586:
2550:
2515:
2480:
2455:
2441:
2393:
2323:
2277:
2246:
2143:
2111:
2072:
2039:
2016:
1975:
1874:
1681:
1673:
1657:"Group model building: problem structuring, policy simulation and decision support"
1625:
905:
805:
728:
696:
522:
507:
426:
415:. Some of the methods that came to be called PSMs had been in use since the 1960s.
344:
262:
247:
206:
136:
90:
3668:
3560:
3410:. Gabler Edition Wissenschaft. Wiesbaden: Betriebswirtschaftlicher Verlag Gabler.
2756:
2076:
1677:
734:
Integrate hard and soft (quantitative and qualitative) data with social judgments.
635:(or messes or adaptive challenges) have multiple interacting issues with multiple
4088:
3990:
3959:
3955:
3883:
3848:
3780:
3722:
3687:
3636:
3405:
3331:
3325:
3296:
3042:
3001:
2993:
2917:
2748:
2598:
2546:
2540:
2273:
2198:
2157:
1979:
1971:
1822:
1784:
1748:
1714:
1532:
1008:
998:
936:
886:
745:
582:
447:
436:
384:
156:
126:
95:
3470:
The ecosystem approach: complexity, uncertainty, and managing for sustainability
3304:
1964:"The Map and the Territory: A Practitioner Perspective on Knowledge Cartography"
715:(helping people build sufficiently comprehensive models of the given situation).
597:
4020:
3218:
3199:
3195:
3107:
2974:
2952:
2397:
2355:"The case against statistics-as-methods: confessions of a born-again planmaker"
2147:
917:
567:
476:
355:
that some people want to change. PSMs are usually used by a group of people in
297:
226:
3816:
The six dilemmas of collaboration: inter-organisational relationships as drama
3415:
3339:
2888:
2858:
2654:
2554:
2281:
2250:
391:
PSMs are mostly used with groups of people, but PSMs have also influenced the
4254:
3514:
3491:
3433:
3394:
3271:
3256:
3200:"Towards a new framework for evaluating systemic problem structuring methods"
3060:
3019:
2941:
2774:
2572:
2299:
1997:
1952:
1774:
1752:
1556:
968:
893:
809:
647:
640:
552:
356:
151:
141:
121:
4242:
4213:
4157:
4078:
4044:
4010:
3979:
3945:
3907:
3872:
3837:
3804:
3746:
3711:
3601:
2698:
2430:
2354:
2226:
2187:
2030:
Eden, Colin (April 1982). "Problem construction and the influence of O.R.".
1919:
1848:
1738:
993:
869:
of the models that participants are developing. The shared display could be
4112:
3917:
3539:
2582:
2529:
1878:
1812:
953:
878:
503:
422:
287:
111:
70:
3229:
Golnam, Arash; Tapandjieva, Gorica; Viana, SĂ©rgio; Wegmann, Alain (2011).
3033:. In Okada, Alexandra; Buckingham Shum, Simon J.; Sherborne, Tony (eds.).
2992:. Advanced information and knowledge processing (2nd ed.). New York:
2988:. In Okada, Alexandra; Buckingham Shum, Simon J.; Sherborne, Tony (eds.).
2840:
2725:
2327:
1970:. Advanced information and knowledge processing (2nd ed.). New York:
1966:. In Okada, Alexandra; Buckingham Shum, Simon J.; Sherborne, Tony (eds.).
1594:
781:
which emphasizes doing field research and gathering quantitative data, and
4054:
3927:
3854:
3786:
3724:
Visible thinking: unlocking causal mapping for practical business results
3154:
2923:
2799:
2501:
2043:
1860:"A problem solving process model for personal decision support (PSPM-DS)"
1720:
1629:
1488:
924:
858:
704:
692:
364:
292:
201:
131:
55:
2826:
2733:
2520:
2503:
2051:
1656:
4134:
Problem solving and decision making: hard, soft and creative approaches
3116:
2897:
2807:
2619:
2611:
2492:
2335:
2312:; Keys, Paul (June 1984). "Towards a system of systems methodologies".
2084:
1759:. Vol. 2. Washington, DC: Hemisphere Pub. Corp. pp. 278–283.
1695:
1637:
874:
870:
441:
396:
171:
146:
116:
3782:
Smart questions: learn to ask the right questions for powerful results
3468:
Waltner-Toews, David; Kay, James; Lister, Nina-Marie E., eds. (2008).
3376:
1929:
Culmsee, Paul; Awati, Kailash (2013) . "Problem structuring methods".
1686:
4060:
Smart thinking for crazy times: the art of solving the right problems
3458:
3330:. Advances in group decision and negotiation. Vol. 4. New York:
2710:"What's the problem?: an introduction to problem structuring methods"
1934:
724:
221:
211:
161:
3923:
Business dynamics: systems thinking and modeling for a complex world
2484:
2204:
392:
277:
216:
181:
3503:"Towards a periodic table of visualization methods for management"
1898:
Dialogue mapping: building shared understanding of wicked problems
2874:
2235:
1515:
748:
process, rather than as passive objects to be modeled or ignored.
348:
3885:
Sixth sense: accelerating organizational learning with scenarios
3029:
Hogan, Michael J.; Harney, Owen M.; Broome, Benjamin J. (2014).
1654:
1503:
939:
simulation models with groups of people, have called their work
3961:
Rethinking the fifth discipline: learning within the unknowable
2637:
Rodriguez-Ulloa, Ricardo; Paucar-Caceres, Alberto (June 2005).
2371:
1572:
Redesigning the future: a systems approach to societal problems
1459:
1348:, p. 548; examples of large group methods can be found in
367:
about, what needs to change. Some widely adopted PSMs include
4087:
3648:"Causal maps and the evaluation of decision options—a review"
3228:
2636:
1471:
1341:
1339:
3194:
3035:
Knowledge cartography: software tools and mapping techniques
2990:
Knowledge cartography: software tools and mapping techniques
1968:
Knowledge cartography: software tools and mapping techniques
815:
4097:"Knowledge acquisition as a constructive modeling activity"
3538:
Morton, Alec; Ackermann, Fran; Belton, Valerie (May 2007).
896:
for strategic options development and analysis (SODA), and
487:
Different types of situations, and thinkers who named them
272:
4026:
Visual language: global communication for the 21st century
3881:
2745:
Encyclopedia of
Operations Research and Management Science
1336:
1275:
1273:
1271:
1269:
463:
4095:; Adams-Webber, Jack R.; Agnew, Neil M. (January 1993).
3989:
Holman, Peggy; Devane, Tom; Cady, Steven, eds. (2007) .
2542:
Systems approaches to managing change: a practical guide
703:. People who use PSMs must pay attention to what group
3076:
Group Facilitation: A Research and Applications Journal
1858:
Chatjoulis, Athena; Humphreys, Patrick (January 2007).
4223:
Nadler, Gerald; Hibino, ShĹŤzĹŤ; Farrell, John (1995) .
3467:
2916:
Bryson, John M.; Eden, Colin; Ackermann, Fran (2014).
2200:
Planning under pressure: the strategic choice approach
1402:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1312:
1266:
744:
Consider people to be agents actively involved in the
3689:
The practice of making strategy: a step-by-step guide
3537:
3472:. Complexity in ecological systems series. New York:
3233:. In Lyneis, James M.; Richardson, George P. (eds.).
3171:
1290:
1288:
1041:
1039:
3646:
Montibeller, Gilberto; Belton, Valerie (July 2006).
3578:
O'Brien, Frances A.; Dyson, Robert G., eds. (2007).
2950:
2440:
Mingers, John; Rosenhead, Jonathan (February 2004).
2166:
Creative problem solving: total systems intervention
1056:
1054:
1019:
Richards Heuer § Structured analytic techniques
4222:
3580:
Supporting strategy: frameworks, methods and models
3442:
2915:
1857:
1713:Bunker, Barbara Benedict; Alban, Billie T. (2006).
1393:
1119:
935:. Some practitioners, who have focused on building
765:, which is step-by-step technical problem solving (
359:(rather than by a solitary individual) to create a
4131:
3685:
1371:
1369:
1285:
1036:
791:
3686:Ackermann, Fran; Eden, Colin; Brown, Ian (2005).
3645:
3028:
2407:Mingers, John; Rosenhead, Jonathan, eds. (2001).
1051:
379:strategic options development and analysis (SODA)
4252:
4166:
3995:(2nd ed.). San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
3988:
3577:
3268:Blah blah blah: what to do when words don't work
3085:Yearworth, Mike; White, Leroy (September 2014).
2439:
2406:
1821:
1375:
1360:
1345:
1261:
1072:
979:Inquiry § Inquiry in the pragmatic paradigm
861:and are not necessarily dependent on electronic
2538:
1366:
1094:
411:, especially after the publication of the book
3610:
3084:
2196:
1534:Making strategy: mapping out strategic success
1083:
727:on separate dimensions rather than seeking an
3778:
3500:
3293:Trends in Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis
3290:
2539:Reynolds, Martin; Holwell, Sue, eds. (2010).
2060:
1530:
1436:
1434:
1421:
1307:
1229:
317:
4101:International Journal of Intelligent Systems
3779:Nadler, Gerald; Chandon, William J. (2004).
3324:Kilgour, D. Marc; Eden, Colin, eds. (2010).
2828:Problem Structuring: Methodology in Practice
2581:
2156:
1961:
1928:
1757:Progress in cybernetics and systems research
1609:"The future of operational research is past"
1448:
1444:
1295:
1245:
1178:
480:
3656:Journal of the Operational Research Society
3548:Journal of the Operational Research Society
3323:
3174:International Journal of Project Management
3142:Journal of the Operational Research Society
2787:Journal of the Operational Research Society
2783:
2472:Journal of the Operational Research Society
2315:Journal of the Operational Research Society
2308:
2064:Journal of the Operational Research Society
1712:
1665:Journal of the Operational Research Society
1617:Journal of the Operational Research Society
1537:(2nd ed.). London; Thousand Oaks, CA:
1417:
1415:
1349:
1330:
1241:
3527:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3501:Lengler, Ralph; Eppler, Martin J. (2007).
3327:Handbook of group decision and negotiation
2591:"Dilemmas in a general theory of planning"
2411:(2nd ed.). Chichester, UK; New York:
2197:Friend, John K.; Hickling, Allen (2005) .
1431:
852:
351:the nature or structure of a situation or
324:
310:
268:List of concept- and mind-mapping software
3626:
3403:
3217:
3115:
2955:; Jackson, Laurie Skuba (February 2014).
2896:
2824:
2742:
2707:
2671:
2519:
2387:
1783:
1747:
1685:
1472:Rodriguez-Ulloa & Paucar-Caceres 2005
1425:
1406:
1387:
1318:
1279:
1257:
1209:
1205:
1166:
1155:
1106:
1060:
1045:
816:Compared to participatory rural appraisal
3205:European Journal of Operational Research
3134:
3095:European Journal of Operational Research
2983:
2962:European Journal of Operational Research
2447:European Journal of Operational Research
2375:European Journal of Operational Research
2135:European Journal of Operational Research
2124:
2101:
1492:
1412:
1221:
4053:
4029:. Bainbridge Island, WA: MacroVU, Inc.
3916:
3846:
3446:Systems Research and Behavioral Science
2442:"Problem structuring methods in action"
2267:
1895:
1475:
1440:
4253:
3813:
3720:
3366:
3069:
2468:
2352:
2125:Ferretti, Valentina (September 2016).
1962:Culmsee, Paul; Awati, Kailash (2014).
1603:
1565:
1531:Ackermann, Fran; Eden, Colin (2011) .
1194:
1190:
1139:
1131:
464:Types of situations that call for PSMs
4129:
3954:
2708:Rosenhead, Jonathan (November 1996).
2643:Systemic Practice and Action Research
4189:
4019:
3755:
3367:Cuppen, E. H. W. J. (Eefje) (2009).
3265:
3137:"Multimethodology in metaheuristics"
2029:
2006:
1225:
1143:
1135:
881:on the meeting room walls, and/or a
643:and no ultimate test of a solution.
343:) are a group of techniques used to
2203:(3rd ed.). Amsterdam; Boston:
1755:; Hanika, Francis de Paula (eds.).
865:, but PSMs do rely on some kind of
13:
4190:Huff, Anne Sigismund, ed. (1990).
4138:(2nd ed.). London; New York:
4063:. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
2877:EURO Journal on Decision Processes
2867:
2747:(3rd ed.). New York; London:
2021:10.1111/j.1541-1338.1988.tb00891.x
1790:Systems thinking, systems practice
654:
14:
4272:
3135:Ferreira, J. Soeiro (June 2013).
363:about, or at least to facilitate
4181:10.1207/s15327051hci0603&4_6
470:Cynefin framework § Domains
19:
3964:. London; New York: Routledge.
3888:. Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ:
3818:. Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ:
3727:. Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ:
3582:. Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ:
2270:Community based system dynamics
1900:. Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ:
1509:
1497:
1481:
1464:
1453:
1381:
1354:
1324:
1301:
1250:
1234:
1214:
1199:
1183:
1172:
1160:
1120:Chatjoulis & Humphreys 2007
827:
792:Compared to large group methods
683:The methods emphasize that the
3186:10.1016/j.ijproman.2013.01.004
2239:Group Decision and Negotiation
1149:
1124:
1112:
1100:
1088:
1077:
1066:
933:geographic information systems
81:Ontology (information science)
1:
3770:10.1016/S0016-3287(03)00140-X
3692:. London; Thousand Oaks, CA:
3669:10.1057/palgrave.jors.2602214
3614:Forest Ecology and Management
3561:10.1057/palgrave.jors.2602210
2757:10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7_806
2460:10.1016/S0377-2217(03)00056-0
2077:10.1057/palgrave.jors.2602090
1678:10.1057/palgrave.jors.2602339
1523:
822:participatory rural appraisal
701:participative decision-making
376:the strategic choice approach
4194:. Chichester, UK; New York:
3637:10.1016/j.foreco.2006.03.023
3043:10.1007/978-1-4471-6470-8_18
3002:10.1007/978-1-4471-6470-8_14
2679:. Chichester, UK; New York:
2168:. Chichester, UK; New York:
2116:10.1016/0305-0483(79)90099-9
1980:10.1007/978-1-4471-6470-8_12
1896:Conklin, E. Jeffrey (2006).
1793:. Chichester, UK; New York:
1376:Mingers & Rosenhead 2004
1361:Mingers & Rosenhead 2004
1346:Mingers & Rosenhead 2004
1294:This table is adapted from:
1262:Mingers & Rosenhead 2001
1073:Checkland & Poulter 2006
7:
4261:Problem structuring methods
4130:Hicks, Michael J. (2004) .
3371:(Ph.D. thesis). Amsterdam.
3305:10.1007/978-1-4419-5904-1_8
1867:Journal of Decision Systems
1095:Reynolds & Holwell 2010
946:
779:the science research stream
737:Produce models that are as
337:Problem structuring methods
283:Problem structuring methods
10:
4277:
4227:. Rocklin, CA: Prima Pub.
4169:Human–Computer Interaction
3219:10.1016/j.ejor.2013.01.047
3108:10.1016/j.ejor.2014.02.015
2975:10.1016/j.ejor.2013.08.012
2398:10.1016/j.ejor.2004.07.041
2268:Hovmand, Peter S. (2014).
2148:10.1016/j.ejor.2016.02.054
1084:Friend & Hickling 2005
994:Policy § Policy cycle
467:
402:
4192:Mapping strategic thought
3509:. Calgary. pp. 1–6.
3474:Columbia University Press
3416:10.1007/978-3-8349-8074-8
3340:10.1007/978-90-481-9097-3
2889:10.1007/s40070-015-0045-1
2655:10.1007/s11213-005-4816-7
2555:10.1007/978-1-84882-809-4
2359:Berkeley Planning Journal
2282:10.1007/978-1-4614-8763-0
2251:10.1007/s10726-016-9480-z
2009:Review of Policy Research
1422:Ackermann & Eden 2011
1308:Eden & Ackermann 2006
1230:Eden & Ackermann 2006
674:communicative rationality
258:Entity–relationship model
41:Business decision mapping
3721:Bryson, John M. (2004).
3404:HĂĽrlimann, Mark (2009).
2825:Yearworth, Mike (2024).
1825:; Poulter, John (2006).
1449:Culmsee & Awati 2014
1445:Culmsee & Awati 2013
1296:Culmsee & Awati 2013
1246:Flood & Jackson 1991
1179:Rittel & Webber 1973
1030:
929:system dynamics software
911:decision support systems
481:Rittel & Webber 1973
372:soft systems methodology
3847:Sioukas, Tasos (2003).
3239:System Dynamics Society
3070:Jordan, Thomas (2014).
2984:Groetker, Ralf (2014).
1605:Ackoff, Russell Lincoln
1567:Ackoff, Russell Lincoln
1350:Bunker & Alban 2006
1331:Woolley & Pidd 1981
1242:Jackson & Keys 1984
853:Technology and software
800:such as Future Search,
531:Non-programmed decision
66:Knowledge visualization
4113:10.1002/int.4550080103
2751:. pp. 1162–1172.
1879:10.3166/jds.16.213-239
989:Participatory modeling
863:information technology
731:on a single dimension.
253:Diagrammatic reasoning
76:Morphological analysis
4196:John Wiley & Sons
3890:John Wiley & Sons
3820:John Wiley & Sons
3729:John Wiley & Sons
3584:John Wiley & Sons
2841:10.1002/9781119744856
2833:John Wiley & Sons
2726:10.1287/inte.26.6.117
2681:John Wiley & Sons
2413:John Wiley & Sons
2353:Landis, John (1988).
2328:10.1057/jors.1984.101
2209:Butterworth-Heinemann
2170:John Wiley & Sons
1902:John Wiley & Sons
1831:John Wiley & Sons
1795:John Wiley & Sons
1577:John Wiley & Sons
1460:Mackenzie et al. 2006
974:Group concept mapping
964:Decision conferencing
802:Open Space Technology
773:the definition stream
723:Seek solutions which
278:Ontology (philosophy)
177:Layered graph drawing
51:Graphic communication
4093:Bradshaw, Jeffrey M.
3814:Bryant, Jim (2003).
3299:. pp. 209–239.
3155:10.1057/jors.2012.88
2996:. pp. 309–332.
2800:10.1057/jors.1981.42
2545:. London; New York:
2044:10.1287/inte.12.2.50
1974:. pp. 261–292.
1937:. pp. 212–245.
1630:10.1057/jors.1979.22
1504:Andersen et al. 2007
1489:Pfeiffer et al. 2008
1321:, pp. 1164–1165
1282:, pp. 1163–1164
1222:Eden & Sims 1979
1024:Stakeholder analysis
941:group model building
763:the checklist stream
619:Polarities to manage
572:Technical challenge
527:Programmed decision
192:Organizational chart
187:Object-role modeling
104:Node–link approaches
2673:Rosenhead, Jonathan
2583:Rittel, Horst W. J.
2521:10.4081/gh.2008.236
2310:Jackson, Michael C.
2162:Jackson, Michael C.
1516:Herrera et al. 2016
1130:For examples, see:
1004:Problem formulation
900:, which implements
857:PSMs are a general
798:large group methods
488:
409:operations research
86:Schema (psychology)
28:Information mapping
3266:Roam, Dan (2011).
2612:10.1007/BF01405730
1378:, pp. 541–542
1363:, pp. 548–549
1333:, pp. 203–204
1097:, pp. 135–190
984:Method engineering
847:information system
834:scholarly journals
678:procedural justice
615:Problems to solve
576:Adaptive challenge
557:Technical problem
486:
457:Jonathan Rosenhead
452:Michael C. Jackson
444:and Fran Ackermann
197:Pathfinder network
61:Information design
46:Data visualization
3853:. San Francisco:
3785:. San Francisco:
3694:SAGE Publications
3272:Portfolio/Penguin
2922:. San Francisco:
2587:Webber, Melvin M.
2508:Geospatial Health
1719:. San Francisco:
1607:(February 1979).
1539:SAGE Publications
1014:Research question
959:Boundary critique
894:cognitive mapping
883:personal computer
843:business strategy
839:San Francisco Zoo
785:the people stream
624:
623:
561:Practical problem
542:Puzzle / Problem
538:Russell L. Ackoff
432:Russell L. Ackoff
334:
333:
33:Topics and fields
4268:
4246:
4217:
4184:
4161:
4137:
4124:
4089:Ford, Kenneth M.
4082:
4048:
4014:
3983:
3956:Flood, Robert L.
3949:
3926:. Boston: Irwin/
3918:Sterman, John D.
3911:
3876:
3841:
3808:
3773:
3750:
3715:
3680:
3652:
3640:
3630:
3605:
3572:
3544:
3532:
3526:
3518:
3495:
3462:
3459:10.1002/sres.913
3437:
3398:
3361:
3318:
3285:
3260:
3223:
3221:
3189:
3180:(8): 1129–1138.
3166:
3129:
3119:
3091:
3079:
3064:
3023:
2978:
2945:
2910:
2900:
2883:(3–4): 249–273.
2862:
2819:
2778:
2737:
2702:
2666:
2631:
2595:
2576:
2533:
2523:
2496:
2463:
2434:
2401:
2391:
2366:
2347:
2303:
2262:
2245:(6): 1277–1318.
2230:
2191:
2158:Flood, Robert L.
2151:
2131:
2119:
2096:
2055:
2024:
2001:
1956:
1923:
1890:
1864:
1852:
1823:Checkland, Peter
1816:
1785:Checkland, Peter
1778:
1749:Checkland, Peter
1742:
1707:
1689:
1661:
1649:
1613:
1598:
1560:
1518:
1513:
1507:
1501:
1495:
1485:
1479:
1468:
1462:
1457:
1451:
1438:
1429:
1419:
1410:
1404:
1391:
1385:
1379:
1373:
1364:
1358:
1352:
1343:
1334:
1328:
1322:
1316:
1310:
1305:
1299:
1292:
1283:
1277:
1264:
1254:
1248:
1238:
1232:
1218:
1212:
1203:
1197:
1187:
1181:
1176:
1170:
1164:
1158:
1153:
1147:
1128:
1122:
1116:
1110:
1104:
1098:
1092:
1086:
1081:
1075:
1070:
1064:
1058:
1049:
1043:
906:dialogue mapping
806:conceptual model
729:optimal decision
697:systems modeling
602:The high ground
523:Herbert A. Simon
489:
485:
459:and John Mingers
427:Melvin M. Webber
399:of individuals.
353:state of affairs
326:
319:
312:
263:Geovisualization
248:Design rationale
207:Semantic network
137:Conceptual graph
91:Visual analytics
23:
16:
15:
4276:
4275:
4271:
4270:
4269:
4267:
4266:
4265:
4251:
4250:
4249:
4235:
4206:
4150:
4071:
4055:Mitroff, Ian I.
4037:
4021:Horn, Robert E.
4003:
3972:
3938:
3900:
3865:
3830:
3797:
3739:
3704:
3650:
3628:10.1.1.470.5541
3594:
3542:
3520:
3519:
3484:
3426:
3387:
3350:
3332:Springer Verlag
3315:
3297:Springer Verlag
3282:
3249:
3196:Midgley, Gerald
3089:
3053:
3012:
2994:Springer Verlag
2953:Midgley, Gerald
2951:Cronin, Karen;
2934:
2870:
2868:Further reading
2865:
2851:
2767:
2749:Springer Verlag
2691:
2599:Policy Sciences
2593:
2565:
2547:Springer Verlag
2485:10.2307/2582177
2423:
2389:10.1.1.132.9613
2292:
2274:Springer Verlag
2219:
2180:
2129:
1990:
1972:Springer Verlag
1945:
1933:. Bloomington:
1912:
1862:
1841:
1829:. Hoboken, NJ:
1805:
1767:
1731:
1659:
1611:
1587:
1549:
1526:
1521:
1514:
1510:
1502:
1498:
1486:
1482:
1469:
1465:
1458:
1454:
1439:
1432:
1420:
1413:
1405:
1394:
1386:
1382:
1374:
1367:
1359:
1355:
1344:
1337:
1329:
1325:
1317:
1313:
1306:
1302:
1293:
1286:
1278:
1267:
1255:
1251:
1239:
1235:
1219:
1215:
1204:
1200:
1188:
1184:
1177:
1173:
1165:
1161:
1154:
1150:
1138:, p. 720;
1134:, p. 871;
1129:
1125:
1117:
1113:
1105:
1101:
1093:
1089:
1082:
1078:
1071:
1067:
1059:
1052:
1044:
1037:
1033:
1028:
1009:Problem shaping
999:Problem finding
949:
937:system dynamics
887:video projector
885:connected to a
855:
841:, developing a
830:
818:
794:
746:decision-making
657:
655:Characteristics
633:Wicked problems
583:Peter Checkland
477:wicked problems
472:
466:
448:Robert L. Flood
437:Peter Checkland
405:
385:problem solving
330:
157:Hyperbolic tree
127:Concept lattice
96:Visual language
12:
11:
5:
4274:
4264:
4263:
4248:
4247:
4234:978-1559585675
4233:
4219:
4218:
4205:978-0471926320
4204:
4186:
4185:
4175:(3): 357–391.
4163:
4162:
4148:
4126:
4125:
4084:
4083:
4070:978-1576750209
4069:
4050:
4049:
4036:978-1892637093
4035:
4016:
4015:
4001:
3985:
3984:
3971:978-0415185295
3970:
3951:
3950:
3937:978-0072311358
3936:
3913:
3912:
3899:978-0470844915
3898:
3878:
3877:
3864:978-0787962753
3863:
3843:
3842:
3829:978-0470843925
3828:
3810:
3809:
3796:978-0787971373
3795:
3775:
3774:
3752:
3751:
3738:978-0470869154
3737:
3717:
3716:
3703:978-0761944935
3702:
3682:
3681:
3663:(7): 779–791.
3642:
3641:
3607:
3606:
3592:
3574:
3573:
3555:(5): 547–556.
3534:
3533:
3497:
3496:
3482:
3464:
3463:
3453:(4): 471–486.
3439:
3438:
3424:
3400:
3399:
3385:
3363:
3362:
3348:
3320:
3319:
3313:
3287:
3286:
3280:
3262:
3261:
3247:
3225:
3224:
3212:(1): 143–154.
3191:
3190:
3168:
3167:
3149:(6): 873–883.
3131:
3130:
3102:(3): 932–945.
3081:
3080:
3066:
3065:
3051:
3025:
3024:
3010:
2980:
2979:
2969:(1): 145–158.
2947:
2946:
2932:
2912:
2911:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2863:
2849:
2821:
2820:
2794:(3): 197–206.
2780:
2779:
2765:
2739:
2738:
2720:(6): 117–131.
2704:
2703:
2690:978-0471922858
2689:
2668:
2667:
2649:(3): 303–334.
2633:
2632:
2606:(2): 155–169.
2578:
2577:
2563:
2535:
2534:
2514:(1): 103–112.
2498:
2497:
2479:(9): 870–872.
2465:
2464:
2454:(3): 530–554.
2436:
2435:
2422:978-0471495239
2421:
2403:
2402:
2382:(1): 156–171.
2368:
2367:
2349:
2348:
2322:(6): 473–486.
2305:
2304:
2291:978-1461487623
2290:
2264:
2263:
2232:
2231:
2217:
2193:
2192:
2179:978-0471930525
2178:
2153:
2152:
2142:(2): 524–541.
2121:
2120:
2110:(2): 119–127.
2098:
2097:
2071:(7): 766–768.
2057:
2056:
2026:
2025:
2015:(4): 720–737.
2003:
2002:
1988:
1958:
1957:
1943:
1925:
1924:
1911:978-0470017685
1910:
1892:
1891:
1873:(2): 213–239.
1854:
1853:
1839:
1818:
1817:
1804:978-0471279112
1803:
1780:
1779:
1766:978-0470884768
1765:
1753:Trappl, Robert
1744:
1743:
1730:978-0787981433
1729:
1709:
1708:
1672:(5): 691–694.
1651:
1650:
1600:
1599:
1586:978-0471002963
1585:
1562:
1561:
1547:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1519:
1508:
1496:
1480:
1463:
1452:
1430:
1428:, p. 1169
1426:Rosenhead 2013
1411:
1409:, p. 1170
1407:Rosenhead 2013
1392:
1390:, p. 1167
1388:Rosenhead 2013
1380:
1365:
1353:
1335:
1323:
1319:Rosenhead 2013
1311:
1300:
1284:
1280:Rosenhead 2013
1265:
1258:Rosenhead 1989
1249:
1233:
1213:
1210:Checkland 1981
1206:Checkland 1975
1198:
1182:
1171:
1169:, p. 1164
1167:Rosenhead 2013
1159:
1156:Rosenhead 1989
1148:
1146:, p. 720)
1123:
1111:
1107:Rosenhead 1996
1099:
1087:
1076:
1065:
1061:Rosenhead 1996
1050:
1048:, p. 1162
1046:Rosenhead 2013
1034:
1032:
1029:
1027:
1026:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1006:
1001:
996:
991:
986:
981:
976:
971:
966:
961:
956:
950:
948:
945:
918:group dynamics
867:shared display
854:
851:
829:
826:
817:
814:
793:
790:
789:
788:
782:
776:
770:
756:
755:
752:
749:
742:
735:
732:
717:
716:
713:content skills
709:process skills
689:
681:
669:
656:
653:
622:
621:
616:
613:
612:Barry Johnson
609:
608:
603:
600:
594:
593:
588:
585:
579:
578:
573:
570:
568:Ronald Heifetz
564:
563:
558:
555:
549:
548:
543:
540:
534:
533:
528:
525:
519:
518:
516:Wicked problem
513:
510:
500:
499:
498:Right extreme
496:
493:
465:
462:
461:
460:
454:
445:
439:
434:
429:
404:
401:
381:
380:
377:
374:
332:
331:
329:
328:
321:
314:
306:
303:
302:
301:
300:
298:Wicked problem
295:
290:
285:
280:
275:
270:
265:
260:
255:
250:
242:
241:
237:
236:
235:
234:
229:
227:Tree structure
224:
219:
214:
209:
204:
199:
194:
189:
184:
179:
174:
169:
164:
159:
154:
149:
144:
139:
134:
129:
124:
119:
114:
106:
105:
101:
100:
99:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
53:
48:
43:
35:
34:
30:
29:
25:
24:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4273:
4262:
4259:
4258:
4256:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4230:
4226:
4221:
4220:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4188:
4187:
4182:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4165:
4164:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4149:9781861526175
4145:
4141:
4136:
4135:
4128:
4127:
4122:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4085:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4066:
4062:
4061:
4056:
4052:
4051:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4032:
4028:
4027:
4022:
4018:
4017:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4002:9781576753798
3998:
3994:
3993:
3987:
3986:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3967:
3963:
3962:
3957:
3953:
3952:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3924:
3919:
3915:
3914:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3886:
3880:
3879:
3874:
3870:
3866:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3851:
3845:
3844:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3812:
3811:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3783:
3777:
3776:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3754:
3753:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3725:
3719:
3718:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3690:
3684:
3683:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3657:
3649:
3644:
3643:
3638:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3621:(1–3): 1–22.
3620:
3616:
3615:
3609:
3608:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3593:9780470057186
3589:
3585:
3581:
3576:
3575:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3549:
3541:
3536:
3535:
3530:
3524:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3499:
3498:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3483:9780231132503
3479:
3475:
3471:
3466:
3465:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3447:
3441:
3440:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3425:9783834980748
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3408:
3402:
3401:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3386:9789088911354
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3365:
3364:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3349:9789048190966
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3328:
3322:
3321:
3316:
3314:9781441959034
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3289:
3288:
3283:
3281:9781591844594
3277:
3273:
3269:
3264:
3263:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3248:9781618392299
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3227:
3226:
3220:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3206:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3192:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3170:
3169:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3132:
3127:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3096:
3088:
3083:
3082:
3077:
3073:
3068:
3067:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3052:9781447164692
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3027:
3026:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3011:9781447164692
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2982:
2981:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2963:
2958:
2954:
2949:
2948:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2933:9781118605929
2929:
2925:
2921:
2920:
2914:
2913:
2908:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2873:
2872:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2850:9781119744825
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2829:
2823:
2822:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2788:
2782:
2781:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2766:9781441911377
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2741:
2740:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2706:
2705:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2669:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2635:
2634:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2600:
2592:
2589:(June 1973).
2588:
2584:
2580:
2579:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2564:9781848828087
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2543:
2537:
2536:
2531:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2500:
2499:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2473:
2467:
2466:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2437:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2405:
2404:
2399:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2376:
2370:
2369:
2365:(2): 112–122.
2364:
2360:
2356:
2351:
2350:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2316:
2311:
2307:
2306:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2266:
2265:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2234:
2233:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2218:9780750663731
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2201:
2195:
2194:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2154:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2136:
2128:
2123:
2122:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2100:
2099:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2065:
2059:
2058:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2028:
2027:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2005:
2004:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1989:9781447164692
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1960:
1959:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1944:9781462058549
1940:
1936:
1932:
1927:
1926:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1894:
1893:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1861:
1856:
1855:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1840:9780470025543
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1819:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1791:
1786:
1782:
1781:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1745:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1717:
1711:
1710:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1666:
1658:
1653:
1652:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1624:(2): 93–104.
1623:
1619:
1618:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1601:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1573:
1568:
1564:
1563:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1548:9781849201193
1544:
1540:
1536:
1535:
1529:
1528:
1517:
1512:
1506:, p. 691
1505:
1500:
1494:
1493:Ferretti 2016
1490:
1487:For example:
1484:
1477:
1473:
1470:For example:
1467:
1461:
1456:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1437:
1435:
1427:
1423:
1418:
1416:
1408:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1389:
1384:
1377:
1372:
1370:
1362:
1357:
1351:
1347:
1342:
1340:
1332:
1327:
1320:
1315:
1309:
1304:
1298:, p. 108
1297:
1291:
1289:
1281:
1276:
1274:
1272:
1270:
1263:
1259:
1256:For example:
1253:
1247:
1243:
1240:For example:
1237:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1220:For example:
1217:
1211:
1207:
1202:
1196:
1192:
1189:For example:
1186:
1180:
1175:
1168:
1163:
1157:
1152:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1127:
1121:
1118:For example:
1115:
1109:, p. 118
1108:
1103:
1096:
1091:
1085:
1080:
1074:
1069:
1063:, p. 117
1062:
1057:
1055:
1047:
1042:
1040:
1035:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1005:
1002:
1000:
997:
995:
992:
990:
987:
985:
982:
980:
977:
975:
972:
970:
969:Delphi method
967:
965:
962:
960:
957:
955:
952:
951:
944:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
921:
919:
914:
912:
907:
903:
899:
895:
890:
888:
884:
880:
879:Post-it notes
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
850:
848:
844:
840:
835:
825:
823:
813:
811:
810:cognitive map
807:
803:
799:
786:
783:
780:
777:
774:
771:
768:
764:
761:
760:
759:
753:
750:
747:
743:
740:
736:
733:
730:
726:
722:
721:
720:
714:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
679:
675:
670:
668:participants.
666:
665:
664:
661:
652:
649:
648:argumentation
644:
642:
641:stopping rule
638:
634:
630:
628:
627:Tame problems
620:
617:
614:
611:
610:
607:
604:
601:
599:
596:
595:
592:
589:
587:Hard systems
586:
584:
581:
580:
577:
574:
571:
569:
566:
565:
562:
559:
556:
554:
553:Jerome Ravetz
551:
550:
547:
544:
541:
539:
536:
535:
532:
529:
526:
524:
521:
520:
517:
514:
512:Tame problem
511:
509:
505:
502:
501:
497:
495:Left extreme
494:
491:
490:
484:
482:
478:
471:
458:
455:
453:
449:
446:
443:
440:
438:
435:
433:
430:
428:
424:
421:
420:
419:
416:
414:
410:
400:
398:
394:
389:
386:
378:
375:
373:
370:
369:
368:
366:
362:
358:
357:collaboration
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
327:
322:
320:
315:
313:
308:
307:
305:
304:
299:
296:
294:
291:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
271:
269:
266:
264:
261:
259:
256:
254:
251:
249:
246:
245:
244:
243:
239:
238:
233:
230:
228:
225:
223:
220:
218:
215:
213:
210:
208:
205:
203:
200:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
168:
165:
163:
160:
158:
155:
153:
152:Graph drawing
150:
148:
145:
143:
142:Decision tree
140:
138:
135:
133:
130:
128:
125:
123:
122:Cognitive map
120:
118:
115:
113:
110:
109:
108:
107:
103:
102:
97:
94:
92:
89:
87:
84:
82:
79:
77:
74:
72:
69:
67:
64:
62:
59:
57:
54:
52:
49:
47:
44:
42:
39:
38:
37:
36:
32:
31:
27:
26:
22:
18:
17:
4224:
4191:
4172:
4168:
4133:
4104:
4100:
4059:
4025:
3991:
3960:
3922:
3884:
3849:
3815:
3781:
3764:(1): 23–43.
3761:
3757:
3723:
3688:
3660:
3654:
3618:
3612:
3579:
3552:
3546:
3506:
3469:
3450:
3444:
3406:
3368:
3326:
3292:
3270:. New York:
3267:
3234:
3209:
3203:
3177:
3173:
3146:
3140:
3099:
3093:
3078:(13): 50–71.
3075:
3034:
2989:
2966:
2960:
2918:
2880:
2876:
2831:. New York:
2827:
2791:
2785:
2744:
2717:
2713:
2676:
2646:
2642:
2603:
2597:
2541:
2511:
2507:
2476:
2470:
2451:
2445:
2408:
2379:
2373:
2362:
2358:
2319:
2313:
2272:. New York:
2269:
2242:
2238:
2199:
2165:
2139:
2133:
2107:
2103:
2068:
2062:
2038:(2): 50–60.
2035:
2031:
2012:
2008:
1967:
1930:
1897:
1870:
1866:
1826:
1789:
1756:
1715:
1669:
1663:
1621:
1615:
1575:. New York:
1571:
1533:
1511:
1499:
1483:
1478:, p. 83
1476:Hovmand 2014
1466:
1455:
1441:Conklin 2006
1383:
1356:
1326:
1314:
1303:
1252:
1236:
1216:
1201:
1185:
1174:
1162:
1151:
1126:
1114:
1102:
1090:
1079:
1068:
954:Causal model
940:
922:
915:
891:
856:
831:
828:Applications
819:
797:
795:
784:
778:
772:
766:
762:
757:
718:
712:
708:
705:facilitators
685:facilitation
662:
658:
645:
637:stakeholders
632:
631:
626:
625:
618:
605:
598:Donald Schön
591:Soft systems
590:
575:
560:
545:
530:
515:
473:
423:Horst Rittel
417:
412:
406:
390:
383:Unlike some
382:
365:negotiations
340:
336:
335:
288:Semantic Web
282:
112:Argument map
71:Mental model
56:Infographics
4107:(1): 9–32.
3928:McGraw-Hill
3855:Jossey-Bass
3787:Jossey-Bass
3117:10871/26098
2924:Jossey-Bass
2898:2066/162275
1721:Jossey-Bass
1195:Ackoff 1979
1191:Ackoff 1974
1140:Landis 1988
1132:Norris 1985
925:spreadsheet
871:flip charts
859:methodology
739:transparent
693:sensemaking
293:Treemapping
202:Radial tree
132:Concept map
3377:1871/15611
3237:. Albany:
2859:1428781803
2714:Interfaces
2032:Interfaces
1687:2066/46184
1524:References
927:modeling,
898:Compendium
875:whiteboard
873:, a large
468:See also:
442:Colin Eden
397:counseling
172:Issue tree
147:Dendrogram
117:Cladistics
3623:CiteSeerX
3523:cite book
3515:244786254
3492:221664360
3434:405547025
3395:890620243
3358:109009575
3257:772917674
3061:890438015
3020:890438015
2942:883462253
2907:108617231
2775:751832290
2573:428028266
2384:CiteSeerX
2300:857646084
2259:156914319
1998:890438015
1953:767703320
1935:iUniverse
1775:768420617
1646:154631075
1557:754163654
1226:Eden 1982
1144:Dunn 1988
1136:Dunn 1988
725:satisfice
688:proposed.
606:The swamp
361:consensus
222:Topic map
212:Sociogram
167:Issue map
162:Hypertext
4255:Category
4243:30593721
4214:20722225
4158:55852024
4079:37910423
4057:(1998).
4045:41138655
4023:(1998).
4011:66527256
3980:40305701
3958:(1999).
3946:42771322
3920:(2000).
3908:49834014
3873:52423944
3838:59464466
3805:53846603
3747:54805947
3712:56464669
3602:76073738
3126:30180206
2816:62223595
2734:25062196
2699:19847533
2675:(1989).
2663:54555503
2628:18634229
2530:19021113
2431:46601256
2344:62772311
2227:56590929
2205:Elsevier
2188:23254656
2164:(1991).
2093:20964755
2052:25060235
1920:60491946
1887:62660675
1849:67374920
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