876:'s idea that there are "born criminals", who can be recognized, even before they have committed any crime, on the basis of certain physical characteristics. Biological, psychological and sociological forms of criminological positivisms informed criminal policy in the early 20th century. For born criminals, criminal psychopaths, and dangerous habitual offenders eliminatory penalties (capital punishment, indefinite confinement, castration etc.) were seen as appropriate. Similar ideas were advocated by the social defense movement and, more recently, by what is seen and criticized as an emerging "new criminology" or "
3383:
1948:
3397:
37:
1000:(Correctional Offender Management Profiling for Alternative Sanctions) has been used by police and judges to predict the risk of recidivism amongst more than 1 million offenders since its development in 1998. The software predicts the likelihood that a convicted criminal will reoffend within two years based upon data including 137 of the individual's physical features and past criminal records.
1021:
were incorrectly predicted to not be at risk of recidivism at a rate of 47.7%, as opposed to their Black counterparts who were incorrectly predicted to not reoffend at a rate of 28%. The study concluded that the COMPAS software appeared to overpredict recidivism risk towards Black individuals while underpredicting recidivism risk towards their white counterparts.
895:, suggested, in a memorandum to the president, to run mass tests of "pre-delinquency" and put those juveniles in "camps". Hutschnecker, a refugee from Nazi Germany and a vocal critic of Hitler at the time of his exodus, has rejected the interpretation of the memorandum that he advocated concentration camps:
844:
computer. As
Anderton, the chief of the Precrime agency, explains the advantages of this procedure: "in our society we have no major crimes ... but we do have a detention camp full of would-be criminals". He cautions about the basic legal drawback to precrime methodology: "We’re taking in individuals
823:
to describe illegal thoughts which held banned opinions about the ruling government or intentions to act against it. A large part of how it differs from precrime is in its absolute prohibition of anti-authority ideas and emotions, regardless of the consideration of any physical revolutionary acts.
1020:
The results of the study showed that Black defendants who did not reoffend after their sentence were incorrectly predicted by COMPAS software to recidivate at a rate of 44.9%, as opposed to white defendants who were incorrectly predicted to reoffend at a rate of 23.5%. In addition, white defendants
992:
Another criticism of crime prediction software is that crime prediction algorithms often use racially skewed data in their analysis. This can potentially lead law enforcement agencies to make decisions and predictions that unfairly target and label minority communities as at risk for criminal
839:
is the name of a criminal justice agency, the task of which is to identify and eliminate persons who will commit crimes in the future. The agency’s work is based on the existence of "precog mutants", a trio of "vegetable-like" humans whose "every incoherent utterance" is analyzed by a
903:
that was distorted. My use of it dates back to when I came to the United States in 1936 and spent the summer as a doctor in a children's camp. It was that experience and the pastoral setting, as well as the activities, that prompted my use of the word
955:, but it was not enforced after the mid-1970s. Precrime is most obvious and advanced in the context of counter-terrorism, though it is argued that, far from countering terrorism, precrime produces the futures it purports to prevent.
946:
in 2009. It was, however, never completely abolished in
Germany and new legislation is envisaged to continue this practice under the new name "Therapieunterbringung" (detention for therapy).. A similar provision for indefinite
1009:
by two researchers found that groups of randomly chosen people could predict whether a past criminal would be convicted of a future crime with about 67 percent accuracy, a rate that was extremely similar to COMPAS.
988:
However, crime prediction software has also faced heavy criticism from academics, privacy, and civil liberties groups due to concerns about the lack of evidence proving the technology’s reliability and accuracy.
919:
The frontline of a modern criminal justice system is increasingly preoccupied with anticipating threats, and is the antithesis of the traditional criminal justice system's focus on past crimes. Traditionally,
1030:
824:
However, Orwell was describing behaviour he saw in governments of his day as well as extrapolating on that behaviour, and so his ideas were themselves rooted in real political history and current events.
934:" ('retrospective security detention'), which became an option in German criminal law in 2004. This "measure of security" can be decided upon at the end of a prison sentence on a purely
121:
1826:
1270:. "ICCJ Monographs: Issues in Community and Criminal Justice" series. London: National Association of Probation Officers / Institute of Criminology and Criminal Justice.
938:
basis. In France, a similarly retrospective measure was introduced in 2008 as "rétention de sûreté" (security detention). The German measure was viewed as violating the
985:
This type of software has allowed law enforcement agencies to form predictions about criminal behavior and identify potential criminal hotspots based on crime data.
788:
systems to focus on crimes not yet committed. Precrime intervenes to punish, disrupt, incapacitate or restrict those deemed to embody future crime threats. The term
1611:
1449:
1422:
756:
1637:
1569:
1819:
914:
928:. This time-honored principle is violated once punishment is meted out "for crimes never committed". Today, a clear example of this trend is "
1596:
1812:
1013:
Although COMPAS does not explicitly collect data regarding race, a study testing its accuracy on more than 7,000 individuals arrested in
3364:
373:
2161:
1365:
780:) is the idea that the occurrence of a crime can be anticipated before it happens. The term was coined by science fiction author
749:
2080:
106:
1511:
939:
723:
577:
2790:
2348:
2247:
2138:
1485:
1345:
1275:
1248:
1147:
Wood, Mark A. (10 May 2018). "Algorithmic tyranny: Psycho-Pass, science fiction and the criminological imagination".
1111:
742:
2904:
2773:
2107:
965:
3359:
2706:
2607:
974:, citing pervasive monitoring of suspects and repeated visits to their homes, schools, and places of employment.
620:
317:
2866:
2500:
1724:
943:
557:
537:
111:
2219:
2176:
1406:(2014). "Preventive Detention of the Dangerous". In Ashworth, Andrew; Zedner, Luica; Tomlin, Patrick (eds.).
718:
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368:
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91:
2156:
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3079:
1042:
670:
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407:
213:
131:
872:
Precrime in criminology dates back to the positivist school in the late 19th century, especially to
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81:
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126:
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2490:
1987:
680:
630:
527:
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402:
363:
337:
284:
116:
61:
56:
784:, and is increasingly used in academic literature to describe and criticise the tendency in
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2027:
1992:
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1062:
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8:
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2044:
1132:
1052:
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880:
justice". The new "precrime" or "security society" requires a radically new criminology.
832:
695:
572:
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485:
289:
66:
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3099:
2758:
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1972:
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1427:
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1221:
1164:
690:
665:
322:
272:
228:
136:
1206:"The new penology: Notes on the emerging strategy of corrections and its implications"
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2535:
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1997:
1982:
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1341:
1315:
1271:
1265:
1244:
1168:
1107:
997:
582:
500:
353:
223:
1239:(1994). "Actuarial justice: The emerging new criminal law". In Nelken, David (ed.).
164:
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2419:
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1909:
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2394:
2314:
2092:
2086:
1894:
1889:
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1381:
960:
877:
873:
858:, loosely adapted from the story. The Japanese cyberpunk anime television series
828:
685:
327:
267:
262:
247:
179:
174:
96:
76:
1531:"Pre-crime and Counter-terrorism: Imagining Future Crime in the 'War on Terror'"
3415:
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3141:
2730:
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1924:
1899:
1869:
1864:
1515:
1236:
1201:
1127:
925:
781:
444:
71:
2186:
1031:
Bureau of
Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives fictional sting operations
3431:
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2894:
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2016:
1554:
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169:
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2701:
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2627:
2592:
2515:
2439:
2389:
2304:
2143:
2070:
2065:
2005:
1638:"Artificial Intelligence Is Now Used to Predict Crime. But Is It Biased?"
1546:
860:
640:
427:
332:
279:
146:
101:
24:
3387:
3316:
3196:
3134:
2879:
2800:
2795:
2753:
2735:
2723:
2684:
2530:
2520:
2480:
2465:
2449:
2399:
2336:
2331:
2075:
2022:
2010:
1953:
1934:
982:
Specialist software now exists for crime-prediction by analysing data.
841:
660:
655:
461:
1017:
showed substantial racial disparities in the software’s predictions.
3294:
3259:
3201:
3176:
3041:
2938:
2926:
2911:
2899:
2827:
2745:
2718:
2602:
935:
796:, suggesting both that a crime has not yet occurred and that it is a
299:
235:
3382:
1947:
3343:
3328:
3031:
2916:
2713:
2257:
439:
386:
36:
28:
1725:"Can Software Predict Crime? Maybe So, but No Better Than a Human"
1187:
A History of
English Criminal Law and Its Administration from 1750
3233:
3181:
3161:
3109:
2921:
2839:
2655:
2617:
2565:
1929:
1853:
1267:
470:
1450:"Nixon-era Plan for Children Didn't Include Concentration Camps"
3333:
3186:
2931:
2822:
2817:
2763:
2434:
1859:
1512:"EDILEX | Suomen johtava lakitietopalvelu ammattilaisille"
1095:
1093:
417:
51:
3274:
3218:
3124:
2965:
2768:
2267:
1753:"The accuracy, fairness, and limits of predicting recidivism"
1666:"The accuracy, fairness, and limits of predicting recidivism"
412:
193:
1090:
3156:
3104:
2960:
2358:
2274:
2097:
1977:
2228:
1597:"Pre-crime software recruited to track gang of thieves"
2197:
1834:
1264:
Fitzgibbon, Diana Wendy (2004). Collett, Steve (ed.).
848:
The concept was brought to wider public attention by
1943:
1612:"The Future of Policing Using Pre-Crime Technology"
996:A widely used criminal risk assessment tool called
1568:McGrory, Kathleen; Bedi, Neil (3 September 2020).
1529:McCulloch, Jude; Pickering, Sharon (11 May 2009).
1528:
1103:Pre-crime: Pre-emption, precaution and the future
3429:
1480:. Helsinki: Research Institute of Legal Policy.
1414:
1366:"Pre-crime and pre-punishment: A health warning"
1189:. London: Sweet & Maxwell. pp. 231–387.
1751:Dressel, Julia; Farid, Hany (17 January 2018).
1664:Dressel, Julia; Farid, Hany (17 January 2018).
1181:
1099:
908:
811:introduced a similar concept in his 1949 novel
1423:"Arnold Hutschnecker, 102, Therapist to Nixon"
915:Collateral consequences of criminal conviction
883:
2213:
1820:
1492:Criticised the measure of security detention.
1408:Prevention and the Limits of the Criminal Law
750:
1750:
1663:
1447:
1410:. Oxford University Press. pp. 144–170.
1336:. New York / London: Routledge. pp. 72
929:
1567:
1294:(2007). "Pre-crime and post-criminology?".
1234:
1199:
867:
2220:
2206:
1827:
1813:
1263:
757:
743:
1784:
1699:
1501:Boetticher & Feest (2008), p. 263 sq.
803:
3365:History of the American legal profession
1589:
1478:Incarceration for Crimes Never Committed
1448:Hutschnecker, Arnold (15 October 1998).
1722:
1475:
968:precrime detection program to the film
3430:
1402:
1360:
1328:
1290:
1100:McCulloch, Jude; Wilson, Dean (2016).
2201:
1808:
1420:
977:
1146:
1126:
1635:
940:European Convention on Human Rights
926:evidence of a crime being committed
13:
1723:Chokshi, Niraj (19 January 2018).
1222:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01112.x
1136:. London: Gollancz. pp. 1–43.
1106:. London and New York: Routledge.
931:nachträgliche Sicherungsverwahrung
14:
3459:
2349:Restitution and unjust enrichment
2139:Evidence law in the United States
1609:
16:Term for crimes not yet committed
3396:
3395:
3381:
1946:
112:Risk & actuarial criminology
35:
3360:History of the legal profession
1744:
1716:
1657:
1629:
1603:
1561:
1522:
1504:
1495:
1469:
1441:
1421:Goode, Erica (3 January 2001),
1396:
1354:
1993:Deferred prosecution agreement
1535:British Journal of Criminology
1322:
1284:
1257:
1228:
1193:
1175:
1140:
1120:
944:European Court of Human Rights
1:
1243:. London: Sage Publications.
1083:
966:Pasco County Sheriff's Office
1382:10.1080/09627251.2010.505409
909:In criminal justice practice
7:
1078:Total Information Awareness
1024:
884:Testing for pre-delinquency
10:
3464:
3027:International legal theory
2506:International slavery laws
2501:International human rights
2496:International criminal law
1241:The Futures of Criminology
924:and punishment presuppose
912:
92:Expressive function of law
3375:
3352:
3242:
3080:Administration of justice
3065:
2974:
2865:
2744:
2646:
2367:
2235:
2152:
2116:
2108:Presentence investigation
2058:
1963:
1941:
1843:
1043:Incapacitation (penology)
845:who have broken no law."
827:In Philip K. Dick's 1956
2857:Basic structure doctrine
2707:Natural and legal rights
2588:Public international law
1476:Anttila, Inkeri (1975).
1370:Criminal Justice Matters
1308:10.1177/1362480607075851
1161:10.1177/1741659018774609
949:administrative detention
868:In criminological theory
82:Differential association
3037:Principle of typicality
2511:International trade law
2227:
1296:Theoretical Criminology
1015:Broward County, Florida
864:has a similar concept.
142:Symbolic interactionism
2050:Statute of limitations
1845:Criminal investigation
1777:10.1126/sciadv.aao5580
1692:10.1126/sciadv.aao5580
1185:; Hood, Roger (1986).
930:
906:
804:Origins of the concept
122:Social disorganization
3032:Principle of legality
2791:Delegated legislation
2491:Intellectual property
1988:Criminal jurisdiction
1149:Crime, Media, Culture
1003:A study published in
897:
631:Biosocial criminology
338:Uniform Crime Reports
57:Biosocial criminology
3250:Barristers' chambers
3192:Legal representation
3130:Justice of the peace
2476:Financial regulation
2028:Inquisitorial system
1965:Criminal prosecution
1905:Reasonable suspicion
1880:Exigent circumstance
1364:(1 September 2010).
1200:Feeley, Malcolm M.;
1063:Preventive detention
1058:Presumption of guilt
814:Nineteen Eighty-Four
506:Solitary confinement
3285:Election commission
2997:Expressive function
2526:Landlord–tenant law
2425:Consumer protection
2045:Preliminary hearing
1769:2018SciA....4.5580D
1684:2018SciA....4.5580D
1518:on 8 February 2017.
1053:Predictive policing
893:Arnold Hutschnecker
833:The Minority Report
798:foregone conclusion
696:Radical criminology
67:Collective efficacy
3243:Legal institutions
3110:Lawsuit/Litigation
3100:Dispute resolution
2905:Catholic canon law
2613:State of emergency
2576:Will and testament
2300:Law of obligations
2253:Constitutional law
2243:Administrative law
1973:Adversarial system
1915:Search and seizure
1885:Knock-and-announce
1836:Criminal procedure
1730:The New York Times
1547:10.1093/bjc/azp023
1455:The New York Times
1428:The New York Times
978:Current techniques
3425:
3424:
3085:Constitutionalism
3007:Law and economics
2845:Act of parliament
2583:Product liability
2536:Legal archaeology
2461:Environmental law
2455:Entertainment law
2295:International law
2195:
2194:
2177:Wikimedia Commons
2124:Criminal defenses
2059:Charges and pleas
1983:Bill of attainder
1920:Search of persons
1235:Feeley, Malcolm;
1204:(November 1992).
1183:Radzinowicz, Leon
891:'s psychiatrist,
767:
766:
513:
512:
450:Prisoners' rights
354:Positivist school
3455:
3438:Crime prevention
3400:
3399:
3398:
3386:
3385:
3209:Question of fact
3090:Criminal justice
2420:Construction law
2415:Conflict of laws
2380:Agricultural law
2222:
2215:
2208:
2199:
2198:
1956:
1951:
1950:
1910:Right to silence
1829:
1822:
1815:
1806:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1788:
1757:Science Advances
1748:
1742:
1741:
1739:
1737:
1720:
1714:
1713:
1703:
1671:Science Advances
1661:
1655:
1654:
1652:
1650:
1636:Rieland, Randy.
1633:
1627:
1626:
1624:
1622:
1610:Coats, Kenneth.
1607:
1601:
1600:
1593:
1587:
1586:
1584:
1582:
1565:
1559:
1558:
1526:
1520:
1519:
1514:. Archived from
1508:
1502:
1499:
1493:
1491:
1473:
1467:
1466:
1464:
1462:
1445:
1439:
1438:
1437:
1435:
1418:
1412:
1411:
1400:
1394:
1393:
1358:
1352:
1351:
1326:
1320:
1319:
1288:
1282:
1281:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1232:
1226:
1225:
1197:
1191:
1190:
1179:
1173:
1172:
1144:
1138:
1137:
1124:
1118:
1117:
1097:
1068:Preventive state
1048:Inchoate offense
1006:Science Advances
933:
922:criminal justice
899:It was the term
850:Steven Spielberg
794:temporal paradox
786:criminal justice
759:
752:
745:
392:
391:
349:Crime statistics
275:
39:
21:
20:
3463:
3462:
3458:
3457:
3456:
3454:
3453:
3452:
3428:
3427:
3426:
3421:
3394:
3380:
3371:
3348:
3339:Political party
3312:Legal education
3300:Law enforcement
3280:Court of equity
3238:
3214:Question of law
3167:Practice of law
3147:Judicial review
3061:
3012:Legal formalism
2992:Comparative law
2987:Contract theory
2970:
2890:Legal pluralism
2861:
2850:Act of Congress
2774:Executive order
2740:
2642:
2561:Nationality law
2486:Immigration law
2410:Competition law
2363:
2231:
2226:
2196:
2191:
2148:
2112:
2093:Peremptory plea
2087:Nolo contendere
2054:
1959:
1952:
1945:
1939:
1895:Pretextual stop
1890:Miranda warning
1839:
1838:(investigation)
1833:
1803:
1802:
1763:(1): eaao5580.
1749:
1745:
1735:
1733:
1721:
1717:
1678:(1): eaao5580.
1662:
1658:
1648:
1646:
1634:
1630:
1620:
1618:
1608:
1604:
1595:
1594:
1590:
1580:
1578:
1575:Tampa Bay Times
1566:
1562:
1527:
1523:
1510:
1509:
1505:
1500:
1496:
1488:
1474:
1470:
1460:
1458:
1446:
1442:
1433:
1431:
1419:
1415:
1401:
1397:
1359:
1355:
1348:
1327:
1323:
1289:
1285:
1278:
1262:
1258:
1251:
1237:Simon, Jonathan
1233:
1229:
1202:Simon, Jonathan
1198:
1194:
1180:
1176:
1145:
1141:
1133:Minority Report
1128:Dick, Philip K.
1125:
1121:
1114:
1098:
1091:
1086:
1027:
980:
971:Minority Report
961:Tampa Bay Times
917:
911:
886:
874:Cesare Lombroso
870:
855:Minority Report
829:science fiction
817:using the term
806:
763:
734:
733:
709:
701:
700:
626:Anthropological
616:
608:
607:
523:
515:
514:
389:
379:
378:
328:Critical theory
313:
305:
304:
285:State-corporate
273:
196:
185:
184:
180:Archibald Reiss
175:Cesare Lombroso
160:
159:Major theorists
152:
151:
127:Social learning
107:Rational choice
97:Labeling theory
77:Criminalization
47:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3461:
3451:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3423:
3422:
3420:
3419:
3412:
3405:
3391:
3388:Law portal
3376:
3373:
3372:
3370:
3369:
3368:
3367:
3356:
3354:
3350:
3349:
3347:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3320:
3319:
3309:
3308:
3307:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3246:
3244:
3240:
3239:
3237:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3224:Trial advocacy
3221:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3205:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3138:
3137:
3132:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3071:
3069:
3063:
3062:
3060:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2978:
2976:
2972:
2971:
2969:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2947:
2946:
2936:
2935:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2908:
2907:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2871:
2869:
2863:
2862:
2860:
2859:
2854:
2853:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2832:
2831:
2830:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2804:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2783:
2782:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2761:
2756:
2754:Ballot measure
2750:
2748:
2742:
2741:
2739:
2738:
2733:
2731:Legal treatise
2728:
2727:
2726:
2721:
2711:
2710:
2709:
2699:
2697:Letters patent
2694:
2689:
2688:
2687:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2658:
2652:
2650:
2648:Sources of law
2644:
2643:
2641:
2640:
2635:
2633:Unenforced law
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2579:
2578:
2573:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2405:Commercial law
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2371:
2369:
2365:
2364:
2362:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2345:
2344:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2323:
2322:
2317:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2271:
2270:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2239:
2237:
2233:
2232:
2225:
2224:
2217:
2210:
2202:
2193:
2192:
2190:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2153:
2150:
2149:
2147:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2120:
2118:
2114:
2113:
2111:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2062:
2060:
2056:
2055:
2053:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2034:Nolle prosequi
2030:
2025:
2020:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1969:
1967:
1961:
1960:
1958:
1957:
1942:
1940:
1938:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1925:Search warrant
1922:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1900:Probable cause
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1870:Consent search
1867:
1865:Arrest warrant
1862:
1857:
1849:
1847:
1841:
1840:
1832:
1831:
1824:
1817:
1809:
1801:
1800:
1743:
1715:
1656:
1628:
1602:
1588:
1560:
1541:(5): 628–645.
1521:
1503:
1494:
1486:
1468:
1440:
1413:
1395:
1353:
1346:
1321:
1302:(2): 261–281.
1283:
1276:
1256:
1249:
1227:
1216:(4): 449–474.
1192:
1174:
1155:(2): 323–339.
1139:
1119:
1112:
1088:
1087:
1085:
1082:
1081:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1055:
1050:
1045:
1040:
1033:
1026:
1023:
979:
976:
910:
907:
885:
882:
869:
866:
805:
802:
782:Philip K. Dick
765:
764:
762:
761:
754:
747:
739:
736:
735:
732:
731:
726:
721:
716:
710:
707:
706:
703:
702:
699:
698:
693:
688:
683:
681:Organizational
678:
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
648:
643:
638:
633:
628:
623:
617:
614:
613:
610:
609:
606:
605:
604:
603:
598:
590:
585:
580:
575:
570:
565:
560:
555:
550:
545:
540:
535:
530:
524:
521:
520:
517:
516:
511:
510:
509:
508:
503:
498:
493:
491:Transformative
488:
483:
475:
474:
467:
466:
465:
464:
459:
457:Rehabilitation
454:
453:
452:
447:
445:Prisoner abuse
437:
436:
435:
430:
425:
415:
410:
408:Incapacitation
405:
400:
390:
385:
384:
381:
380:
377:
376:
371:
366:
361:
356:
351:
346:
340:
335:
330:
325:
320:
314:
311:
310:
307:
306:
303:
302:
297:
292:
287:
282:
277:
270:
265:
260:
255:
250:
245:
244:
243:
233:
232:
231:
226:
218:
217:
216:
211:
206:
197:
191:
190:
187:
186:
183:
182:
177:
172:
167:
165:Émile Durkheim
161:
158:
157:
154:
153:
150:
149:
144:
139:
134:
129:
124:
119:
117:Social control
114:
109:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
72:Crime analysis
69:
64:
62:Broken windows
59:
54:
48:
45:
44:
41:
40:
32:
31:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3460:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3435:
3433:
3418:
3417:
3413:
3411:
3410:
3406:
3404:
3403:
3392:
3390:
3389:
3384:
3378:
3377:
3374:
3366:
3363:
3362:
3361:
3358:
3357:
3355:
3351:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3318:
3315:
3314:
3313:
3310:
3306:
3303:
3302:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3270:Civil society
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3247:
3245:
3241:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3229:Trier of fact
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3169:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3127:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3115:Legal opinion
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3095:Court-martial
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3072:
3070:
3068:
3067:Jurisprudence
3064:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2979:
2977:
2973:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2956:Statutory law
2954:
2952:
2951:Socialist law
2949:
2945:
2944:Byzantine law
2942:
2941:
2940:
2937:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2906:
2903:
2902:
2901:
2898:
2897:
2896:
2895:Religious law
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2872:
2870:
2868:
2867:Legal systems
2864:
2858:
2855:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2837:
2836:
2835:Statutory law
2833:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2788:
2787:
2784:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2766:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2751:
2749:
2747:
2743:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2716:
2715:
2712:
2708:
2705:
2704:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2686:
2683:
2682:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2665:Statutory law
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2653:
2651:
2649:
2645:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2623:Transport law
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2541:Legal fiction
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2471:Financial law
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2430:Corporate law
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2372:
2370:
2366:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2354:Statutory law
2352:
2350:
2347:
2343:
2340:
2339:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2312:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2269:
2266:
2265:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2240:
2238:
2236:Core subjects
2234:
2230:
2223:
2218:
2216:
2211:
2209:
2204:
2203:
2200:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2154:
2151:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2121:
2119:
2117:Related areas
2115:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2088:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2057:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2035:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2018:
2017:Habeas corpus
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1999:Ex post facto
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1970:
1968:
1966:
1962:
1955:
1949:
1944:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1855:
1851:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1842:
1837:
1830:
1825:
1823:
1818:
1816:
1811:
1810:
1807:
1796:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1747:
1732:
1731:
1726:
1719:
1711:
1707:
1702:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1672:
1667:
1660:
1645:
1644:
1639:
1632:
1617:
1613:
1606:
1598:
1592:
1577:
1576:
1571:
1564:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1525:
1517:
1513:
1507:
1498:
1489:
1487:9789517040266
1483:
1479:
1472:
1457:
1456:
1451:
1444:
1430:
1429:
1424:
1417:
1409:
1405:
1404:Zedner, Lucia
1399:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1362:Zedner, Lucia
1357:
1349:
1347:9780415391764
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1330:Zedner, Lucia
1325:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1292:Zedner, Lucia
1287:
1279:
1277:9780901617194
1273:
1269:
1268:
1260:
1252:
1250:9780803987159
1246:
1242:
1238:
1231:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1196:
1188:
1184:
1178:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1143:
1135:
1134:
1129:
1123:
1115:
1113:9781315769714
1109:
1105:
1104:
1096:
1094:
1089:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1054:
1051:
1049:
1046:
1044:
1041:
1039:
1038:
1037:Habeas corpus
1034:
1032:
1029:
1028:
1022:
1018:
1016:
1011:
1008:
1007:
1001:
999:
994:
990:
986:
983:
975:
973:
972:
967:
964:compared the
963:
962:
958:In 2020, the
956:
954:
951:was found in
950:
945:
941:
937:
932:
927:
923:
916:
905:
902:
896:
894:
890:
889:Richard Nixon
881:
879:
875:
865:
863:
862:
857:
856:
851:
846:
843:
838:
834:
831:short story "
830:
825:
822:
821:
816:
815:
810:
809:George Orwell
801:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
778:
773:
772:
760:
755:
753:
748:
746:
741:
740:
738:
737:
730:
727:
725:
724:Organizations
722:
720:
717:
715:
712:
711:
705:
704:
697:
694:
692:
689:
687:
684:
682:
679:
677:
674:
672:
671:Environmental
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
647:
644:
642:
639:
637:
634:
632:
629:
627:
624:
622:
619:
618:
612:
611:
602:
599:
597:
594:
593:
591:
589:
588:Postmodernist
586:
584:
581:
579:
578:Neo-classical
576:
574:
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
553:Environmental
551:
549:
546:
544:
541:
539:
536:
534:
531:
529:
526:
525:
519:
518:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
494:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
481:Participatory
479:
478:
477:
476:
472:
469:
468:
463:
460:
458:
455:
451:
448:
446:
443:
442:
441:
438:
434:
431:
429:
426:
424:
421:
420:
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3120:Legal remedy
3075:Adjudication
2975:Legal theory
2813:Ratification
2808:Promulgation
2779:Proclamation
2759:Codification
2692:Human rights
2680:Divine right
2670:Constitution
2638:Women in law
2556:Military law
2551:Marriage law
2546:Maritime law
2445:Election law
2385:Aviation law
2375:Abortion law
2327:Property law
2263:Criminal law
2129:Criminal law
2103:Plea bargain
2085:
2040:Precognition
2032:
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398:Denunciation
364:Quantitative
274:Public-order
229:White-collar
170:Hans Eysenck
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3448:Criminology
3324:Legislature
3255:Bureaucracy
3052:Rule of man
3047:Rule of law
3022:Libertarian
2885:Chinese law
2786:Legislation
2736:Regulations
2724:Law reports
2702:Natural law
2598:Reparations
2593:Refugee law
2516:Jurimetrics
2457:(Media law)
2395:Banking law
2390:Amnesty law
2368:Disciplines
2305:Private law
2187:Wikiversity
2144:Legal abuse
2081:Information
2071:Arraignment
2066:Alford plea
2006:Extradition
1643:Smithsonian
1581:6 September
1461:24 February
1434:24 February
1210:Criminology
953:Finnish law
861:Psycho-Pass
792:embodies a
666:Development
641:Criminology
563:Integrative
501:Utilitarian
496:Retributive
486:Restorative
473:in penology
359:Qualitative
333:Ethnography
318:Comparative
224:Blue-collar
147:Victimology
102:Psychopathy
25:Criminology
3432:Categories
3317:Law school
3197:Prosecutor
3135:Magistrate
2922:Jewish law
2880:Common law
2801:Rulemaking
2796:Regulation
2746:Law making
2685:Divine law
2661:Legal code
2608:Sports law
2531:Law of war
2481:Health law
2466:Family law
2450:Energy law
2400:Bankruptcy
2337:Punishment
2332:Public law
2172:WikiSource
2157:Wiktionary
2076:Indictment
2023:Indictment
2011:Grand jury
1954:Law portal
1935:Terry stop
1736:21 January
1649:21 January
1621:21 January
1570:"Targeted"
1084:References
993:activity.
936:prognostic
913:See also:
842:punch card
661:Demography
583:Positivist
462:Recidivism
403:Deterrence
295:Victimless
137:Subculture
3295:Judiciary
3290:Executive
3265:The bench
3202:Solicitor
3177:Barrister
3057:Sociology
3042:Pseudolaw
2982:Anarchist
2939:Roman law
2927:Parsi law
2912:Hindu law
2900:Canon law
2875:Civil law
2828:Concordat
2719:Precedent
2628:Trust law
2603:Space law
2440:Drugs law
2310:Procedure
2248:Civil law
2167:Wikiquote
2162:Wikibooks
1875:Detention
1555:0007-0955
1390:0962-7251
1316:143498733
1169:149669592
771:Pre-crime
686:Political
615:Subfields
538:Classical
528:Anarchist
423:abolition
323:Profiling
268:Political
263:Organized
248:Corporate
236:Cold case
192:Types of
3402:Category
3344:Tribunal
3329:Military
3172:Attorney
3142:Judgment
3002:Feminist
2917:Jain law
2714:Case law
2435:Cyberlaw
2342:Corporal
2320:Criminal
2290:Evidence
2280:Doctrine
2258:Contract
2182:Wikinews
2134:Evidence
1795:29376122
1710:29376122
1334:Security
1332:(2009).
1130:(2002).
1025:See also
852:'s film
837:Precrime
790:precrime
777:precrime
719:Journals
646:Critical
636:Conflict
621:American
592:Realism
558:Feminist
548:Critical
543:Conflict
440:Prisoner
387:Penology
253:Juvenile
204:Humanity
200:Against
87:Deviance
29:penology
3416:Outline
3353:History
3260:The bar
3234:Verdict
3182:Counsel
3162:Justice
3017:History
2840:Statute
2656:Charter
2618:Tax law
2566:Probate
1930:Suspect
1854:Arguido
1786:5777393
1765:Bibcode
1701:5777393
1680:Bibcode
942:by the
904:"camp."
878:actuary
651:Culture
573:Marxist
568:Italian
533:Chicago
522:Schools
471:Justice
312:Methods
241:Perfect
3334:Police
3305:Agency
3187:Lawyer
2932:Sharia
2823:Treaty
2818:Repeal
2764:Decree
2675:Custom
2571:Estate
2521:Labour
2285:Equity
1860:Arrest
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729:People
708:Browse
691:Public
433:reform
418:Prison
220:Class
209:Person
132:Strain
52:Anomie
46:Theory
3409:Index
3275:Court
3219:Trial
3125:Judge
2966:Yassa
2769:Edict
2315:Civil
2268:Crime
1312:S2CID
1165:S2CID
714:Index
656:Cyber
601:Right
413:Trial
374:NIBRS
280:State
214:State
194:crime
3157:Jury
3105:Fiqh
2961:Xeer
2359:Tort
2275:Deed
2098:Plea
1978:Bail
1791:PMID
1738:2021
1706:PMID
1651:2021
1623:2021
1583:2020
1551:ISSN
1482:ISBN
1463:2014
1436:2014
1386:ISSN
1342:ISBN
1272:ISBN
1245:ISBN
1108:ISBN
901:camp
774:(or
596:Left
428:open
27:and
2229:Law
2001:law
1781:PMC
1773:doi
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