Pre-Socratic philosophy

2005:(1958) traces the roots of modern science (and the West) to the early Greek philosophers. He writes: "There can be little doubt that the Greek tradition of philosophical criticism had its main source in Ionia ... It thus leads the tradition which created the rational or scientific attitude, and with it our Western civilization, the only civilization, which is based upon science (though, of course, not upon science alone)." Elsewhere in the same study Popper diminishes the significance of the label they should carry as purely semantics. "There is the most perfect possible continuity of thought between theories and the later developments in physics. Whether they are called philosophers, or pre-scientists, or scientists, matters very little." Other scholars did not share the same view. F. M. Cornford considered the Ionanians as dogmatic speculators, due to their lack of empiricism. 1334:. Two fragments relating to this concept state, "As the same thing in us is living and dead, waking and sleeping, young and old. For these things having changed around are those, and those in turn having changed around are these" (B88) and "Cold things warm up, the hot cools off, wet becomes dry, dry becomes wet" (B126). Heraclitus' doctrine on the unity of opposites suggests that unity of the world and its various parts is kept through the tension produced by the opposites. Furthermore, each polar substance contains its opposite, in a continual circular exchange and motion that results in the stability of the cosmos. Another of Heraclitus' famous axioms highlights this doctrine (B53): "War is father of all and king of all; and some he manifested as gods, some as men; some he made slaves, some free", where war means the creative tension that brings things into existence. 1563:, i.e., self-contradictory statements which served as proofs that Parmenides' monism was valid, and that pluralism was invalid. The most common theme of those paradoxes involved traveling a distance, but since that distance comprises infinite points, the traveler could never accomplish it. His most famous is the Achilles paradox, which is mentioned by Aristotelis: "The second is called the 'Achilles' and says that the slowest runner will never be caught by the fastest, because it is necessary for the pursuer first to arrive at the point from which the pursued set off, so it is necessary that the slower will always be a little ahead." (Aristotle Phys. 239b14–18 ) Melissus defended and advanced Parmenides' theory using prose, without invoking divinity or mythical figures. He tried to explain why humans think various non-existent objects exist. 374:

dispersed throughout the Greek-speaking world to their being concentrated in Athens. Further, starting in the classical period we have complete surviving texts, whereas in the pre-Socratic era we have only fragments. Scholar André Laks distinguishes two traditions of separating pre-Socratics from Socratics, dating back to the classical era and running through current times. The first tradition is the Socratic-Ciceronian, which uses the content of their philosophical inquires to divide the two groups: the pre-Socratics were interested in nature whereas Socrates focused on human affairs. The other tradition, the Platonic-Aristotelian, emphasizes method as the distinction between the two groups, as Socrates moved to a more epistemological approach of studying various concepts. Because of the drawbacks of the term pre-Socratic,

1273:. Traditionally these were attributed to divine intervention but according to Xenophanes they were actually effects of clouds. These explanations of Xenophanes indicate empiricism in his thought and might constitute a kind of proto-scientism. Scholars have overlooked his cosmology and naturalism since Aristotle (maybe due to Xenophanes' lack of teleology) until recently but current literature suggests otherwise. Concerning epistemology, Xenophanes questioned the validity of human knowledge. Humans usually tend to assert their beliefs are real and represent truth. While Xenophanes was a pessimist about the capability of humans to reach knowledge, he also believed in gradual progress through critical thinking. Xenophanes tried to find naturalistic explanations for meteorological and cosmological phenomena. 1949:(often hailed as the father of medicine) who separated – but not completely – the two domains. Physicians incorporated pre-Socratic philosophical ideas about the nature of the world in their theoretical framework, blurring the border between the two domains. An example is the study of epilepsy, which in popular religion was thought to be a divine intervention to human life, but Hippocrates' school attributed it to nature, just as Milesian rationalism demythologized other natural phenomena such as earthquakes. The systematic study of anatomy, physiology, and illnesses led to the discovery of cause-effect relations and a more sophisticated terminology and understanding of the diseases that ultimately yielded rational science. 1548:, the goddess criticizes the logic of people who do not distinguish the real from the non-existent ("What-is" and "What-is-Not"). In this poem Parmenides unfolds his philosophy: that all things are One, and therefore nothing can be changed or altered. Hence, all the things that we think to be true, even ourselves, are false representations. What-is, according to Parmenides, is a physical sphere that is unborn, unchanged, and infinite. This is a monist vision of the world, far more radical than that of Heraclitus. The goddess teaches Kouros to use his reasoning to understand whether various claims are true or false, discarding senses as fallacious. Other fundamental issues raised by Parmenides' poem are the doctrine that 1184:), out of which the primary opposites, hot and cold, moist and dry, became differentiated. His answer was an attempt to explain observable changes by attributing them to a single source that transforms to various elements. Like Thales, he provided a naturalistic explanation for phenomena previously given supernatural explanations. He is also known for speculating on the origin of mankind. He proclaimed that the earth is not situated in another structure but lies unsupported in the middle of the universe. Further, he developed a rudimentary evolutionary explanation for biodiversity in which constant universal powers affected the lives of animals. According to 1698:

air, earth, and water. Crucially, he adds two more components, the immaterial forces of love and strife. These two forces are opposite and by acting upon the material of the four roots unite in harmony or tear apart the four roots, with the resulting mixture being all things that exist. Empedocles uses an analogy of how this is possible: as a painter uses a few basic colors to create a painting, the same happens with the four roots. It is not quite clear if love and strife co-operate or have a greater plan, but love and strife are in a continual cycle that generates life. Other beings, apart from the four roots and love and strife, according to Empedocles'

1758:- the philosophical view that all events are determined completely by previously existing causes. As Leucippus said, (DK 67 B2) "Nothing comes to be random but everything is by reason and out of necessity." Democritus concluded that since everything is atoms and void, several of our senses are not real but conventional. Color, for example, is not a property of atoms; hence our perception of color is a convention. As Democritus said, (DK 68 B9) "By convention sweet, by convention bitter, by convention hot, by convention cold, by convention colour; in reality atoms and void." This can be interpreted in two ways. According to James Warren there is an 1580: 1936:) gives life to things. Diogenes of Appollonia expanded this line of thinking and might have constructed the first teleological argument "it would not be possible without Intellection for it so to be divided up that it has the measures of all things — of winter and summer and night and day and rains and winds and fair weather. The other things, too, if one wishes to consider them, one would find disposed of in the best possible way." While some pre-Socratics were trying to find alternatives to divinity, others were setting the foundation of explaining the universe in terms of teleology and intelligent design by a divine force. 1215:: fire, wind, clouds, water, and earth. While his theory resembled that of Anaximander, as they both claimed a single source of the universe, Anaximenes suggested sophisticated mechanisms in which air is transformed to other elements, mainly because of changes of density. Since the classical era, he was considered the father of naturalistic explanations. Anaximenes expanded Anaximander's attempt to find a unitary cause explaining natural phenomena both living and nonliving, without, according to James Warren, having to "reduce living things in some way to mere locations of material change". 1384: 1721: 1913:

traditional representations of gods that Homer and Hesiod had established and put Greek popular religion under scrutiny, initiating the schism between natural philosophy and theology. Pre-Socratic philosophers did not have atheistic beliefs, but it should be kept in mind that being an atheist those days was not without social or legal dangers. Despite that, arguments rejecting deities were not barred from the public sphere which can be seen in Protagoras's quotation on the gods: "About the gods I am able to know neither that they exist nor that they do not exist."

505: 1261:. Concerning theology, he pointed out that we did not know whether there was one god or many gods, or in such case whether there was a hierarchy among them. To critique the anthropomorphic representation of the gods by his contemporary Greeks, he pointed out that different nations depicted their gods as looking like themselves. He famously said that if oxen, horses, or lions could draw, they would draw their gods as oxen, horses, or lions. This critique was not limited to the looks of gods but also their behaviour. Greek mythology, mostly shaped by the poets 77: 1047: 940:, which spanned around a thousand years. The pre-Socratic phase itself is divided into three phases. The first phase of pre-Socratic philosophy, mainly the Milesians, Xenophanes, and Heraclitus, consisted of rejecting traditional cosmogony and attempting to explain nature based on empirical observations and interpretations. A second phase – that of the Eleatics – resisted the idea that change or motion can happen. Based on their radical monism, they believed that only one substance exists and forms Kosmos. The Eleatics were also 1989:

the various aspects of nature by means of rationalism, observations, and offering explanations that could be deemed as scientific, giving birth to what became Western rationalism. Thales was the first to seek for a unitary arche of the world. Whether arche meant the beginning, the origin, the main principle or the basic element is unclear, but was the first attempt to reduce the explanations of the universe to a single cause, based on reason and not guided by any sort of divinity. Anaximander offered the

45: 1993:, a revolutionary argument that would also yield the principle that nothing comes out of nothing. Most of pre-Socratics seemed indifferent to the concept of teleology, especially the Atomists who fiercely rejected the idea. According to them, the various phenomena were the consequence of the motion of atoms without any purpose. Xenophanes also advanced a critique of anthropomorphic religion by highlighting in a rational way the inconsistency of depictions of the gods in Greek popular religion. 1443:. The most notable was Alcmaeon, a medical and philosophical writer. Alcmaeon noticed that most organs in the body come in pairs and suggested that human health depends on harmony between opposites (hot/cold, dry/wet), and illness is due to an imbalance of them. He was the first to think of the brain as the center of senses and thinking. Philolaus advanced cosmology through his discovery of heliocentricism – the idea that the Sun lies in the middle of the Earth's orbit and other planets. 1501: 1972:(everything is in a state of flux). Parmenides suggested two ever-lasting primary building blocs, night and day, which together form the universe. Empedocles increased the building blocks to four and named them roots, while also adding Love and Strife, to serve as the driving force for the roots to mingle. Anaxagoras extended even more the plurality of Empedocles, claiming everything is in everything, myriads of substances were mixing among each other except one, 9074: 988: 61: 2101:, was probably the first philosopher of the modern era to use pre-Socratic axioms extensively in his texts. He criticized the pre-Socratic theory of knowledge by Xenophanes and others, claiming that their deductive reasoning could not yield meaningful results—an opinion contemporary philosophy of science rejects. Bacon's fondness for the pre-Socratics, especially Democritus' atomist theory, might have been because of his anti-Aristotelianism. 1230: 1832:, but it can also be interpreted as claiming that knowledge is only relevant to humankind, that moral rightness and other forms of knowledge are relevant to and limited to human mind and perception. The other quote is, "Concerning the gods, I cannot ascertain whether they exist or whether they do not, or what form they have; for there are many obstacles to knowing, including the obscurity of the question and the brevity of human life." 438:(testimonies), often come from biased writers. Consequently, it is sometimes difficult to determine the actual line of argument some pre-Socratics used in supporting their views. Adding more difficulty to their interpretation is the obscure language they used. Plato paraphrased the pre-Socratics and showed no interest in accurately representing their views. Aristotle was more accurate, but saw them under the scope of his philosophy. 366:(i.e., the universe, with the implication that the universe had order to it), and Socrates and his successors, who were mostly interested in ethics and politics. The term comes with drawbacks, as several of the pre-Socratics were highly interested in ethics and how to live the best life. Further, the term implies that the pre-Socratics are less significant than Socrates, or even that they were merely a stage (implying 1277:

reality a cloud: one that appears to the eye as purple, red, and green. This is still use today 'lightning is massive electrical discharge' or 'items such as tables are a cloud of micro-particles'." Mourelatos comments that the type of analogy that the cloud analogy is remains present in scientific language and "...is the modern philosopher's favourite subject for illustrations of inter-theoretic identity".

1968:(air) as the primary principle, probably after realizing the importance of air to life and/or the need to explain various observable changes. Heraclitus, also seeking to address the issue of the ever changing world, placed fire as the primary principle of the universe, that transforms to water and earth to produce the universe. Ever-transforming nature is summarized by Heraclitus' axiom 9061: 930:. Internal meaning they tried to explain the world with characteristics found within this world. Systematic because they tried to universalize their findings. Economical because they tried to invoke only a few new terms. Based on these features, they reached their most significant achievement, they changed the course of human thought from myth to philosophy and science. 473:, coded as "A", or "B" if is a direct quote from the philosopher. Last is a number assigned to the fragment, which may include a decimal to reflect specific lines of a fragment. For example, "DK59B12.3" identifies line 3 of Anaxagoras fragment 12. A similar way of referring to quotes is the system prefixed with "LM" by André Laks and Glenn W. Most who edited 1900:, Homer and Hesiod, along with other poets, centuries before the pre-Socratics, thought that true knowledge was exclusive to the divine. But starting with Xenophanes, the pre-Socratics moved towards a more natural approach to knowledge. The pre-Socratics sought a method to understand the cosmos, while being aware that there is a limit to human knowledge. 1269:, attributed moral failures such as jealously and adultery to the gods. Xenophanes opposed this. He thought gods must be morally superior to humans. Xenophanes, however, never claimed the gods were omnipotent, omnibenevolent, or omniscient. Xenophanes also offered naturalistic explanations for phenomena such as the sun, the rainbow and 633:(literally meaning the birth of gods) Hesiod (c. 700 BC) describes the origin of gods, and apart from the solid mythical structure, one can notice an attempt towards organizing beliefs using some form of rationalization; an example would be that Night gives birth to Death, Sleep and Dreams. Transmigration of life, a belief of the 386:. In their first volume, they distinguish their systematic approach from that of Hermann Diels, beginning with the choice of "Early Greek Philosophy" over "pre-Socratic philosophy" most notably because Socrates is contemporary and sometimes even prior to philosophers traditionally considered "pre-Socratic" (e.g., the Atomists). 1904:

knowledge was merely an opinion that cannot be validated or proven to be true. According to Jonathan Warren, Xenophanes set the outline of the nature of knowledge. Later, Heraclitus and Parmenides stressed the capability of humans to understand how things stand in nature through direct observation, inquiry, and reflection.

1883:(limiters). Diogenes of Apollonia returned to Milesian monism, but with a rather more elegant thought. As he says in DK64 B2 "It seems to me, overall, that all things are alterations of the same things and are the same thing". He explains that things, even when changing shapes, remain ontologically the same. 1123:

is water." What he meant by arche, is a matter of interpretation (it might be the origin, the element, or an ontological matrix), but regardless of the various interpretations, he conceived the world as One thing instead of a collection of various items and speculated on the binding/original elements.

1079:. Miletus was a meeting point and trade centre of the then great civilizations, and Thales visited the neighbouring civilizations, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Crete, and Phoenicia. In Egypt, geometry was advanced as a means of separating agricultural fields. Thales, though, advanced geometry with his abstract 1988:

The pre-Socratic intellectual revolution is widely considered to have been the first step towards liberation of the human mind from the mythical world and initiated a march towards reason and scientific thought that yielded modern western philosophy and science. The pre-Socratics sought to understand

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While Pythagoras and Empedocles linked their self-proclaimed wisdom to their divinely inspired status, they tried to teach or urge mortals to seek the truth about the natural realm—Pythagoras by means of mathematics and geometry and Empedocles by exposure to experiences. Xenophanes thought that human

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Plato disparaged the sophists, causing long-lasting harm to their reputation. Plato thought philosophy should be reserved for those who had the appropriate intellect to understand it; whereas the sophists would teach anyone who would pay tuition. The sophists taught rhetoric and how to address issues

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The atomic theory of Leucippus and Democritus was a response to the Eleatic school, who held that motion is not possible because everything is occupied with What-is. Democritus and Leucippus reverted the Eleatic axiom, claiming that since motions exist, What-is-not must also exist; hence void exists.

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On cosmological issues, Empedocles takes from the Eleatic school the idea that the universe is unborn, has always been and always will be. He also continues Anaxagoras' thought on the four "roots" (i.e., classical elements), that by intermixing, they create all things around us. These roots are fire,

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and reasoning. He attributed the origin of the world to an element instead of a divine being. Our knowledge of Thales' claim derives from Aristotle. Aristotle, while discussing opinions of previous philosophers, tells us that "Thales, the founder of this type of philosophy, says the principle (arche)

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The most important feature of pre-Socratic philosophy was the use of reason to explain the universe. The pre-Socratic philosophers shared the intuition that there was a single explanation that could explain both the plurality and the singularity of the whole – and that explanation would not be direct

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and to organize traditional folklore and legends systematically. Greek popular religion contained many features of the religions of neighboring civilizations, such as the Egyptians, Mesopotamians, and Hittites. The first pre-Socratic philosophers also traveled extensively to other lands, meaning that

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admired the pre-Socratics deeply, calling them "tyrants of the spirit" to mark their antithesis and his preference against Socrates and his successors. Nietzsche also weaponized pre-Socratic antiteleology, coupled with the materialism exemplified by Democritus, for his attack on Christianity and its

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in which he attacked the Eleatics' concepts of What-is and What-is-not. He claimed it is absurd to hold that nonexistence exists, and that What-is was impossible since it had to either be generated or be unlimited and neither is sufficient. There is an ongoing debate among modern scholars whether he

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was not just an element of things, somehow it was the cause of setting the universe into motion. Anaxagoras advanced Milesian thought on epistemology, striving to establish an explanation that could be valid for all natural phenomena. Influenced by the Eleatics, he also furthered the exploration of

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Pythagoras was famous for studying numbers and the geometrical relations of numbers. A large following of Pythagoreans adopted and extended his doctrine. They advanced his ideas, reaching the claim that everything consists of numbers, the universe is made by numbers and everything is a reflection of

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Undoubtedly, pre-Socratics paved the way towards science, but whether what they did could constitute science is a matter of debate. Thales had offered the first account of a reduction and a generalization, a significant milestone towards scientific thought. Other pre-Socratics also sought to answer

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Pre-Socratic thought contributed to the demythologization of the Greek popular religion. The narrative of their thought contributed to shifting the course of ancient Greek philosophy and religion away from the realm of divinity and even paved the way for teleological explanations. They attacked the

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Anaxagoras is known for his "theory of everything". He claimed that "in everything there is a share of everything." Interpretations differ as to what he meant. Anaxagoras was trying to stay true to the Eleatic principle of the everlasting (What-is) while also explaining the diversity of the natural

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Democritus and Leucippus were skeptics regarding the reliability of our senses, but they were confident that motion exists. Atoms, according to Democritus and Leucippus, had some characteristics of the Eleatic What-is: they were homogeneous and indivisible. These characteristics allowed answers to

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Pythagorianism perceived the world as perfect harmony, dependent on number, and aimed at inducing humankind likewise to lead a harmonious life, including ritual and dietary recommendations. Their way of life was ascetic, restraining themselves from various pleasures and food. They were vegetarians

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According to James Warren, the distinction between the pre-Socratic philosophers and philosophers of the classical era is demarcated not so much by Socrates, but by geography and what texts survived. The shift from the pre-Socratic to the classical periods involves a shift from philosophers being

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Ancient philosophy historian Alexander Mourelatos notes Xenophanes used a pattern of thought that is still in use by modern metaphysics. Xenophanes, by reducing meteorological phenomena to clouds, created an argument that "X in reality is Y", for example B32, "What they call Iris that too is in

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Anaximander (610–546 BC), also from Miletus, was 25 years younger than Thales. He was a member of the elite of Miletus, wealthy and a statesman. He showed interest in many fields, including mathematics and geography. He drew the first map of the world, was the first to conclude that the earth is

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Another important aspect of Thales' philosophy is his claim that everything is full of gods. What he meant by that is again a matter of interpretation, that could be from a theistic view to an atheist one. But the most plausible explanation, suggested by Aristotle, is that Thales is advocating a

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A common feature of the pre-Socratics is the absence of empiricism and experimentation in order to prove their theories. This may have been because of a lack of instruments, or because of a tendency to view the world as a unity, undeconstructable, so it would be impossible for an external eye to

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steering everything, which had other abilities usually attributed to Zeus. Later, Xenophanes developed a critique of the anthropomorphism of the gods. Xenophanes set three preconditions for God: he had to be all good, immortal and not resembling humans in appearance, which had a major impact on

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Another factor was the ease and frequency of intra-Greek travel, which led to the blending and comparison of ideas. During the sixth century BC, various philosophers and other thinkers moved easily around Greece, especially visiting pan-Hellenic festivals. While long-distance communication was

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The pre-Socratics had a direct influence on classical antiquity in many ways. The philosophic thought produced by the pre-Socratics heavily influenced later philosophers, historians and playwrights. One line of influence was the Socrato-Ciceronian tradition, while the other was the

618:. The pre-Socratics arose from a world dominated by myths, sacred places, and local deities. The work of epic poets such as Homer, Hesiod and others reflected this environment. They are considered predecessors of the pre-Socratics since they seek to address the 1566:

The Eleatics' focus on Being through means of logic initiated the philosophical discipline of ontology. Other philosophers influenced by the Eleatics (such as the Sophists, Plato, and Aristotle) further advanced logic, argumentation, mathematics and especially

944:(believing that only one thing exists and everything else is just a transformation of it). In the third phase, the post-Eleatics (mainly Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and Democritus) opposed most Eleatic teaching and returned to the naturalism of the Milesians. 907:. Depending on the context, it can take various related meanings. It could mean the beginning or origin with the undertone that there is an effect on the things to follow. Also, it might mean a principle or a cause (especially in Aristotelian tradition). 900:, an ordered arrangement that could be understood via rational inquiry. In their effort to make sense of the cosmos they coined new terms and concepts such as rhythm, symmetry, analogy, deductionism, reductionism, mathematization of nature and others. 896:) of things, and the method of their origin and disappearance. They emphasized the rational unity of things and rejected supernatural explanations, seeking natural principles at work in the world and human society. The pre-Socratics saw the world as a 2052:, as he distinguished the theoretical nature of pre-Socratic thought from previous "sages" who were interested in more practical issues. Xenophon, like Cicero, saw the difference between pre-Socratics and Socrates being his interest in human affairs ( 2112:. According to his narrative, limned in many of his books, the pre-Socratic era was the glorious era of Greece, while the so-called Golden Age that followed was an age of decay, according to Nietzsche. Nietzsche incorporated the pre-Socratics in his 1784:

movement that flourished in ancient Greece before Socrates. They attacked traditional thinking, from gods to morality, paving the way for further advances of philosophy and other disciplines such as drama, social sciences, mathematics, and history.

1323:(everything flows). One fragment reads: "Into the same rivers we both step and do not step; we both are and are not" (DK 22 B49a). Heraclitus is seemingly suggesting that not only the river is constantly changing, but we do as well, even hinting at 1789:

from multiple viewpoints. Since the sophists and their pupils were persuasive speakers at court or in public, they were accused of moral and epistemological relativism, which indeed some sophists appeared to advocate. Prominent sophists include

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Little is known of Anaximenes' (585–525 BC) life. He was a younger contemporary and friend of Anaximander, and the two worked together on various intellectual projects. He also wrote a book on nature in prose. Anaximenes took for his principle

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Pythagorianism, Anaxagoras and Empedocles influenced Philolaus. He attempted to explain both the variety and unity of the cosmos. He addressed the need to explain how the various masses of the universe interact among them and coined the term

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Homer, in his two epic poems, not only personifies gods and other natural phenomena, such as the Night, but he hints at some views on the origin and the nature of the world that came under scrutiny by the pre-Socratics. In his epic poem

2034:(naturalists) as they were named in ancient times. The naturalists impressed young Socrates and he was interested in the quest for the substance of the cosmos, but his interest waned as he became steadily more focused on epistemology, 1648:

were alive. According to Anaxagoras, all things are composites of some basic elements; although it is not clear what these elements are. All objects are a mixture of these building blocks and have a portion of each element, except

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624–546 BC) is considered to be the father of philosophy. None of his writings have survived. He is considered the first western philosopher since he was the first to use reason, to use proof, and to generalize. He created the word

1111:, as many Greeks then, where astronomical records were kept and used astronomical observations for practical matters (oil harvesting). Thales was widely considered a genius in ancient times and was revered as one of the 2073:, or that was a retrospective interpretation by Aristotle, who was examining his predecessors under the scope of his views. More crucially, Aristotle criticized the pre-Socratics for not identifying a purpose as a 1314:

monist. From fire all things originate and all things return to it again in a process of eternal cycles. Fire becomes water and earth and vice versa. These everlasting modifications explain his view that the cosmos

1131:, that the universe, the sum of all things that exist, is divine and alive. Lastly, another notable claim by Thales is that earth "rests on water"- maybe that was a conclusion after observing fish fossils on land. 563:, cultures with observations about the natural world that differed from those of the Greeks. Apart from technical skills and cultural influences, of paramount significance was that the Greeks acquired the alphabet 1843:

Antiphon placed natural law against the law of the city. One need not obey the city's laws as long as one will not get caught. One could argue that Antiphon was a careful hedonist—rejecting dangerous pleasures.

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André Laks and Glenn W. Most have especially popularized this shift in describing the era as "Early Greek Philosophy" over "Pre-Socratic Philosophy" through their comprehensive, nine volume Loeb editions of

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flourished and became wealthy, especially Miletus. which was a centre of trade and production during the early phases of pre-Socratic philosophy. Trade of grain, oil, wine, and other commodities among each

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Later, during the Hellenistic era, philosophers of various currents focused on the study of nature and advanced pre-Socratic ideas. The Stoics incorporated features from Anaxagoras and Heraclitus, such as

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Pythagoreanism influenced later Christian currents as Neoplatonism, and its pedagogical methods were adapted by Plato. Furthermore, there seems to be a continuity in some aspects of Plato's philosophy. As

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Prior to the pre-Socratics, health and illness were thought to be governed by gods. Pre-Socratic philosophy and medicine advanced in parallel, with medicine as a part of philosophy and vice versa. It was

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460 BC) are considered the last generation of pre-Socratics. Rather than advancing a cosmological perspective on how our universe is constructed, they are mostly noted for advancing abstract thinking and

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as Anaxagoras held that the sun was not associated with divinity; it was merely a huge burning stone. Pericles helped Anaxagoras flee Athens and return to Ionia. Anaxagoras was also a major influence on

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Most importantly, what marks Thales as the first philosopher is the posing of the fundamental philosophical question about the origin and the substance of the world, while providing an answer based on

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The theological thought of Heraclitus and Parmenides is not entirely certain, but it is generally accepted that they believed in some kind of divinity. The Pythagoreans and Empedocles believed in the

1192:, Anaximander's conception of a universe governed by laws shaped the philosophical thinking of centuries to come and was as important as the discovery of fire or Einstein's breakthroughs in science. 140:, i.e. later authors' discussions of the work of pre-Socratics. Philosophy found fertile ground in the ancient Greek world because of the close ties with neighboring civilizations and the rise of 2126:

and later thinking of Things and the Fourfold in the pre-Socratics, considering Anaximander, Parmenides, and Heraclitus as the original thinkers on being, which he identified in their work as

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seems like a universal law that unites the cosmos, according to a fragment: "Listening not to me but to the logos, it is wise to agree (homologein) that all things are one" (DK 22 B50). While

1743:. They are most famous for their atomic cosmology even though their thought included many other fields of philosophy, such as ethics, mathematics, aesthetics, politics, and even embryology. 933:

The pre-Socratics were not atheists; however, they minimized the extent of the gods' involvement in natural phenomena such as thunder or totally eliminated the gods from the natural world.

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analogies and geometrical relations. Numbers, music and philosophy, all interlinked, could comfort the beauty-seeking human soul and hence Pythagoreans espoused the study of mathematics.

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The term was coined to highlight a fundamental change in philosophical inquiries between the philosophers who lived before Socrates, who were interested in the structure of nature and

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spherical, and made instruments to mark time, something like a clock. In response to Thales, he postulated as the first principle an undefined, unlimited substance without qualities (

1420:, a position which later Pythagoreans rejected, but generally, they were reactionary and notably repressed women. Other pre-Socratic philosophers mocked Pythagoras for his belief in 469:. The first two characters of the scheme are "DK" for Diels and Kranz. Next is a number representing a specific philosopher. After that is a code regarding whether the fragment is a 540:

in 499 BC, but ultimately were defeated in 494 BC. Slowly but steadily Athens became the philosophical center of Greece by the middle of the fifth century. Athens was entering its

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Very few fragments of the works of the pre-Socratic philosophers have survived. The knowledge we have of the pre-Socratics derives from the accounts of later writers such as

5681: 1319:. The idea of continual flux is also met in the "river fragments". There, Heraclitus claims we can not step into the same river twice, a position summarized with the slogan 2093:

The pre-Socratics, along with the rest of ancient Greece, invented the central concepts of Western civilization: freedom, democracy, individual autonomy and rationalism.

1028:, who most probably had a teacher-pupil relationship. They were mainly occupied with the origin and substance of the world; each of them attributed the Whole to a single 610:

Greek mythology also influenced the birth of philosophy. The philosophers' ideas, were, to a certain extent, answers to questions that were subtly present in the work of

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Parmenides' contributions were paramount not only to ancient philosophy but to all of western metaphysics and ontology. Parmenides wrote a hard to interpret poem, named

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was interested in many fields, such as biology and astronomy. He was the first to deduce that the earth is spherical. He was also involved in his town's political life.

2046:, claims that Socrates was uneasy with the materialistic approach of the pre-Socratics, particularly Anaxagoras. Cicero analyzed his views on the pre-Socratics in his 1304:

This world-order , the same of all, no god nor man did create, but it ever was and is and will be: everliving fire, kindling in measures and being quenched in measures

1233:

St. Elmo's fire (luminous plasma created by a corona discharge from a rod-like object) in a ship. Xenophanes' contemporaries attributed this phenomenon to the deity

637:, a religious cult originating from Thrace, had affected the thought of the 5th century BC but the overall influence of their cosmology on philosophy is disputed. 641:, a poet, magician, and contemporary of Thales, in his book describes a particular cosmogony, asserting that three gods pre-existed – a step towards rationality. 1621:

world. Anaxagoras accepted Parmenides' doctrine that everything that exists (What-is) has existed forever, but contrary to the Eleatics, he added the ideas of

240:) followed in the 5th century BC. Parmenides claimed that only one thing exists and nothing can change. Zeno and Melissus mainly defended Parmenides' opinion. 1451:

notes, Plato had a tendency to invoke mathematics in explaining natural phenomena, and he also believed in the immortality, even divinity of the human soul.

5588:

The Presocratics: The main Fragments in Greek with Introduction, Commentary and Appendix Containing Text and Translation of Aristotle on the Presocratics

890:. Their efforts were directed at the investigation of the ultimate basis and essential nature of the external world. Many sought the material principle ( 2042:

rather than the natural world. According to Xenophon, the reason was that Socrates believed humans incapable of comprehending the cosmos. Plato, in the

555:

Several factors contributed to the birth of pre-Socratic philosophy in Ancient Greece. Ionian towns, especially Miletus, had close trade relations with

1964:(limitless), which hints, as Aristotle analyzed, there is no beginning and no end to it, both chronologically and within the space. Anaximenes placed 5674: 2108:

morals. Nietzsche saw the pre-Socratics as the first ancestors of contemporary science—linking Empedocles to Darwinism and Heraclitus to physicist

1980:. Leucippus and Democritus asserted the universe consists of atoms and void, while the motion of atoms is responsible for the changes we observe. 1766:

interpretation, such that Democritus means that color and taste are not real but are perceived as such by our senses through sensory interaction.

520:

was stretching to the west, while the Greeks were advancing in trade and sea routes, reaching Cyprus and Syria. The first pre-Socratics lived in

5332:

The Founders of Western Thought – The Presocratics: A diachronic parallelism between Presocratic Thought and Philosophy and the Natural Sciences

1657:

was also considered a building block of the cosmos, but it exists only in living objects. Anaxagoras writes: "In everything there is a portion (

1306:. Heraclitus posited that all things in nature are in a state of perpetual flux. Like previous monist philosophers, Heraclitus claimed that the 516:

Philosophy emerged in ancient Greece in the 6th century BC. The pre-Socratic era lasted about two centuries, during which the expanding Persian

1524:

in ancient Greek) dedicated to finding the truth carried by a goddess on a long journey to the heavens. The poem consists of three parts, the

1237:. Xenophanes argued that the observed illumination is due to small clouds influenced by special circumstances relating to stars—an example of 607:

and colonies meant these towns were not isolated but embedded – and economically dependent – on a complex and changeable web of trade routes.

370:) to classical era philosophy. The term is also chronologically inaccurate, as the last of the pre-Socratics were contemporaries of Socrates. 1404:

at about age 30, where he established his school and acquired political influence. Some decades later he had to flee Croton and relocate to

1343:, an ancient Greek word with a variety of meanings; Heraclitus might have used a different meaning of the word with each usage in his book. 5667: 4940:

Mourelatos, Alexander P. D. (27 October 2008). "The Cloud-Astrophysics of Xenophanes and Ionian Material Monism". In Curd, Patricia (ed.).

1351:

is everywhere, very few people are familiar with it. B 19 reads: "...do not know how to listen or how to speak ". Heraclitus' thought on

446:

that was the standard work about the pre-Socratics in ancient times. It is now lost, but Simplicius relied on it heavily in his accounts.

7015: 1960:

Firstly, they were preoccupied with the mystery of the cosmic matter—what was the basic substance of the universe? Anaximander suggested

1571:(proof). The Sophists even placed Being under the scrutiny of elenchos. Because of the Eleatics reasoning was acquiring a formal method. 7858: 6090: 1751:. Atoms move within the void, interact with each other, and form the plurality of the world we live in, in a purely mechanical manner. 8136: 2249:, Edited and Translated by André Laks and Glenn W. Most, Loeb Classical Library 524 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016) 6-8. 5506: 5098: 1520:, that substantially influenced later Greek philosophy. Only 150 fragments of this poem survive. It tells a story of a young man ( 1284:

was Parmenides' teacher; but is a matter of debate in current literature whether Xenophanes should also be considered an Eleatic.

465:), which collected all of the known fragments. Scholars now use this book to reference the fragments using a coding scheme called 5354:

Van der Eijk, Philip (27 October 2008). "The Role of Medicine in the Formation of Early Greek Thought". In Curd, Patricia (ed.).

2085:

and fire respectively. The Epicureans saw Democritus' atomism as their predecessor while the Sceptics were linked to Xenophanes.

1694:(Purifications). Some contemporary scholars argue these books might be one; all agree that interpreting Empedocles is difficult. 1604:

was born in Ionia, but was the first major philosopher to emigrate to Athens. He was soon associated with the Athenian statesman

4678:

Burkert, Walter (27 October 2008). "Prehistory of Presocratic Philosophy in an Orientalizing Context". In Curd, Patricia (ed.).

5645: 8773: 5251:

Presocratic Reflexivity: The Construction of Philosophical Discourse c. 600-450 B.C.: Logological Investigations: Volume Three

1997:

the question of arche, offering various answers, but the first step towards scientific thought was already taken. Philosopher

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The Pluralist school marked a return to Milesian natural philosophy, though much more refined because of Eleatic criticism.

5336: 1485:

was Parmenides' teacher, and it is debated whether Xenophanes should also be considered an Eleatic. Parmenides was born in

307:

is a term adopted in the 19th century to refer to this group of philosophers. It was first used by the German philosopher

6049: 4734: 2059:

The pre-Socratics deeply influenced both Plato and Aristotle. Aristotle discussed the pre-Socratics in the first book of

4845:

Hankinson, R.J. (27 October 2008). "Reason, Cause, and Explanation in Presocratic Philosophy". In Curd, Patricia (ed.).

7342: 571:

difficult during ancient times, persons, philosophers, and books moved through other parts of the Greek peninsula, the

8399: 8424: 6534: 4615: 4578: 1540:

survive. In that part, Parmenides must have been dealing with cosmology, judging from other authors' references. The

3094: 8956: 5635: 5164:

Palmer, John (27 October 2008). "Classical Representations and Uses of the Presocratics". In Curd, Patricia (ed.).

1957:

The pre-Socratics were the first to attempt to provide reductive explanations for a plethora of natural phenomena.

2069:. He was the first to state that philosophy starts with Thales. It is not clear whether Thales talked of water as 9099: 8986: 7008: 5611: 947:

The pre-Socratics were succeeded by the second phase of ancient philosophy, where the philosophical movements of

207: 8594: 9012: 8172: 6711: 6315: 5625: 5460:

The Texts of Early Greek Philosophy: The Complete Fragments and Selected Testimonies of the Major Presocratics.

4919:

Lesher, J.H. (27 October 2008). "The humanizing of knowledge in presocratic thought". In Curd, Patricia (ed.).

4771:

Frede, Michael (27 October 2008). "Aristotle's Account of the Origins of Philosophy". In Curd, Patricia (ed.).

1990: 3023: 7586: 7171: 198: 5185:

Primavesi, Oliver (27 October 2008). "Empedocles: Physical and Mythical Divinity". In Curd, Patricia (ed.).

918:, a professor of ancient philosophy, pre-Socratic philosophy exhibits three significant features: they were 175:(a word that could take the meaning of "origin", "substance" or "principle") of the world to, respectively, 8991: 8896: 8544: 7261: 6878: 1781: 1703: 17: 1916:

The theological thought starts with the Milesian philosophers. It is evident in Anaximander's idea of the

8795: 8509: 7138: 6978: 6228: 6165: 6058: 5857: 1633:. All objects were mixtures of various elements, such as air, water, and others. One special element was 4792:

Graham, Daniel W. (27 October 2008). "Heraclitus: Flux, Order, and Knowledge". In Curd, Patricia (ed.).

8662: 8331: 7637: 7413: 7001: 6935: 6807: 6749: 6663: 6486: 6272: 6216: 6122: 6032: 5789: 5780: 5463: 5452: 5311: 5091:(1999). "Bacon's Third Sailing: The 'Pre–Socratic' Origins of Modern Philosophy". In McCoy, Joe (ed.). 4992: 4901: 2123: 220:

of the world. Pythagoras created a cult-like following that advocated that the universe was made up of

7047: 5227:

Runia, David T. (27 October 2008). "The sources of pre-Socratic philosophy". In Curd, Patricia (ed.).

4703:

Curd, Patricia (27 October 2008). "Anaxagoras and the Theory of Everything". In Curd, Patricia (ed.).

1826:

the measure of all things, of things that are that they are, of things that are not that they are not"

8868: 7080: 7070: 6850: 5495: 5474: 1440: 466: 116:, but the inquiries of these early philosophers spanned the workings of the natural world as well as 8971: 8534: 7784: 7624: 7621: 7347: 7181: 7166: 6529: 5959: 5924: 5690: 2472: 2113: 2048: 937: 308: 101: 8549: 8490: 8443: 8301: 8264: 7547: 7537: 7461: 7327: 7299: 6638: 6371: 6044: 4685: 2061: 1759: 1330:

Another key concept of Heraclitus is that opposites somehow mirror each other, a doctrine called

1238: 450: 285: 185:(the unlimited), and air. Another three pre-Socratic philosophers came from nearby Ionian towns: 2172: 2077:, a fundamental idea in Aristotelian metaphysics. Plato also attacked pre-Socratic materialism. 1840:

was a serious thinker, a precursor of extreme relativism and skepticism, or merely a charlatan.

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The Presocratics at Herculaneum: A Study of Early Greek Philosophy in the Epicurean Tradition.

1416:

and placed enormous value on friendship. Pythagoras politically was an advocate of a form of

979:

rose to prominence until 100 BC. In the third phase, philosophers studied their predecessors.

8919: 8858: 8838: 8672: 8584: 8564: 8554: 8187: 8036: 7669: 7601: 7509: 7476: 7304: 7284: 7090: 6930: 6772: 6343: 6300: 6244: 5949: 5944: 5843: 5807: 5719: 5704: 5558:

Introduction to Presocratics: A Thematic Approach to Early Greek Philosophy with Key Readings

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Gagarin, Michael; Woodruff, Paul (27 October 2008). "The Sophists". In Curd, Patricia (ed.).

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Huffman, Carl (27 October 2008). "Two Problems in Pythagoreanism". In Curd, Patricia (ed.).

136:. Their work and writing has been almost entirely lost. Knowledge of their views comes from 8936: 8891: 8853: 8800: 8729: 8485: 8281: 8192: 8015: 7985: 7726: 7254: 7100: 7095: 6767: 6706: 5909: 5747: 5737: 5019: 1875:, a binding force that allows mass to take shape. The structure of the cosmos consisted of 1608:

and, probably due to this association, was accused by a political opponent of Pericles for

1579: 1559:

Zeno and Melissus continued Parmenides' thought on cosmology. Zeno is mostly known for his

1383: 5272:(November 2013). "The Pre-Socratics to the Hellenistic Age". In Bullivant, Stephen (ed.). 407: 8: 9077: 9032: 9022: 8981: 8929: 8914: 8843: 8823: 8805: 8637: 8604: 8465: 8452: 8259: 8056: 7967: 7922: 7828: 7714: 7527: 7375: 6830: 6787: 6721: 6580: 6519: 6193: 6183: 6076: 6013: 5919: 5752: 5709: 3234: 2104: 1918: 1748: 1180: 1092: 1080: 972: 883: 638: 31: 7789: 5650: 5023: 2130:(emergence, contrasted against κρύπτεσθαι, kryptesthai, in Heraclitus' Fragment 123) or 1706:. Like Pythagoras, Empedocles believed in the soul's transmigration and was vegetarian. 1253:, an Ionian town near Miletus. He was a well-traveled poet whose primary interests were 1054:

is a diameter and B is a point on the diameter's circle, the angle ABC is a right angle.

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Vol. 1, The Presocratics. Edited by D. W. Graham. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.

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An important term that is met in the thought of several pre-Socratic philosophers is

887: 886:

they saw around them in favor of more rational explanations, initiating analytic and

820: 780: 517: 293: 237: 201:. Heraclitus, who was notoriously difficult to understand, is known for his maxim on 5420:

Wright, M.R. (27 October 2008). "Presocratic cosmologies". In Curd, Patricia (ed.).

4067: 1976:(mind) that orchestrates everything—but did not attribute divine characteristics to 1720: 1211:(air), conceiving it as being modified, via thickening and thinning, into the other 504: 9017: 8951: 8941: 8642: 8589: 8539: 8519: 8480: 8475: 8316: 8244: 7962: 7873: 7764: 7736: 7721: 7684: 7390: 7370: 7337: 7242: 7204: 6945: 6920: 6900: 6825: 6759: 6739: 6585: 6396: 6361: 6262: 5757: 5396: 5279: 5206:

Robinson, T.M. (27 October 2008). "Presocratic Theology". In Curd, Patricia (ed.).

5140: 5119:(28 June 1999). "16 - The poetics of early Greek philosophy". In A. A. Long (ed.). 5027: 4743: 2119: 1983: 653: 541: 5066:

Greek Rational Medicine: Philosophy and Medicine from Alcmaeon to the Alexandrians

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interpretation, such that Democritus means that color is not real, and there is a

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to Thales. He is also known for being the first to claim that the base angles of

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The Concept of Presocratic Philosophy: Its Origin, Development, and Significance

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also contributed to the rise of philosophy. Most Greek towns were not ruled by

580: 434:, a title probably attributed later by other authors. These accounts, known as 277: 225: 8073: 7848: 2116:

dialectics, with them representing the creative Dionysian aspect of the duo.

9093: 8687: 8599: 8529: 8271: 8061: 7995: 7952: 7821: 7446: 7232: 7214: 6691: 6524: 5116: 5039: 4961: 4887: 4660: 3624: 3078: 2252: 2094: 1927: 1587: 1421: 1360: 576: 556: 537: 454: 345: 117: 8718: 8708: 8667: 8647: 8419: 8382: 8341: 8227: 8177: 7838: 7816: 7794: 7741: 7709: 7581: 7441: 7352: 7148: 6973: 6860: 6673: 6514: 6145: 5995: 5449:

From Religion to Philosophy: A Study in the Origins of Western Speculation.

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Longrigg, James (1989). "Presocratic Philosophy and Hippocratic Medicine".

4051: 3481: 2959: 1802: 1474: 1299: 1258: 1242: 1046: 996: 968: 740: 439: 233: 202: 4897:

The Presocratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selection of Texts

3608: 8713: 8652: 8524: 8504: 8409: 8346: 8306: 8286: 8212: 8182: 7843: 7779: 7471: 7456: 7332: 7322: 7271: 7237: 7176: 6575: 6414: 6252: 5802: 4891: 4624: 4346: 4179: 3182: 2767: 2723: 2508: 1998: 1946: 1755: 1544:

was then, and is still today, considered of much more importance. In the

1417: 1311: 1166: 1140: 1032:(beginning or principle), starting the tradition of naturalistic monism. 1021: 1003: 992: 680: 560: 331: 315:

in the late 18th century. In earlier literature they were referred to as

289: 162: 129: 4749:

A History of Western Philosophy: From the Pre-Socratics to Postmodernism

4534: 1473:

is considered the founder of the school. Other eminent Eleatics include

1158:

For they give justice and pay retribution to each other for their mutual

8559: 8387: 8336: 8326: 8197: 8101: 8046: 7853: 7833: 7699: 7466: 7380: 7209: 7156: 7120: 7024: 6895: 6840: 6729: 6696: 6628: 6618: 6557: 6481: 6476: 6449: 6290: 6130: 6103: 6066: 6039: 5990: 5967: 5874: 5825: 5817: 5654: 5579: 3381: 2492: 2308: 1829: 1790: 1763: 1675: 1623: 1601: 1591: 1490: 1482: 1470: 1405: 1393: 1387: 1372: 1293: 1281: 1224: 964: 830: 790: 770: 760: 730: 720: 710: 700: 598:, allowing citizens to question freely a wide range of issues. Various 572: 482: 280:. The Pre-Socratics have had significant impact on several concepts of 257: 245: 241: 229: 194: 190: 186: 141: 83: 67: 51: 2931: 2891: 1310:

of the world was fire, which was subject to change – that makes him a

8574: 8569: 8429: 8356: 8291: 8162: 8096: 7908: 7898: 7893: 7868: 7664: 7224: 7186: 6963: 6925: 6734: 6701: 6648: 6623: 6613: 6504: 6463: 6424: 6376: 6338: 6310: 6282: 6178: 6098: 5904: 5884: 5301: 5070: 3286: 2572: 2247:

Early Greek Philosophy, Volume 1: Introductory and Reference Material

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Pre-Socratic philosophy encompasses the first of the three phases of

870: 840: 800: 619: 595: 591: 549: 399: 367: 340: 253: 109: 7799: 5514:

Philosophy before Socrates, An Introduction With Text and Commentary

3154: 3138: 3110: 1637:, i.e., mind, which is present in living things and causes motion. 1091:, a later Athenian philosopher, attributed the theorem now known as 987: 8404: 8311: 8276: 8234: 8222: 8010: 7804: 7704: 7647: 7451: 7405: 7289: 6910: 6873: 6792: 6782: 6681: 6600: 6444: 6366: 6267: 6257: 6234: 6224: 6135: 5982: 5972: 5934: 5894: 5889: 5879: 5830: 5426:. Daniel W Graham. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 413–432. 5360:. Daniel W Graham. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 385–412. 5212:. Daniel W Graham. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 485–499. 5170:. Daniel W Graham. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 530–554. 4946:. Daniel W Graham. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 134–168. 4925:. Daniel W Graham. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 458–484. 4872:. Daniel W Graham. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 284–304. 4851:. Daniel W Graham. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 434–457. 4798:. Daniel W Graham. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 169–187. 4777:. Daniel W Graham. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 501–529. 4195: 3796: 3772: 3341: 2612: 2224: 2132: 2023: 1806: 1614: 1605: 1504:

According to Parmenides, Being, what exists, is like the mass of a

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The source from which coming-to-be is, for things that are, and for

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Pre-Socratic philosophy began in the 6th century BC with the three

133: 125: 113: 105: 4386: 3596: 3421: 2695: 2432: 1229: 650:

List of major pre-Socratic philosophers and when they flourished (

8031: 8005: 8000: 7942: 7937: 7769: 7657: 7652: 7611: 7433: 7279: 7161: 6915: 6173: 6140: 6113: 5233:. Daniel W Graham. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 27–54. 2336: 1847: 1824:

Protagoras is mostly known for two of his quotes. One is that "

1818: 1798: 1794: 1775: 1715: 1644:

was one of the elements that make up the cosmos. Things that had

1609: 1590:. Legend holds that Empedocles committed suicide by falling into 1560: 1552:

and the unity of being and thinking. As quoted by DK fragment 3:

1401: 1088: 1013: 810: 750: 533: 261: 221: 181: 4814: 4216: 4214: 4155: 4039: 2739: 2184: 1984:

Rationalism, observation and the beginning of scientific thought

27:

Greek philosophers active before and during the time of Socrates

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pre-Socratic thought had roots abroad as well as domestically.

615: 362: 326: 321: 269: 265: 158: 146: 121: 1454: 8112: 7774: 7060: 6993: 6802: 6777: 6471: 6071: 4262: 4211: 3808: 3497: 2999: 2975: 2212: 2065:, as an introduction to his own philosophy and the quest for 1525: 1494: 1486: 1466: 1397: 1339: 1262: 1067:, the first word to describe the universe. He contributed to 911:

observe tiny fractions of nature under experimental control.

892: 860: 611: 545: 521: 395: 217: 176: 171: 5535:(Rev. ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 5094:

Early Greek Philosophy:Reason at the Beginning of Philosophy

4510: 4027: 3991: 3979: 3967: 3931: 3329: 3262: 3250: 3044: 3042: 2919: 2588: 1667:), but there are some things in which mind too is present." 1574: 882:

actions of the gods. The pre-Socratic philosophers rejected

5939: 4298: 3832: 3319: 3317: 2807: 1932: 1672:

metatheoretical questions such as the nature of knowledge.

1629: 1469:, an ancient Greek town on the southern Italian Peninsula. 492: 213: 5307:

The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Greek and Roman Science

4522: 4498: 4462: 4414: 4167: 4119: 3907: 3880: 3868: 3856: 3820: 3736: 3724: 3700: 3688: 3676: 3584: 3545: 3274: 2867: 2855: 2536: 2524: 2448: 2352: 1731:, 1628. Democritus was known as the "laughing philosopher" 1152:

the first foundation of things is the Unlimited (apeiron);

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Collections Containing Articles on Presocratic Philosophy

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which is commonly interpreted as affirming philosophical

1682:, a town in the southern Italian peninsula. According to 5533:

The Pre-Socratics : a collection of critical essays

4015: 4003: 3943: 3445: 3433: 3314: 3194: 3170: 2947: 2907: 2408: 2284: 2200: 5689: 4550: 4426: 3574: 3572: 3530:, p. 3:Warren also adds Democritus as a pluralist. 3369: 3054: 3011: 2987: 2879: 2843: 2819: 2795: 2783: 2755: 2664: 2652: 2640: 2420: 2364: 2272: 2150: 2148: 378:

is also used, most commonly in Anglo-Saxon literature.

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Milesian beginning: Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes

991:

Graphical relationship among the various pre-socratic

884:

traditional mythological explanations of the phenomena

108:. Pre-Socratic philosophers were mostly interested in 5402:

The First Philosophers: The Presocratics and Sophists

4402: 4322: 3919: 3469: 3066: 2548: 2376: 2097:, a 16th-century philosopher known for advancing the 1709: 4286: 3569: 3557: 3409: 3397: 3357: 3302: 3222: 3126: 2831: 2460: 2181:, section 1. Who Were the Presocratic Philosophers?. 2145: 1160:

injustice according to the ordered process of time.

442:, Aristotle's successor, wrote an encyclopedic book 4474: 4450: 3107:, Xenophanes of Colophon and Heraclitus of Ephesus. 3036:, Xenophanes of Colophon and Heraclitus of Ephesus. 2711: 2676: 2324: 1686:, Empedocles wrote two books in the form of poems: 1359:, who referred to him to support their belief that 999:; red arrows indicate a relationship of opposition. 418:, and some early Christian theologians, especially 1508:: undifferentiated, indivisible, and unchangeable. 5191:. Daniel W Graham. Oxford University Press, USA. 5146:Presocratic Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction 5122:The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy 4830:. Daniel W Graham. Oxford University Press, USA. 4709:. Daniel W Graham. Oxford University Press, USA. 552:, but the impact of the pre-Socratics continued. 357:), who attributed natural phenomena to the gods. 30:"Presocratics" redirects here. For the band, see 9091: 4738:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 1930:. Anaxagoras asserted that cosmic intelligence ( 1481:. According to Aristotle and Diogenes Laertius, 1156:their passing away in accordance with necessity. 1016:, Ionia, in the 6th century BC. It consisted of 5551:Language and Thought in Early Greek Philosophy. 4823: 3802: 3778: 3766: 586:The democratic political system of independent 5473:Vol. 1, The Beginnings of Philosophy. London: 1848:Philolaous of Croton and Diogenes of Apollonia 1556:(For to think and to be is one and the same). 1280:According to Aristotle and Diogenes Laertius, 197:. Xenophanes is known for his critique of the 7009: 5675: 5482:The Theology of the Early Greek Philosophers. 5423:The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy 5357:The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy 5230:The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy 5209:The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy 5188:The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy 5167:The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy 4943:The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy 4922:The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy 4869:The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy 4848:The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy 4827:The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy 4795:The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy 4774:The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy 4706:The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy 4681:The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy 3793:, The Sophists and Anonymous Sophistic Texts. 6405: 5353: 4073: 4057: 4045: 4033: 982: 490:; derived from the Greek word for "opinion" 5469:Furley, D. J., and R. E. Allen, eds. 1970. 4985:Laks, André; Most, Glenn (1 January 2018). 4573:. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. 1455:The Eleatics: Parmenides, Zeno and Melissus 1400:, a small island near Miletus. He moved to 7016: 7002: 5718: 5682: 5668: 5530: 5395: 4939: 3029: 3005: 2981: 2514: 2486: 2290: 1298:The hallmark of Heraclitus' philosophy is 5511: 5247: 5184: 4886: 4844: 4630: 4610:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 4605: 4556: 4540: 4492: 4280: 4268: 4256: 4244: 4232: 4220: 4189: 3670: 3658: 3614: 3515: 3503: 3451: 3439: 3391: 3335: 3323: 3296: 3268: 3256: 3244: 3216: 3200: 3176: 3164: 3148: 3120: 3100: 3084: 2969: 2953: 2925: 2913: 2897: 2885: 2873: 2861: 2849: 2825: 2813: 2801: 2789: 2777: 2773: 2761: 2733: 2729: 2622: 2542: 2530: 2498: 2478: 2454: 2358: 2302: 1575:The Pluralists: Anaxagoras and Empedocles 1302:. In fragment DK B30, Heraclitus writes: 480:Collectively, these fragments are called 112:, the beginning and the substance of the 5507:Continuum International Publishing Group 5492:Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle 5329:Vamvacas, Constantine J. (28 May 2009). 5328: 5205: 5099:The Catholic University of America Press 5087: 5062: 5009: 4984: 4634: 4571:The Fourfold: Reading the Late Heidegger 4568: 4544: 4528: 4516: 4504: 4432: 4368: 4352: 4304: 4205: 4077: 4061: 4021: 4009: 3997: 3985: 3973: 3949: 3937: 3634: 2634: 2606: 2582: 2566: 2442: 2402: 2230: 2218: 2154: 1719: 1578: 1499: 1382: 1228: 1045: 986: 528:. Persians conquered the towns of Ionia 503: 499: 5139: 4865: 4677: 3280: 2554: 2414: 2346: 2008: 1735:Leucippus and Democritus both lived in 1169:, DK 12 B 1, preserved fragment of 14: 9092: 5856: 5585: 5419: 5374: 5284:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199644650.013.002 5268: 5163: 4918: 4819:. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 4812: 4791: 4649: 4468: 4444: 4396: 4380: 4356: 4340: 4328: 4201: 4185: 4173: 4161: 4149: 4137: 4125: 4113: 4101: 4089: 3961: 3925: 3913: 3901: 3886: 3874: 3862: 3850: 3838: 3826: 3814: 3790: 3754: 3742: 3730: 3718: 3706: 3694: 3682: 3646: 3630: 3618: 3602: 3590: 3551: 3539: 3527: 3491: 3487: 3475: 3463: 3415: 3403: 3387: 3375: 3363: 3351: 3347: 3308: 3292: 3228: 3160: 3144: 3132: 3116: 3088: 3072: 3060: 3048: 3017: 2993: 2965: 2941: 2937: 2901: 2837: 2749: 2745: 2717: 2705: 2701: 2689: 2670: 2658: 2646: 2618: 2578: 2518: 2502: 2482: 2466: 2438: 2426: 2398: 2382: 2370: 2314: 2278: 2266: 2262: 2206: 2194: 2190: 1780:The sophists were a philosophical and 544:, with philosophers such as Socrates, 512:during the Archaic period (800–480 BC) 8755: 7497: 7035: 6997: 5779: 5663: 5503:Early Greek Thought: Before the Dawn. 5337:Springer Science & Business Media 5226: 4960: 4770: 4742: 4420: 4408: 4392: 2394: 2330: 2258: 2234: 1325:existential questions about humankind 1190:Massachusetts Institute of Technology 353:(storytellers and bards who conveyed 5590:. Bristol: Bristol Classical Press. 5300: 5115: 4723: 4702: 4593: 4480: 4456: 4316: 4292: 3578: 3563: 3427: 3240: 3212: 3188: 3104: 3033: 2594: 2342: 2318: 2178: 2166: 1554:To gar auto noein estin te kai einai 1337:A fundamental idea in Heraclitus is 128:. They sought explanations based on 5691:Ancient Greek schools of philosophy 5531:Mourelatos, Alexander, ed. (1993). 4735:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 1754:One conclusion of the Atomists was 1489:to a wealthy family around 515 BC. 1148:That from which all things are born 644: 24: 5471:Studies in Presocratic Philosophy. 5441: 1710:Atomists: Leucippus and Democritus 1465:The Eleatic school is named after 463:The Fragments of the pre-Socratics 25: 9111: 5605: 5375:Warren, James (5 December 2014). 1366: 1361:rational law governs the universe 252:of how the universe was created. 9073: 9072: 9059: 5553:La Salle, IL: Hegeler Institute. 5063:Longrigg, James (7 March 2013). 4643: 4599: 4562: 3521: 1188:, a philosophy professor at the 339:), with this usage arising with 75: 59: 43: 5405:. Oxford University Press, UK. 459:Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker 449:In 1903, the German professors 426:. Many of the works are titled 7023: 5275:The Oxford Handbook of Atheism 5125:. Cambridge University Press. 5018:(1). SAGE Publications: 1–39. 2240: 2030:were highly influenced by the 1991:principle of sufficient reason 1427:Notable Pythagorians included 1134: 510:Greek territories and colonies 299: 13: 1: 8756: 3243:, The Pythagorean Tradition; 3215:, The Pythagorean Tradition; 2139: 2088: 1864: 1663:) of everything except mind ( 1287: 1218: 1195: 1059: 564: 529: 8545:Ordinary language philosophy 7036: 5636:Resources in other libraries 5569:Studies in Greek Philosophy. 5278:. Michael Ruse. OUP Oxford. 3191:, The Pythagorean Tradition. 2013: 1952: 1891: 1536:. Very few pieces from the 313:"vorsokratische Philosophie' 264:, and their views that only 7: 8595:Contemporary utilitarianism 8510:Internalism and externalism 5484:Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. 4970:. Oxford University Press. 3803:Gagarin & Woodruff 2008 3779:Gagarin & Woodruff 2008 3767:Gagarin & Woodruff 2008 1939: 1923:western religious thought. 1907: 1835:Gorgias wrote a book named 1769: 1150:the beginning of all things 343:to differentiate them from 329:"), and their activity, as 10: 9116: 7859:Svatantrika and Prasangika 7498: 5475:Routledge & Kegan Paul 5464:Cambridge University Press 5453:Princeton University Press 5312:Cambridge University Press 5032:10.1177/007327538902700101 4993:Princeton University Press 4902:Cambridge University Press 4606:Heidegger, Martin (1991). 3605:, p. 125 DK 59 B11:6. 2136:(truth as unconcealment). 1773: 1713: 1550:nothing comes from nothing 1458: 1376: 1370: 1291: 1222: 1199: 1138: 1075:. Thales may have been of 1039: 524:, on the western coast of 389: 169:. They all attributed the 29: 9053: 9005: 8905: 8867: 8814: 8781: 8772: 8768: 8751: 8701: 8613: 8451: 8442: 8375: 8158: 8149: 8127: 8082: 8024: 7976: 7930: 7921: 7884: 7755: 7620: 7567: 7558: 7508: 7504: 7493: 7432: 7404: 7361: 7313: 7270: 7223: 7195: 7147: 7119: 7081:Philosophy of mathematics 7071:Philosophy of information 7046: 7042: 7031: 6944: 6859: 6816: 6758: 6720: 6672: 6599: 6556: 6547: 6495: 6462: 6352: 6324: 6281: 6243: 6215: 6164: 6121: 6112: 6089: 6057: 6031: 6022: 5981: 5958: 5865: 5816: 5788: 5770: 5697: 5631:Resources in your library 5516:. Indianapolis: Hackett. 5512:McKirahan, R. D. (2011). 5248:Sandywell, Barry (1996). 4569:Mitchell, Andrew (2015). 4076:, pp. 387, 395–399; 1886: 1640:According to Anaxagoras, 1396:(582–496 BC) was born on 1085:universal generalizations 1035: 983:Pre-Socratic philosophers 444:Opinion of the Physicists 6530:Alexander of Aphrodisias 4813:Graham, Jacob N (2021). 4726:"Presocratic Philosophy" 4164:, p. 419 & 425. 2114:Apollonian and Dionysian 2049:Tusculanae Disputationes 938:ancient Greek philosophy 486:(derived from the latin 292:, and paved the way for 278:philosophical relativism 199:anthropomorphism of gods 102:ancient Greek philosophy 8550:Postanalytic philosophy 8491:Experimental philosophy 6639:Lucius Annaeus Cornutus 6372:Thrasymachus of Corinth 6050:Metrodorus of Lampsacus 5651:Pre-Socratic philosophy 5617:Pre-Socratic philosophy 5462:2 vols. Cambridge, UK: 4816:Pre-Socratic philosophy 4724:Curd, Patricia (2020). 4688:, USA. pp. 55–88. 4686:Oxford University Press 4608:The Principle of Reason 2481:, pp. 8–9, 71–72; 2122:found the roots of his 2019:Platonic-Aristotelian. 1928:transmigration of souls 1702:are mortals, gods, and 1584:The Death of Empedocles 1249:Xenophanes was born in 94:Pre-Socratic philosophy 9100:Presocratic philosophy 8683:Social constructionism 7695:Hellenistic philosophy 7111:Theoretical philosophy 7086:Philosophy of religion 7076:Philosophy of language 6296:Aristippus the Younger 5586:Wright, M. R. (1985). 5556:Stamatellos, G. 2012, 5447:Cornford, F. M. 1991. 4656:Early Greek Philosophy 2221:, pp. 1–2, 12–13. 2001:, in his seminal work 1732: 1595: 1509: 1390: 1317:was and is and will be 1246: 1163: 1099:are equal, and that a 1055: 1000: 513: 475:Early Greek Philosophy 384:Early Greek Philosophy 376:Early Greek Philosophy 294:scientific methodology 98:Early Greek Philosophy 9066:Philosophy portal 8585:Scientific skepticism 8565:Reformed epistemology 7091:Philosophy of science 6773:Eudorus of Alexandria 6344:Asclepiades of Phlius 6301:Theodorus the Atheist 5501:Luchte, James. 2011. 3430:, Parmenides of Elea. 2778:Kirk & Raven 1977 2734:Kirk & Raven 1977 2543:Kirk & Raven 1977 2531:Kirk & Raven 1977 2499:Kirk & Raven 1977 2479:Kirk & Raven 1977 2303:Kirk & Raven 1977 1857:Diogenes of Apollonia 1729:Hendrick ter Brugghen 1723: 1582: 1528:(i.e., preface), the 1503: 1386: 1232: 1202:Anaximenes of Miletus 1186:Giorgio de Santillana 1145: 1113:Seven Sages of Greece 1050:Thales's theorem: if 1049: 990: 665:Flourished (year BC) 536:then ruled them. The 507: 500:Historical background 467:Diels–Kranz numbering 420:Clement of Alexandria 319:("physicists", after 8486:Critical rationalism 8193:Edo neo-Confucianism 8037:Acintya bheda abheda 8016:Renaissance humanism 7727:School of the Sextii 7101:Practical philosophy 7096:Political philosophy 6707:Diogenes of Oenoanda 5549:Robb, K., ed. 1983. 5458:Graham, D. W. 2010. 5399:(7 September 2000). 5101:. pp. 157–188. 5097:. Washington, D.C.: 4967:Classical Philosophy 4635:Laks & Most 2018 4545:Laks & Most 2018 4529:Laks & Most 2018 4433:Laks & Most 2018 4423:, pp. 505, 522. 4369:Laks & Most 2018 4353:Laks & Most 2018 4206:Laks & Most 2018 3633:, pp. 137–141; 3490:, pp. 148–149; 3103:, pp. 263–265; 3087:, pp. 263–265; 2443:Laks & Most 2018 2403:Laks & Most 2018 2231:Laks & Most 2018 2219:Laks & Most 2018 2155:Laks & Most 2018 2009:Reception and legacy 2003:Back to Presocratics 1690:(On nature) and the 1592:Mount Etna's volcano 579:, a coastal area in 337:natural philosophers 260:are known for their 212:and for attributing 8057:Nimbarka Sampradaya 7968:Korean Confucianism 7715:Academic Skepticism 6831:Apollonius of Tyana 6778:Philo of Alexandria 6581:Agrippa the Skeptic 6520:Strato of Lampsacus 5574:Vassallo, Ch. 2021 5304:(30 January 2020). 5024:1989HisSc..27....1L 4684:. Daniel W Graham. 4519:, pp. 183–187. 4471:, pp. 547–548. 4359:, pp. 534–554. 4271:, pp. 449–450. 4223:, pp. 435–437. 4192:, pp. 453–455. 4176:, pp. 419–420. 4128:, pp. 416–417. 4048:, pp. 385–386. 4000:, pp. 490–492. 3988:, pp. 487–488. 3976:, pp. 485–487. 3940:, pp. 496–497. 3916:, pp. 466–468. 3889:, pp. 458–459. 3877:, pp. 178–179. 3865:, pp. 175–177. 3805:, pp. 366–368. 3781:, pp. 365–367. 3745:, pp. 166–167. 3733:, pp. 164–165. 3709:, pp. 157–161. 3697:, pp. 155–157. 3685:, pp. 153–154. 3637:, pp. 169–172. 3621:, pp. 135–137. 3593:, pp. 121–122. 3554:, pp. 132–133. 3506:, pp. 349–350. 3494:, pp. 103–104. 3466:, pp. 103–104. 3338:, pp. 309–310. 3283:, pp. 284–285. 3271:, pp. 191–192. 3259:, pp. 196–197. 3219:, pp. 192–194. 3091:, pp. 175–177. 3051:, pp. 170–172. 3008:, pp. 134–139. 2984:, pp. 134–135. 2972:, pp. 172–173. 2928:, pp. 136–138. 2501:, pp. 10, 19; 2489:, pp. xx–xxiv. 2209:, pp. 180–181. 2169:, pp. 332–362. 2105:Friedrich Nietzsche 1853:Philolaus of Croton 1097:isosceles triangles 1081:deductive reasoning 1077:Phoenician ancestry 973:Academic skepticism 658: 620:origin of the world 532:540 BC and Persian 250:pluralistic account 32:Presocratics (band) 8678:Post-structuralism 8580:Scientific realism 8535:Quinean naturalism 8515:Logical positivism 8471:Analytical Marxism 7690:Peripatetic school 7602:Chinese naturalism 7129:Aesthetic response 7056:Applied philosophy 6906:Plutarch of Athens 6846:Numenius of Apamea 6836:Moderatus of Gades 6306:Hegesias of Cyrene 5567:Vlastos, G. 1995. 5141:Osborne, Catherine 5012:History of Science 4754:InterVarsity Press 4633:, pp. 69–71; 4307:, pp. 19, 23. 3390:, pp. 77–80; 2968:, pp. 33–37; 2940:, pp. 36–37; 2900:, pp. 97–98; 2816:, pp. 86, 90. 2732:, pp. 75–78; 2704:, pp. 39–42; 2581:, pp. 16–24; 2485:, pp. 55–59; 2397:, pp. 12–14; 2265:, pp. 24–35; 2233:, pp. 29–31; 1733: 1596: 1510: 1433:Alcmaeon of Croton 1391: 1332:unity of opposites 1247: 1213:classical elements 1120:empirical evidence 1071:and predicted the 1056: 1001: 649: 514: 424:Hippolytus of Rome 349:(theologians) and 282:Western philosophy 9087: 9086: 9049: 9048: 9045: 9044: 9041: 9040: 8747: 8746: 8743: 8742: 8739: 8738: 8466:Analytic feminism 8438: 8437: 8400:Kierkegaardianism 8362:Transcendentalism 8322:Neo-scholasticism 8168:Classical Realism 8145: 8144: 7917: 7916: 7732:Neopythagoreanism 7489: 7488: 7485: 7484: 7106:Social philosophy 6991: 6990: 6987: 6986: 6954:Nicetes of Smyrna 6543: 6542: 6458: 6457: 6420:Apollonius Cronus 6211: 6210: 6207: 6206: 6085: 6084: 6009: 6008: 5930:Metrodorus of Cos 5852: 5851: 5839: 5838: 5766: 5765: 5612:Library resources 5597:978-0-86292-079-1 5542:978-0-691-02088-4 5523:978-1-60384-183-2 5480:Jaeger, W. 1947. 5433:978-0-19-514687-5 5412:978-0-19-282454-7 5397:Waterfield, Robin 5388:978-1-317-49337-2 5367:978-0-19-514687-5 5346:978-1-4020-9791-1 5321:978-1-107-09248-8 5293:978-0-19-964465-0 5261:978-1-134-85347-2 5240:978-0-19-514687-5 5219:978-0-19-514687-5 5198:978-0-19-514687-5 5177:978-0-19-514687-5 5156:978-0-19-284094-3 5143:(22 April 2004). 5132:978-0-521-44667-9 5108:978-0-19-964465-0 5089:McCarthy, John C. 5080:978-1-134-97366-8 5002:978-1-4008-8791-0 4977:978-0-19-289253-9 4953:978-0-19-514687-5 4932:978-0-19-514687-5 4911:978-0-521-27455-5 4879:978-0-19-514687-5 4858:978-0-19-514687-5 4837:978-0-19-514687-5 4805:978-0-19-514687-5 4784:978-0-19-514687-5 4763:978-0-8308-7369-2 4744:Evans, C. Stephen 4716:978-0-19-514687-5 4695:978-0-19-514687-5 4670:978-0-14-044461-2 4596:, pp. 19–20. 4547:, pp. 21–22. 4531:, pp. 21–22. 4507:, pp. 20–23. 4074:Van der Eijk 2008 4058:Van der Eijk 2008 4046:Van der Eijk 2008 4034:Van der Eijk 2008 3378:, pp. 79–80. 3354:, pp. 40–41. 3063:, pp. 72–74. 3020:, pp. 50–56. 2996:, pp. 41–50. 2944:, pp. 28–33. 2780:, pp. 74–75. 2673:, pp. 36–39. 2661:, pp. 16–17. 2649:, pp. 16–22. 2569:, pp. 19–20. 2545:, pp. 70–71. 2521:, pp. 56–67. 2457:, pp. 79–80. 2429:, pp. 10–12. 2373:, pp. 18–21. 2361:, pp. 82–83. 2349:, pp. 55–56. 2281:, pp. 24–25. 2099:scientific method 1879:(unlimiteds) and 1684:Diogenes Laertius 1479:Melissus of Samos 1439:(428-347 BC) and 1107:. Thales visited 1073:eclipse of 585 BC 879: 878: 656: 654:Catherine Osborne 518:Achaemenid Empire 408:Diogenes Laërtius 16:(Redirected from 9107: 9076: 9075: 9064: 9063: 9062: 8779: 8778: 8770: 8769: 8753: 8752: 8643:Frankfurt School 8590:Transactionalism 8540:Normative ethics 8520:Legal positivism 8496:Falsificationism 8481:Consequentialism 8476:Communitarianism 8449: 8448: 8317:New Confucianism 8156: 8155: 7963:Neo-Confucianism 7928: 7927: 7737:Second Sophistic 7722:Middle Platonism 7565: 7564: 7506: 7505: 7495: 7494: 7338:Epiphenomenalism 7205:Consequentialism 7139:Institutionalism 7044: 7043: 7033: 7032: 7018: 7011: 7004: 6995: 6994: 6946:Second Sophistic 6921:Ammonius Hermiae 6826:Nigidius Figulus 6740:Philo of Larissa 6722:Academic Skeptic 6586:Sextus Empiricus 6554: 6553: 6403: 6402: 6362:Euclid of Megara 6241: 6240: 6119: 6118: 6029: 6028: 5863: 5862: 5854: 5853: 5786: 5785: 5777: 5776: 5716: 5715: 5698:Proto-philosophy 5684: 5677: 5670: 5661: 5660: 5601: 5546: 5527: 5437: 5416: 5392: 5371: 5350: 5339:. pp. 20–. 5325: 5297: 5265: 5244: 5223: 5202: 5181: 5160: 5136: 5112: 5084: 5059: 5006: 4981: 4957: 4936: 4915: 4883: 4862: 4841: 4820: 4809: 4788: 4767: 4739: 4720: 4699: 4674: 4651:Barnes, Jonathan 4638: 4628: 4622: 4621: 4603: 4597: 4591: 4585: 4584: 4566: 4560: 4554: 4548: 4538: 4532: 4526: 4520: 4514: 4508: 4502: 4496: 4490: 4484: 4478: 4472: 4466: 4460: 4454: 4448: 4442: 4436: 4430: 4424: 4418: 4412: 4406: 4400: 4390: 4384: 4378: 4372: 4371:, pp. 9–11. 4366: 4360: 4355:, pp. 1–8; 4350: 4344: 4338: 4332: 4326: 4320: 4319:, p. 18-19. 4314: 4308: 4302: 4296: 4290: 4284: 4278: 4272: 4266: 4260: 4254: 4248: 4242: 4236: 4230: 4224: 4218: 4209: 4199: 4193: 4183: 4177: 4171: 4165: 4159: 4153: 4147: 4141: 4135: 4129: 4123: 4117: 4111: 4105: 4099: 4093: 4087: 4081: 4071: 4065: 4055: 4049: 4043: 4037: 4031: 4025: 4019: 4013: 4007: 4001: 3995: 3989: 3983: 3977: 3971: 3965: 3959: 3953: 3947: 3941: 3935: 3929: 3923: 3917: 3911: 3905: 3899: 3890: 3884: 3878: 3872: 3866: 3860: 3854: 3848: 3842: 3836: 3830: 3824: 3818: 3812: 3806: 3800: 3794: 3788: 3782: 3776: 3770: 3764: 3758: 3752: 3746: 3740: 3734: 3728: 3722: 3716: 3710: 3704: 3698: 3692: 3686: 3680: 3674: 3668: 3662: 3656: 3650: 3644: 3638: 3628: 3622: 3617:, pp. 250; 3612: 3606: 3600: 3594: 3588: 3582: 3576: 3567: 3561: 3555: 3549: 3543: 3537: 3531: 3525: 3519: 3513: 3507: 3501: 3495: 3485: 3479: 3473: 3467: 3461: 3455: 3449: 3443: 3437: 3431: 3425: 3419: 3413: 3407: 3401: 3395: 3385: 3379: 3373: 3367: 3361: 3355: 3345: 3339: 3333: 3327: 3321: 3312: 3306: 3300: 3290: 3284: 3278: 3272: 3266: 3260: 3254: 3248: 3238: 3232: 3226: 3220: 3210: 3204: 3198: 3192: 3186: 3180: 3174: 3168: 3158: 3152: 3142: 3136: 3130: 3124: 3114: 3108: 3098: 3092: 3082: 3076: 3070: 3064: 3058: 3052: 3046: 3037: 3027: 3021: 3015: 3009: 3003: 2997: 2991: 2985: 2979: 2973: 2963: 2957: 2951: 2945: 2935: 2929: 2923: 2917: 2911: 2905: 2895: 2889: 2883: 2877: 2876:, p. 94-96. 2871: 2865: 2864:, p. 90-94. 2859: 2853: 2847: 2841: 2835: 2829: 2823: 2817: 2811: 2805: 2799: 2793: 2787: 2781: 2771: 2765: 2759: 2753: 2743: 2737: 2727: 2721: 2715: 2709: 2699: 2693: 2687: 2674: 2668: 2662: 2656: 2650: 2644: 2638: 2637:, p. 20-21. 2632: 2626: 2616: 2610: 2604: 2598: 2592: 2586: 2576: 2570: 2564: 2558: 2552: 2546: 2540: 2534: 2533:, p. 37-39. 2528: 2522: 2517:, p. xxii; 2512: 2506: 2496: 2490: 2476: 2470: 2464: 2458: 2452: 2446: 2436: 2430: 2424: 2418: 2417:, p. 55-57. 2412: 2406: 2392: 2386: 2380: 2374: 2368: 2362: 2356: 2350: 2340: 2334: 2328: 2322: 2312: 2306: 2300: 2294: 2288: 2282: 2276: 2270: 2256: 2250: 2244: 2238: 2228: 2222: 2216: 2210: 2204: 2198: 2188: 2182: 2176: 2170: 2164: 2158: 2152: 2120:Martin Heidegger 1866: 1749:Zeno's paradoxes 1173: 1093:Thales's theorem 1061: 1053: 888:critical thought 659: 651: 648: 645:General features 566: 531: 144:civil entities, 132:rather than the 96:, also known as 86: 79: 78: 70: 63: 62: 54: 47: 46: 21: 9115: 9114: 9110: 9109: 9108: 9106: 9105: 9104: 9090: 9089: 9088: 9083: 9060: 9058: 9037: 9001: 8901: 8863: 8810: 8764: 8763: 8735: 8724:Russian cosmism 8697: 8693:Western Marxism 8658:New Historicism 8623:Critical theory 8609: 8605:Wittgensteinian 8501:Foundationalism 8434: 8371: 8352:Social contract 8208:Foundationalism 8141: 8123: 8107:Illuminationism 8092:Aristotelianism 8078: 8067:Vishishtadvaita 8020: 7972: 7913: 7880: 7751: 7680:Megarian school 7675:Eretrian school 7616: 7577:Agriculturalism 7554: 7500: 7481: 7428: 7400: 7357: 7309: 7266: 7250:Incompatibilism 7219: 7191: 7143: 7115: 7038: 7027: 7022: 6992: 6983: 6940: 6869:Ammonius Saccas 6855: 6812: 6760:Middle Platonic 6754: 6716: 6668: 6659:Marcus Aurelius 6595: 6571:Timon of Phlius 6539: 6509:Aristotelianism 6491: 6454: 6435:Diodorus Cronus 6401: 6348: 6320: 6277: 6239: 6203: 6160: 6108: 6081: 6053: 6018: 6005: 5977: 5954: 5848: 5835: 5812: 5762: 5714: 5693: 5688: 5642: 5641: 5640: 5620: 5619: 5615: 5608: 5598: 5578:Berlin-Boston: 5562:Wiley-Blackwell 5543: 5524: 5488:Lloyd, G. E. R. 5451:Princeton, NJ: 5444: 5442:Further reading 5434: 5413: 5389: 5368: 5347: 5322: 5294: 5262: 5241: 5220: 5199: 5178: 5157: 5133: 5109: 5081: 5003: 4978: 4954: 4933: 4912: 4880: 4859: 4838: 4806: 4785: 4764: 4730:Edward N. Zalta 4717: 4696: 4671: 4646: 4641: 4629: 4625: 4618: 4604: 4600: 4592: 4588: 4581: 4567: 4563: 4555: 4551: 4539: 4535: 4527: 4523: 4515: 4511: 4503: 4499: 4491: 4487: 4479: 4475: 4467: 4463: 4455: 4451: 4443: 4439: 4431: 4427: 4419: 4415: 4407: 4403: 4395:, p. 503; 4391: 4387: 4379: 4375: 4367: 4363: 4351: 4347: 4339: 4335: 4327: 4323: 4315: 4311: 4303: 4299: 4295:, pp. 7–9. 4291: 4287: 4279: 4275: 4267: 4263: 4259:, pp. 449. 4255: 4251: 4247:, pp. 446. 4243: 4239: 4235:, pp. 445. 4231: 4227: 4219: 4212: 4200: 4196: 4184: 4180: 4172: 4168: 4160: 4156: 4148: 4144: 4136: 4132: 4124: 4120: 4112: 4108: 4100: 4096: 4088: 4084: 4080:, pp. 1–2. 4072: 4068: 4064:, pp. 1–2. 4060:, p. 387; 4056: 4052: 4044: 4040: 4032: 4028: 4020: 4016: 4008: 4004: 3996: 3992: 3984: 3980: 3972: 3968: 3960: 3956: 3948: 3944: 3936: 3932: 3924: 3920: 3912: 3908: 3900: 3893: 3885: 3881: 3873: 3869: 3861: 3857: 3849: 3845: 3837: 3833: 3825: 3821: 3813: 3809: 3801: 3797: 3789: 3785: 3777: 3773: 3765: 3761: 3753: 3749: 3741: 3737: 3729: 3725: 3717: 3713: 3705: 3701: 3693: 3689: 3681: 3677: 3669: 3665: 3657: 3653: 3645: 3641: 3629: 3625: 3613: 3609: 3601: 3597: 3589: 3585: 3577: 3570: 3562: 3558: 3550: 3546: 3538: 3534: 3526: 3522: 3514: 3510: 3502: 3498: 3486: 3482: 3474: 3470: 3462: 3458: 3450: 3446: 3438: 3434: 3426: 3422: 3414: 3410: 3402: 3398: 3386: 3382: 3374: 3370: 3362: 3358: 3346: 3342: 3334: 3330: 3322: 3315: 3307: 3303: 3295:, p. 129; 3291: 3287: 3279: 3275: 3267: 3263: 3255: 3251: 3239: 3235: 3227: 3223: 3211: 3207: 3199: 3195: 3187: 3183: 3175: 3171: 3159: 3155: 3143: 3139: 3131: 3127: 3115: 3111: 3099: 3095: 3083: 3079: 3071: 3067: 3059: 3055: 3047: 3040: 3030:Mourelatos 2008 3028: 3024: 3016: 3012: 3006:Mourelatos 2008 3004: 3000: 2992: 2988: 2982:Mourelatos 2008 2980: 2976: 2964: 2960: 2952: 2948: 2936: 2932: 2924: 2920: 2912: 2908: 2896: 2892: 2884: 2880: 2872: 2868: 2860: 2856: 2848: 2844: 2836: 2832: 2824: 2820: 2812: 2808: 2800: 2796: 2788: 2784: 2772: 2768: 2760: 2756: 2744: 2740: 2728: 2724: 2716: 2712: 2700: 2696: 2688: 2677: 2669: 2665: 2657: 2653: 2645: 2641: 2633: 2629: 2617: 2613: 2605: 2601: 2597:, Introduction. 2593: 2589: 2577: 2573: 2565: 2561: 2553: 2549: 2541: 2537: 2529: 2525: 2515:Waterfield 2000 2513: 2509: 2497: 2493: 2487:Waterfield 2000 2477: 2473: 2465: 2461: 2453: 2449: 2437: 2433: 2425: 2421: 2413: 2409: 2393: 2389: 2381: 2377: 2369: 2365: 2357: 2353: 2341: 2337: 2329: 2325: 2321:, Introduction. 2313: 2309: 2301: 2297: 2291:Waterfield 2000 2289: 2285: 2277: 2273: 2269:, pp. 7–9. 2257: 2253: 2245: 2241: 2229: 2225: 2217: 2213: 2205: 2201: 2197:, pp. 1–2. 2189: 2185: 2177: 2173: 2165: 2161: 2153: 2146: 2142: 2091: 2016: 2011: 1986: 1955: 1942: 1910: 1894: 1889: 1869: 1850: 1778: 1772: 1718: 1712: 1577: 1463: 1457: 1449:Carl A. Huffman 1381: 1375: 1369: 1355:influenced the 1296: 1290: 1271:St. Elmo's fire 1227: 1221: 1204: 1198: 1175: 1165: 1162: 1159: 1157: 1155: 1153: 1151: 1149: 1143: 1137: 1051: 1044: 1038: 1012:was located in 1010:Milesian school 1006: 985: 961:Aristotelianism 916:Jonathan Barnes 647: 538:Greeks revolted 502: 392: 355:Greek mythology 302: 134:actions of gods 91: 90: 89: 88: 87: 82: 80: 76: 72: 71: 66: 64: 60: 56: 55: 50: 48: 44: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9113: 9103: 9102: 9085: 9084: 9082: 9081: 9069: 9054: 9051: 9050: 9047: 9046: 9043: 9042: 9039: 9038: 9036: 9035: 9030: 9025: 9020: 9015: 9009: 9007: 9003: 9002: 9000: 8999: 8994: 8989: 8984: 8979: 8974: 8969: 8964: 8959: 8954: 8949: 8944: 8939: 8934: 8933: 8932: 8922: 8917: 8911: 8909: 8903: 8902: 8900: 8899: 8894: 8889: 8884: 8879: 8873: 8871: 8869:Middle Eastern 8865: 8864: 8862: 8861: 8856: 8851: 8846: 8841: 8836: 8831: 8826: 8820: 8818: 8812: 8811: 8809: 8808: 8803: 8798: 8793: 8787: 8785: 8776: 8766: 8765: 8762: 8761: 8757: 8749: 8748: 8745: 8744: 8741: 8740: 8737: 8736: 8734: 8733: 8726: 8721: 8716: 8711: 8705: 8703: 8699: 8698: 8696: 8695: 8690: 8685: 8680: 8675: 8670: 8665: 8660: 8655: 8650: 8645: 8640: 8635: 8633:Existentialism 8630: 8628:Deconstruction 8625: 8619: 8617: 8611: 8610: 8608: 8607: 8602: 8597: 8592: 8587: 8582: 8577: 8572: 8567: 8562: 8557: 8552: 8547: 8542: 8537: 8532: 8527: 8522: 8517: 8512: 8507: 8498: 8493: 8488: 8483: 8478: 8473: 8468: 8463: 8461:Applied ethics 8457: 8455: 8446: 8440: 8439: 8436: 8435: 8433: 8432: 8427: 8425:Nietzscheanism 8422: 8417: 8412: 8407: 8402: 8397: 8396: 8395: 8385: 8379: 8377: 8373: 8372: 8370: 8369: 8367:Utilitarianism 8364: 8359: 8354: 8349: 8344: 8339: 8334: 8329: 8324: 8319: 8314: 8309: 8304: 8299: 8294: 8289: 8284: 8279: 8274: 8269: 8268: 8267: 8265:Transcendental 8262: 8257: 8252: 8247: 8242: 8232: 8231: 8230: 8220: 8215: 8210: 8205: 8203:Existentialism 8200: 8195: 8190: 8185: 8180: 8175: 8170: 8165: 8159: 8153: 8147: 8146: 8143: 8142: 8140: 8139: 8133: 8131: 8125: 8124: 8122: 8121: 8116: 8109: 8104: 8099: 8094: 8088: 8086: 8080: 8079: 8077: 8076: 8071: 8070: 8069: 8064: 8059: 8054: 8049: 8044: 8039: 8028: 8026: 8022: 8021: 8019: 8018: 8013: 8008: 8003: 7998: 7993: 7991:Augustinianism 7988: 7982: 7980: 7974: 7973: 7971: 7970: 7965: 7960: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7940: 7934: 7932: 7925: 7919: 7918: 7915: 7914: 7912: 7911: 7906: 7904:Zoroastrianism 7901: 7896: 7890: 7888: 7882: 7881: 7879: 7878: 7877: 7876: 7871: 7866: 7861: 7856: 7851: 7846: 7841: 7836: 7826: 7825: 7824: 7819: 7809: 7808: 7807: 7802: 7797: 7792: 7787: 7782: 7777: 7772: 7761: 7759: 7753: 7752: 7750: 7749: 7747:Church Fathers 7744: 7739: 7734: 7729: 7724: 7719: 7718: 7717: 7712: 7707: 7702: 7692: 7687: 7682: 7677: 7672: 7667: 7662: 7661: 7660: 7655: 7650: 7645: 7640: 7629: 7627: 7618: 7617: 7615: 7614: 7609: 7604: 7599: 7594: 7589: 7584: 7579: 7573: 7571: 7562: 7556: 7555: 7553: 7552: 7551: 7550: 7545: 7540: 7535: 7530: 7520: 7514: 7512: 7502: 7501: 7491: 7490: 7487: 7486: 7483: 7482: 7480: 7479: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7454: 7449: 7444: 7438: 7436: 7430: 7429: 7427: 7426: 7421: 7416: 7410: 7408: 7402: 7401: 7399: 7398: 7393: 7388: 7383: 7378: 7373: 7367: 7365: 7359: 7358: 7356: 7355: 7350: 7345: 7340: 7335: 7330: 7325: 7319: 7317: 7311: 7310: 7308: 7307: 7302: 7297: 7292: 7287: 7282: 7276: 7274: 7268: 7267: 7265: 7264: 7262:Libertarianism 7259: 7258: 7257: 7247: 7246: 7245: 7235: 7229: 7227: 7221: 7220: 7218: 7217: 7212: 7207: 7201: 7199: 7193: 7192: 7190: 7189: 7184: 7179: 7174: 7169: 7164: 7159: 7153: 7151: 7145: 7144: 7142: 7141: 7136: 7131: 7125: 7123: 7117: 7116: 7114: 7113: 7108: 7103: 7098: 7093: 7088: 7083: 7078: 7073: 7068: 7066:Metaphilosophy 7063: 7058: 7052: 7050: 7040: 7039: 7029: 7028: 7021: 7020: 7013: 7006: 6998: 6989: 6988: 6985: 6984: 6982: 6981: 6976: 6971: 6966: 6961: 6959:Dio Chrysostom 6956: 6950: 6948: 6942: 6941: 6939: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6903: 6898: 6893: 6888: 6883: 6882: 6881: 6871: 6865: 6863: 6857: 6856: 6854: 6853: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6822: 6820: 6818:Neopythagorean 6814: 6813: 6811: 6810: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6785: 6780: 6775: 6770: 6764: 6762: 6756: 6755: 6753: 6752: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6732: 6726: 6724: 6718: 6717: 6715: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6694: 6689: 6684: 6678: 6676: 6670: 6669: 6667: 6666: 6661: 6656: 6651: 6646: 6644:Musonius Rufus 6641: 6636: 6631: 6626: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6609:Zeno of Citium 6605: 6603: 6597: 6596: 6594: 6593: 6588: 6583: 6578: 6573: 6568: 6562: 6560: 6551: 6545: 6544: 6541: 6540: 6538: 6537: 6532: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6501: 6499: 6493: 6492: 6490: 6489: 6484: 6479: 6474: 6468: 6466: 6460: 6459: 6456: 6455: 6453: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6437: 6432: 6427: 6422: 6417: 6411: 6409: 6400: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6358: 6356: 6350: 6349: 6347: 6346: 6341: 6336: 6334:Phaedo of Elis 6330: 6328: 6322: 6321: 6319: 6318: 6313: 6308: 6303: 6298: 6293: 6287: 6285: 6279: 6278: 6276: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6255: 6249: 6247: 6238: 6237: 6232: 6221: 6219: 6213: 6212: 6209: 6208: 6205: 6204: 6202: 6201: 6196: 6191: 6186: 6181: 6176: 6170: 6168: 6162: 6161: 6159: 6158: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6138: 6133: 6127: 6125: 6116: 6110: 6109: 6107: 6106: 6101: 6095: 6093: 6087: 6086: 6083: 6082: 6080: 6079: 6074: 6069: 6063: 6061: 6055: 6054: 6052: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6035: 6026: 6020: 6019: 6017: 6016: 6010: 6007: 6006: 6004: 6003: 5998: 5993: 5987: 5985: 5979: 5978: 5976: 5975: 5970: 5964: 5962: 5956: 5955: 5953: 5952: 5947: 5942: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5871: 5869: 5860: 5850: 5849: 5847: 5846: 5840: 5837: 5836: 5834: 5833: 5828: 5822: 5820: 5814: 5813: 5811: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5794: 5792: 5783: 5774: 5768: 5767: 5764: 5763: 5761: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5724: 5722: 5713: 5712: 5707: 5701: 5699: 5695: 5694: 5687: 5686: 5679: 5672: 5664: 5658: 5657: 5648: 5639: 5638: 5633: 5628: 5622: 5621: 5610: 5609: 5607: 5606:External links 5604: 5603: 5602: 5596: 5583: 5572: 5565: 5554: 5547: 5541: 5528: 5522: 5509: 5499: 5485: 5478: 5467: 5456: 5443: 5440: 5439: 5438: 5432: 5417: 5411: 5393: 5387: 5372: 5366: 5351: 5345: 5326: 5320: 5298: 5292: 5266: 5260: 5245: 5239: 5224: 5218: 5203: 5197: 5182: 5176: 5161: 5155: 5149:. OUP Oxford. 5137: 5131: 5117:Most, Glenn W. 5113: 5107: 5085: 5079: 5060: 5007: 5001: 4982: 4976: 4962:Irwin, Terence 4958: 4952: 4937: 4931: 4916: 4910: 4888:Kirk, Geoffrey 4884: 4878: 4863: 4857: 4842: 4836: 4821: 4810: 4804: 4789: 4783: 4768: 4762: 4740: 4721: 4715: 4700: 4694: 4675: 4669: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4639: 4631:Sandywell 1996 4623: 4616: 4598: 4586: 4579: 4561: 4557:Sandywell 1996 4549: 4541:Sandywell 1996 4533: 4521: 4509: 4497: 4495:, p. 6-7. 4493:Sandywell 1996 4485: 4473: 4461: 4449: 4447:, p. 536. 4437: 4435:, pp. 16. 4425: 4413: 4411:, p. 503. 4401: 4399:, p. 536. 4385: 4383:, p. 548. 4373: 4361: 4345: 4343:, p. 534. 4333: 4321: 4309: 4297: 4285: 4283:, p. 453. 4281:Hankinson 2008 4273: 4269:Hankinson 2008 4261: 4257:Hankinson 2008 4249: 4245:Hankinson 2008 4237: 4233:Hankinson 2008 4225: 4221:Hankinson 2008 4210: 4204:, p. 16; 4194: 4190:Hankinson 2008 4188:, p. 17; 4178: 4166: 4154: 4152:, p. 418. 4142: 4140:, p. 417. 4130: 4118: 4116:, p. 416. 4106: 4104:, p. 415. 4094: 4092:, p. 414. 4082: 4066: 4050: 4038: 4036:, p. 385. 4026: 4024:, p. 1-2. 4014: 4012:, p. 496. 4002: 3990: 3978: 3966: 3964:, p. 140. 3954: 3952:, p. 497. 3942: 3930: 3928:, pp. 51. 3918: 3906: 3904:, p. 476. 3891: 3879: 3867: 3855: 3853:, p. 179. 3843: 3831: 3819: 3807: 3795: 3783: 3771: 3769:, p. 367. 3759: 3757:, p. 169. 3747: 3735: 3723: 3721:, p. 163. 3711: 3699: 3687: 3675: 3673:, p. 380. 3671:Sandywell 1996 3663: 3661:, p. 251. 3659:Primavesi 2008 3651: 3649:, p. 146. 3639: 3623: 3615:Primavesi 2008 3607: 3595: 3583: 3581:, p. 231. 3568: 3566:, p. 230. 3556: 3544: 3542:, p. 119. 3532: 3520: 3518:, p. 356. 3516:Sandywell 1996 3508: 3504:Sandywell 1996 3496: 3480: 3478:, p. 108. 3468: 3456: 3454:, p. 298. 3452:Sandywell 1996 3444: 3442:, p. 312. 3440:Sandywell 1996 3432: 3420: 3408: 3406:, pp. 98. 3396: 3394:, p. 300. 3392:Sandywell 1996 3380: 3368: 3356: 3350:, p. 77; 3340: 3336:Sandywell 1996 3328: 3326:, p. 295. 3324:Sandywell 1996 3313: 3301: 3299:, p. 295. 3297:Sandywell 1996 3285: 3273: 3269:Sandywell 1996 3261: 3257:Sandywell 1996 3249: 3247:, p. 195. 3245:Sandywell 1996 3233: 3221: 3217:Sandywell 1996 3205: 3203:, p. 192. 3201:Sandywell 1996 3193: 3181: 3179:, p. 199. 3177:Sandywell 1996 3169: 3167:, p. 197. 3165:Sandywell 1996 3163:, p. 39; 3153: 3151:, p. 189. 3149:Sandywell 1996 3147:, p. 81; 3137: 3125: 3123:, p. 237. 3121:Sandywell 1996 3119:, p. 63; 3109: 3101:Sandywell 1996 3093: 3085:Sandywell 1996 3077: 3075:, p. 175. 3065: 3053: 3038: 3022: 3010: 2998: 2986: 2974: 2970:Sandywell 1996 2958: 2956:, p. 141. 2954:Sandywell 1996 2946: 2930: 2926:Sandywell 1996 2918: 2916:, p. 139. 2914:Sandywell 1996 2906: 2898:Sandywell 1996 2890: 2886:Sandywell 1996 2878: 2874:Sandywell 1996 2866: 2862:Sandywell 1996 2854: 2850:Sandywell 1996 2842: 2830: 2826:Sandywell 1996 2818: 2814:Sandywell 1996 2806: 2802:Sandywell 1996 2794: 2790:Sandywell 1996 2782: 2776:, p. 89; 2774:Sandywell 1996 2766: 2762:Sandywell 1996 2754: 2748:, p. 36; 2738: 2730:Sandywell 1996 2722: 2710: 2694: 2675: 2663: 2651: 2639: 2627: 2623:Sandywell 1996 2621:, p. 25; 2611: 2599: 2587: 2571: 2559: 2547: 2535: 2523: 2507: 2491: 2471: 2459: 2455:Sandywell 1996 2447: 2441:, p. 14; 2431: 2419: 2407: 2401:, p. 14; 2387: 2385:, p. 181. 2375: 2363: 2359:Sandywell 1996 2351: 2335: 2323: 2307: 2295: 2283: 2271: 2251: 2239: 2223: 2211: 2199: 2193:, p. 10; 2183: 2171: 2159: 2143: 2141: 2138: 2090: 2087: 2015: 2012: 2010: 2007: 1985: 1982: 1954: 1951: 1941: 1938: 1909: 1906: 1893: 1890: 1888: 1885: 1868:argumentation. 1849: 1846: 1774:Main article: 1771: 1768: 1714:Main article: 1711: 1708: 1576: 1573: 1538:Way of Opinion 1534:Way of Opinion 1506:perfect sphere 1461:Eleatic school 1459:Main article: 1456: 1453: 1431:(470-380 BC), 1379:Pythagoreanism 1371:Main article: 1368: 1367:Pythagoreanism 1365: 1292:Main article: 1289: 1286: 1223:Main article: 1220: 1217: 1200:Main article: 1197: 1194: 1146: 1144: 1139:Main article: 1136: 1133: 1040:Main article: 1037: 1034: 1005: 1002: 984: 981: 877: 876: 873: 867: 866: 863: 857: 856: 853: 847: 846: 843: 837: 836: 833: 827: 826: 823: 817: 816: 813: 807: 806: 803: 797: 796: 793: 787: 786: 783: 777: 776: 773: 767: 766: 763: 757: 756: 753: 747: 746: 743: 737: 736: 733: 727: 726: 723: 717: 716: 713: 707: 706: 703: 697: 696: 693: 687: 686: 683: 677: 676: 673: 667: 666: 663: 646: 643: 581:Southern Italy 573:Aegean islands 501: 498: 391: 388: 301: 298: 226:Eleatic school 81: 74: 73: 65: 58: 57: 49: 42: 41: 40: 39: 38: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9112: 9101: 9098: 9097: 9095: 9080: 9079: 9070: 9068: 9067: 9056: 9055: 9052: 9034: 9031: 9029: 9026: 9024: 9021: 9019: 9016: 9014: 9011: 9010: 9008: 9006:Miscellaneous 9004: 8998: 8995: 8993: 8990: 8988: 8985: 8983: 8980: 8978: 8975: 8973: 8970: 8968: 8965: 8963: 8960: 8958: 8955: 8953: 8950: 8948: 8945: 8943: 8940: 8938: 8935: 8931: 8928: 8927: 8926: 8923: 8921: 8918: 8916: 8913: 8912: 8910: 8908: 8904: 8898: 8895: 8893: 8890: 8888: 8885: 8883: 8880: 8878: 8875: 8874: 8872: 8870: 8866: 8860: 8857: 8855: 8852: 8850: 8847: 8845: 8842: 8840: 8837: 8835: 8832: 8830: 8827: 8825: 8822: 8821: 8819: 8817: 8813: 8807: 8804: 8802: 8799: 8797: 8794: 8792: 8789: 8788: 8786: 8784: 8780: 8777: 8775: 8771: 8767: 8759: 8758: 8754: 8750: 8732: 8731: 8727: 8725: 8722: 8720: 8717: 8715: 8712: 8710: 8707: 8706: 8704: 8702:Miscellaneous 8700: 8694: 8691: 8689: 8688:Structuralism 8686: 8684: 8681: 8679: 8676: 8674: 8673:Postmodernism 8671: 8669: 8666: 8664: 8663:Phenomenology 8661: 8659: 8656: 8654: 8651: 8649: 8646: 8644: 8641: 8639: 8636: 8634: 8631: 8629: 8626: 8624: 8621: 8620: 8618: 8616: 8612: 8606: 8603: 8601: 8600:Vienna Circle 8598: 8596: 8593: 8591: 8588: 8586: 8583: 8581: 8578: 8576: 8573: 8571: 8568: 8566: 8563: 8561: 8558: 8556: 8553: 8551: 8548: 8546: 8543: 8541: 8538: 8536: 8533: 8531: 8530:Moral realism 8528: 8526: 8523: 8521: 8518: 8516: 8513: 8511: 8508: 8506: 8502: 8499: 8497: 8494: 8492: 8489: 8487: 8484: 8482: 8479: 8477: 8474: 8472: 8469: 8467: 8464: 8462: 8459: 8458: 8456: 8454: 8450: 8447: 8445: 8441: 8431: 8428: 8426: 8423: 8421: 8418: 8416: 8413: 8411: 8408: 8406: 8403: 8401: 8398: 8394: 8391: 8390: 8389: 8386: 8384: 8381: 8380: 8378: 8374: 8368: 8365: 8363: 8360: 8358: 8355: 8353: 8350: 8348: 8345: 8343: 8340: 8338: 8335: 8333: 8332:Phenomenology 8330: 8328: 8325: 8323: 8320: 8318: 8315: 8313: 8310: 8308: 8305: 8303: 8300: 8298: 8295: 8293: 8290: 8288: 8285: 8283: 8280: 8278: 8275: 8273: 8272:Individualism 8270: 8266: 8263: 8261: 8258: 8256: 8253: 8251: 8248: 8246: 8243: 8241: 8238: 8237: 8236: 8233: 8229: 8226: 8225: 8224: 8221: 8219: 8216: 8214: 8211: 8209: 8206: 8204: 8201: 8199: 8196: 8194: 8191: 8189: 8186: 8184: 8181: 8179: 8176: 8174: 8171: 8169: 8166: 8164: 8161: 8160: 8157: 8154: 8152: 8148: 8138: 8137:Judeo-Islamic 8135: 8134: 8132: 8130: 8126: 8120: 8117: 8115: 8114: 8113:ʿIlm al-Kalām 8110: 8108: 8105: 8103: 8100: 8098: 8095: 8093: 8090: 8089: 8087: 8085: 8081: 8075: 8072: 8068: 8065: 8063: 8062:Shuddhadvaita 8060: 8058: 8055: 8053: 8050: 8048: 8045: 8043: 8040: 8038: 8035: 8034: 8033: 8030: 8029: 8027: 8023: 8017: 8014: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8004: 8002: 7999: 7997: 7996:Scholasticism 7994: 7992: 7989: 7987: 7984: 7983: 7981: 7979: 7975: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7961: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7939: 7936: 7935: 7933: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7920: 7910: 7907: 7905: 7902: 7900: 7897: 7895: 7892: 7891: 7889: 7887: 7883: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7831: 7830: 7827: 7823: 7820: 7818: 7815: 7814: 7813: 7810: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7781: 7778: 7776: 7773: 7771: 7768: 7767: 7766: 7763: 7762: 7760: 7758: 7754: 7748: 7745: 7743: 7740: 7738: 7735: 7733: 7730: 7728: 7725: 7723: 7720: 7716: 7713: 7711: 7708: 7706: 7703: 7701: 7698: 7697: 7696: 7693: 7691: 7688: 7686: 7683: 7681: 7678: 7676: 7673: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7663: 7659: 7656: 7654: 7651: 7649: 7646: 7644: 7641: 7639: 7636: 7635: 7634: 7631: 7630: 7628: 7626: 7623: 7619: 7613: 7610: 7608: 7605: 7603: 7600: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7580: 7578: 7575: 7574: 7572: 7570: 7566: 7563: 7561: 7557: 7549: 7546: 7544: 7541: 7539: 7536: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7526: 7525: 7524: 7521: 7519: 7516: 7515: 7513: 7511: 7507: 7503: 7496: 7492: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7447:Conceptualism 7445: 7443: 7440: 7439: 7437: 7435: 7431: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7417: 7415: 7412: 7411: 7409: 7407: 7403: 7397: 7394: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7376:Particularism 7374: 7372: 7369: 7368: 7366: 7364: 7360: 7354: 7351: 7349: 7346: 7344: 7343:Functionalism 7341: 7339: 7336: 7334: 7331: 7329: 7328:Eliminativism 7326: 7324: 7321: 7320: 7318: 7316: 7312: 7306: 7303: 7301: 7298: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7288: 7286: 7283: 7281: 7278: 7277: 7275: 7273: 7269: 7263: 7260: 7256: 7253: 7252: 7251: 7248: 7244: 7241: 7240: 7239: 7236: 7234: 7233:Compatibilism 7231: 7230: 7228: 7226: 7222: 7216: 7213: 7211: 7208: 7206: 7203: 7202: 7200: 7198: 7194: 7188: 7185: 7183: 7180: 7178: 7175: 7173: 7172:Particularism 7170: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7154: 7152: 7150: 7146: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7126: 7124: 7122: 7118: 7112: 7109: 7107: 7104: 7102: 7099: 7097: 7094: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7084: 7082: 7079: 7077: 7074: 7072: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7053: 7051: 7049: 7045: 7041: 7034: 7030: 7026: 7019: 7014: 7012: 7007: 7005: 7000: 6999: 6996: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6972: 6970: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6951: 6949: 6947: 6943: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6904: 6902: 6899: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6889: 6887: 6884: 6880: 6877: 6876: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6866: 6864: 6862: 6858: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6823: 6821: 6819: 6815: 6809: 6806: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6786: 6784: 6781: 6779: 6776: 6774: 6771: 6769: 6766: 6765: 6763: 6761: 6757: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6731: 6728: 6727: 6725: 6723: 6719: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6692:Zeno of Sidon 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6679: 6677: 6675: 6671: 6665: 6662: 6660: 6657: 6655: 6652: 6650: 6647: 6645: 6642: 6640: 6637: 6635: 6632: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6607: 6606: 6604: 6602: 6598: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6563: 6561: 6559: 6555: 6552: 6550: 6546: 6536: 6533: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6525:Lyco of Troas 6523: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6510: 6506: 6503: 6502: 6500: 6498: 6494: 6488: 6485: 6483: 6480: 6478: 6475: 6473: 6470: 6469: 6467: 6465: 6461: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6443: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6426: 6423: 6421: 6418: 6416: 6413: 6412: 6410: 6408: 6407:Dialecticians 6404: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6359: 6357: 6355: 6351: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6331: 6329: 6327: 6323: 6317: 6314: 6312: 6309: 6307: 6304: 6302: 6299: 6297: 6294: 6292: 6289: 6288: 6286: 6284: 6280: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6250: 6248: 6246: 6242: 6236: 6233: 6230: 6226: 6223: 6222: 6220: 6218: 6214: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6192: 6190: 6187: 6185: 6182: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6171: 6169: 6167: 6163: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6129: 6128: 6126: 6124: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6111: 6105: 6102: 6100: 6097: 6096: 6094: 6092: 6088: 6078: 6075: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6065: 6064: 6062: 6060: 6056: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6034: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6021: 6015: 6012: 6011: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5988: 5986: 5984: 5980: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5966: 5965: 5963: 5961: 5957: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5872: 5870: 5868: 5864: 5861: 5859: 5855: 5845: 5842: 5841: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5823: 5821: 5819: 5815: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5795: 5793: 5791: 5787: 5784: 5782: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5769: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5725: 5723: 5721: 5717: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5702: 5700: 5696: 5692: 5685: 5680: 5678: 5673: 5671: 5666: 5665: 5662: 5656: 5652: 5649: 5647: 5644: 5643: 5637: 5634: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5599: 5593: 5589: 5584: 5581: 5577: 5573: 5570: 5566: 5563: 5559: 5555: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5538: 5534: 5529: 5525: 5519: 5515: 5510: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5497: 5494:. New York: 5493: 5489: 5486: 5483: 5479: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5445: 5435: 5429: 5425: 5424: 5418: 5414: 5408: 5404: 5403: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5384: 5381:. Routledge. 5380: 5379: 5373: 5369: 5363: 5359: 5358: 5352: 5348: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5333: 5327: 5323: 5317: 5313: 5309: 5308: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5276: 5271: 5270:Sedley, David 5267: 5263: 5257: 5254:. Routledge. 5253: 5252: 5246: 5242: 5236: 5232: 5231: 5225: 5221: 5215: 5211: 5210: 5204: 5200: 5194: 5190: 5189: 5183: 5179: 5173: 5169: 5168: 5162: 5158: 5152: 5148: 5147: 5142: 5138: 5134: 5128: 5124: 5123: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5104: 5100: 5096: 5095: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5067: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5008: 5004: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4989: 4983: 4979: 4973: 4969: 4968: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4949: 4945: 4944: 4938: 4934: 4928: 4924: 4923: 4917: 4913: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4898: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4875: 4871: 4870: 4864: 4860: 4854: 4850: 4849: 4843: 4839: 4833: 4829: 4828: 4822: 4818: 4817: 4811: 4807: 4801: 4797: 4796: 4790: 4786: 4780: 4776: 4775: 4769: 4765: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4750: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4736: 4731: 4727: 4722: 4718: 4712: 4708: 4707: 4701: 4697: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4682: 4676: 4672: 4666: 4662: 4661:Penguin Books 4658: 4657: 4652: 4648: 4647: 4644:Cited sources 4637:, p. 73. 4636: 4632: 4627: 4619: 4617:9780253210661 4613: 4609: 4602: 4595: 4590: 4582: 4580:9780810130760 4576: 4572: 4565: 4558: 4553: 4546: 4543:, p. 7; 4542: 4537: 4530: 4525: 4518: 4517:McCarthy 1999 4513: 4506: 4505:Vamvacas 2009 4501: 4494: 4489: 4483:, p. 11. 4482: 4477: 4470: 4465: 4459:, p. 40. 4458: 4453: 4446: 4441: 4434: 4429: 4422: 4417: 4410: 4405: 4398: 4394: 4389: 4382: 4377: 4370: 4365: 4358: 4354: 4349: 4342: 4337: 4331:, p. 14. 4330: 4325: 4318: 4313: 4306: 4305:Vamvacas 2009 4301: 4294: 4289: 4282: 4277: 4270: 4265: 4258: 4253: 4246: 4241: 4234: 4229: 4222: 4217: 4215: 4208:, p. 36. 4207: 4203: 4198: 4191: 4187: 4182: 4175: 4170: 4163: 4158: 4151: 4146: 4139: 4134: 4127: 4122: 4115: 4110: 4103: 4098: 4091: 4086: 4079: 4078:Longrigg 2013 4075: 4070: 4063: 4062:Longrigg 2013 4059: 4054: 4047: 4042: 4035: 4030: 4023: 4022:Longrigg 1989 4018: 4011: 4010:Robinson 2008 4006: 3999: 3998:Robinson 2008 3994: 3987: 3986:Robinson 2008 3982: 3975: 3974:Robinson 2008 3970: 3963: 3958: 3951: 3950:Robinson 2008 3946: 3939: 3938:Robinson 2008 3934: 3927: 3922: 3915: 3910: 3903: 3898: 3896: 3888: 3883: 3876: 3871: 3864: 3859: 3852: 3847: 3840: 3835: 3828: 3823: 3817:, Protagoras. 3816: 3811: 3804: 3799: 3792: 3787: 3780: 3775: 3768: 3763: 3756: 3751: 3744: 3739: 3732: 3727: 3720: 3715: 3708: 3703: 3696: 3691: 3684: 3679: 3672: 3667: 3660: 3655: 3648: 3643: 3636: 3635:Vamvacas 2009 3632: 3627: 3620: 3616: 3611: 3604: 3599: 3592: 3587: 3580: 3575: 3573: 3565: 3560: 3553: 3548: 3541: 3536: 3529: 3524: 3517: 3512: 3505: 3500: 3493: 3489: 3484: 3477: 3472: 3465: 3460: 3453: 3448: 3441: 3436: 3429: 3424: 3418:, p. 80. 3417: 3412: 3405: 3400: 3393: 3389: 3384: 3377: 3372: 3366:, p. 79. 3365: 3360: 3353: 3349: 3344: 3337: 3332: 3325: 3320: 3318: 3311:, p. 40. 3310: 3305: 3298: 3294: 3289: 3282: 3277: 3270: 3265: 3258: 3253: 3246: 3242: 3237: 3231:, p. 38. 3230: 3225: 3218: 3214: 3209: 3202: 3197: 3190: 3185: 3178: 3173: 3166: 3162: 3157: 3150: 3146: 3141: 3135:, p. 63. 3134: 3129: 3122: 3118: 3113: 3106: 3102: 3097: 3090: 3086: 3081: 3074: 3069: 3062: 3057: 3050: 3045: 3043: 3035: 3031: 3026: 3019: 3014: 3007: 3002: 2995: 2990: 2983: 2978: 2971: 2967: 2962: 2955: 2950: 2943: 2939: 2934: 2927: 2922: 2915: 2910: 2904:, p. 27. 2903: 2899: 2894: 2888:, p. 97. 2887: 2882: 2875: 2870: 2863: 2858: 2852:, p. 93. 2851: 2846: 2840:, p. 28. 2839: 2834: 2828:, p. 90. 2827: 2822: 2815: 2810: 2804:, p. 87. 2803: 2798: 2792:, p. 89. 2791: 2786: 2779: 2775: 2770: 2764:, p. 86. 2763: 2758: 2752:, p. 23. 2751: 2747: 2742: 2736:, p. 73. 2735: 2731: 2726: 2719: 2714: 2707: 2703: 2698: 2691: 2686: 2684: 2682: 2680: 2672: 2667: 2660: 2655: 2648: 2643: 2636: 2635:Vamvacas 2009 2631: 2625:, p. 38. 2624: 2620: 2615: 2609:, p. 27. 2608: 2607:Vamvacas 2009 2603: 2596: 2591: 2585:, p. 27. 2584: 2583:Vamvacas 2009 2580: 2575: 2568: 2567:Vamvacas 2009 2563: 2557:, p. 13. 2556: 2551: 2544: 2539: 2532: 2527: 2520: 2516: 2511: 2505:, p. 55. 2504: 2500: 2495: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2475: 2469:, p. 16. 2468: 2463: 2456: 2451: 2445:, p. 53. 2444: 2440: 2435: 2428: 2423: 2416: 2411: 2405:, p. 53. 2404: 2400: 2396: 2391: 2384: 2379: 2372: 2367: 2360: 2355: 2348: 2345:, p. 3; 2344: 2339: 2333:, p. 35. 2332: 2327: 2320: 2317:, p. 3; 2316: 2311: 2305:, pp. 3. 2304: 2299: 2293:, p. ix. 2292: 2287: 2280: 2275: 2268: 2264: 2261:, p. 6; 2260: 2255: 2248: 2243: 2237:, p. 28. 2236: 2232: 2227: 2220: 2215: 2208: 2203: 2196: 2192: 2187: 2180: 2175: 2168: 2163: 2156: 2151: 2149: 2144: 2137: 2135: 2134: 2129: 2125: 2124:phenomenology 2121: 2117: 2115: 2111: 2106: 2102: 2100: 2096: 2095:Francis Bacon 2086: 2084: 2078: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2063: 2057: 2055: 2054:ta anthropina 2051: 2050: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2020: 2006: 2004: 2000: 1994: 1992: 1981: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1958: 1950: 1948: 1937: 1935: 1934: 1929: 1924: 1921: 1920: 1914: 1905: 1901: 1899: 1884: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1845: 1841: 1838: 1833: 1831: 1827: 1822: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1786: 1783: 1777: 1767: 1765: 1761: 1760:eliminativist 1757: 1752: 1750: 1744: 1742: 1738: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1717: 1707: 1705: 1701: 1700:Purifications 1695: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1661: 1656: 1652: 1647: 1643: 1638: 1636: 1632: 1631: 1626: 1625: 1618: 1616: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1593: 1589: 1588:Salvator Rosa 1585: 1581: 1572: 1570: 1564: 1562: 1557: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1507: 1502: 1498: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1462: 1452: 1450: 1444: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1425: 1423: 1422:reincarnation 1419: 1413: 1409: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1389: 1385: 1380: 1374: 1364: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1341: 1335: 1333: 1328: 1326: 1322: 1321:ta panta rhei 1318: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1295: 1285: 1283: 1278: 1274: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1231: 1226: 1216: 1214: 1210: 1203: 1193: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1182: 1174: 1172: 1168: 1161: 1142: 1132: 1130: 1124: 1121: 1116: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1048: 1043: 1033: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 998: 994: 989: 980: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 950: 945: 943: 939: 934: 931: 929: 925: 921: 917: 914:According to 912: 908: 906: 901: 899: 895: 894: 889: 885: 874: 872: 869: 868: 864: 862: 859: 858: 854: 852: 849: 848: 844: 842: 839: 838: 834: 832: 829: 828: 824: 822: 819: 818: 814: 812: 809: 808: 804: 802: 799: 798: 794: 792: 789: 788: 784: 782: 779: 778: 774: 772: 769: 768: 764: 762: 759: 758: 754: 752: 749: 748: 744: 742: 739: 738: 734: 732: 729: 728: 724: 722: 719: 718: 714: 712: 709: 708: 704: 702: 699: 698: 694: 692: 689: 688: 684: 682: 679: 678: 674: 672: 669: 668: 664: 662:Philosophers 661: 660: 655: 652:according to 642: 640: 636: 632: 631: 624: 621: 617: 613: 608: 606: 601: 597: 593: 589: 584: 582: 578: 577:Magna Graecia 574: 568: 562: 558: 553: 551: 547: 543: 542:Classical Era 539: 535: 527: 523: 519: 511: 506: 497: 495: 494: 489: 485: 484: 478: 476: 472: 468: 464: 460: 456: 452: 447: 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 387: 385: 379: 377: 371: 369: 365: 364: 358: 356: 352: 348: 347: 342: 338: 335:(physical or 334: 333: 328: 324: 323: 318: 314: 310: 309:J.A. Eberhard 306: 297: 295: 291: 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 219: 215: 211: 209: 208:ta panta rhei 204: 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 183: 178: 174: 173: 168: 164: 160: 156: 151: 149: 148: 143: 139: 135: 131: 127: 123: 119: 118:human society 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 85: 69: 53: 37: 33: 19: 9071: 9057: 8728: 8719:Postcritique 8709:Kyoto School 8668:Posthumanism 8648:Hermeneutics 8503: / 8444:Contemporary 8420:Newtonianism 8383:Cartesianism 8342:Reductionism 8178:Conservatism 8173:Collectivism 8111: 7839:Sarvāstivadā 7817:Anekantavada 7742:Neoplatonism 7710:Epicureanism 7643:Pythagoreans 7632: 7582:Confucianism 7548:Contemporary 7538:Early modern 7442:Anti-realism 7396:Universalism 7353:Subjectivism 7149:Epistemology 6974:Philostratus 6861:Neoplatonist 6515:Theophrastus 6189:Dionysodorus 6146:Thrasymachus 5772:Pre-Socratic 5771: 5626:Online books 5616: 5587: 5575: 5568: 5557: 5550: 5532: 5513: 5502: 5491: 5481: 5470: 5459: 5448: 5422: 5401: 5378:Presocratics 5377: 5356: 5331: 5306: 5274: 5250: 5229: 5208: 5187: 5166: 5145: 5121: 5093: 5065: 5015: 5011: 4987: 4966: 4942: 4921: 4896: 4892:Raven, J. E. 4868: 4847: 4826: 4815: 4794: 4773: 4748: 4733: 4705: 4680: 4655: 4626: 4607: 4601: 4589: 4570: 4564: 4559:, p. 7. 4552: 4536: 4524: 4512: 4500: 4488: 4476: 4464: 4452: 4440: 4428: 4416: 4404: 4388: 4376: 4364: 4348: 4336: 4324: 4312: 4300: 4288: 4276: 4264: 4252: 4240: 4228: 4197: 4181: 4169: 4157: 4145: 4133: 4121: 4109: 4097: 4085: 4069: 4053: 4041: 4029: 4017: 4005: 3993: 3981: 3969: 3957: 3945: 3933: 3921: 3909: 3882: 3870: 3858: 3846: 3834: 3822: 3810: 3798: 3786: 3774: 3762: 3750: 3738: 3726: 3714: 3702: 3690: 3678: 3666: 3654: 3642: 3626: 3610: 3598: 3586: 3559: 3547: 3535: 3523: 3511: 3499: 3483: 3471: 3459: 3447: 3435: 3423: 3411: 3399: 3383: 3371: 3359: 3343: 3331: 3304: 3288: 3281:Huffman 2008 3276: 3264: 3252: 3236: 3224: 3208: 3196: 3184: 3172: 3156: 3140: 3128: 3112: 3096: 3080: 3068: 3056: 3025: 3013: 3001: 2989: 2977: 2961: 2949: 2933: 2921: 2909: 2893: 2881: 2869: 2857: 2845: 2833: 2821: 2809: 2797: 2785: 2769: 2757: 2741: 2725: 2720:, p. 9. 2713: 2708:, p. 3. 2697: 2692:, p. 3. 2666: 2654: 2642: 2630: 2614: 2602: 2590: 2574: 2562: 2555:Osborne 2004 2550: 2538: 2526: 2510: 2494: 2474: 2462: 2450: 2434: 2422: 2415:Burkert 2008 2410: 2390: 2378: 2366: 2354: 2347:Burkert 2008 2338: 2326: 2310: 2298: 2286: 2274: 2254: 2246: 2242: 2226: 2214: 2202: 2186: 2174: 2162: 2157:, p. 1. 2131: 2127: 2118: 2103: 2092: 2082: 2079: 2070: 2066: 2060: 2058: 2053: 2047: 2043: 2031: 2021: 2017: 2002: 1995: 1987: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1959: 1956: 1943: 1931: 1925: 1917: 1915: 1911: 1902: 1897: 1895: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1851: 1842: 1836: 1834: 1825: 1823: 1803:Thrasymachus 1787: 1779: 1753: 1745: 1734: 1724: 1699: 1696: 1691: 1688:Peri Physeos 1687: 1678:was born in 1674: 1668: 1664: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1645: 1641: 1639: 1634: 1628: 1622: 1619: 1600: 1597: 1583: 1568: 1565: 1558: 1553: 1546:Way of Truth 1545: 1542:Way of Truth 1541: 1537: 1533: 1530:Way of Truth 1529: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1511: 1475:Zeno of Elea 1464: 1445: 1426: 1414: 1410: 1392: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1338: 1336: 1329: 1320: 1316: 1307: 1303: 1297: 1279: 1275: 1259:epistemology 1248: 1243:reductionism 1208: 1205: 1179: 1176: 1170: 1164: 1147: 1125: 1117: 1103:bisects the 1064: 1057: 1029: 1007: 993:philosophers 969:Epicureanism 946: 935: 932: 927: 923: 919: 913: 909: 904: 902: 897: 891: 880: 628: 625: 609: 604: 599: 587: 585: 569: 554: 515: 491: 487: 481: 479: 474: 470: 462: 458: 448: 443: 440:Theophrastus 435: 431: 428:Peri Physeos 427: 393: 383: 380: 375: 372: 361: 359: 350: 344: 330: 320: 316: 312: 305:Pre-Socratic 304: 303: 234:Zeno of Elea 206: 203:impermanence 180: 170: 152: 145: 137: 97: 93: 92: 36: 18:Pre-Socratic 8714:Objectivism 8653:Neo-Marxism 8615:Continental 8525:Meta-ethics 8505:Coherentism 8410:Hegelianism 8347:Rationalism 8307:Natural law 8287:Materialism 8213:Historicism 8183:Determinism 8074:Navya-Nyāya 7849:Sautrāntika 7844:Pudgalavada 7780:Vaisheshika 7633:Presocratic 7533:Renaissance 7472:Physicalism 7457:Materialism 7363:Normativity 7348:Objectivism 7333:Emergentism 7323:Behaviorism 7272:Metaphysics 7238:Determinism 7177:Rationalism 6576:Aenesidemus 6549:Hellenistic 6497:Peripatetic 6415:Clinomachus 6253:Antisthenes 5867:Pythagorean 5818:Heraclitean 5803:Anaximander 5720:Seven Sages 4469:Palmer 2008 4445:Palmer 2008 4397:Palmer 2008 4381:Palmer 2008 4357:Palmer 2008 4341:Palmer 2008 4329:Barnes 1987 4202:Barnes 1987 4186:Barnes 1987 4174:Wright 2008 4162:Wright 2008 4150:Wright 2008 4138:Wright 2008 4126:Wright 2008 4114:Wright 2008 4102:Wright 2008 4090:Wright 2008 3962:Sedley 2013 3926:Warren 2014 3914:Lesher 2008 3902:Lesher 2008 3887:Lesher 2008 3875:Warren 2014 3863:Warren 2014 3851:Warren 2014 3841:, Antiphon. 3839:Graham 2021 3827:Graham 2021 3815:Graham 2021 3791:Graham 2021 3755:Warren 2014 3743:Warren 2014 3731:Warren 2014 3719:Warren 2014 3707:Warren 2014 3695:Warren 2014 3683:Warren 2014 3647:Warren 2014 3631:Warren 2014 3619:Warren 2014 3603:Warren 2014 3591:Warren 2014 3552:Warren 2014 3540:Warren 2014 3528:Warren 2014 3492:Warren 2014 3488:Barnes 1987 3476:Warren 2014 3464:Warren 2014 3416:Warren 2014 3404:Warren 2014 3388:Warren 2014 3376:Warren 2014 3364:Warren 2014 3352:Barnes 1987 3348:Warren 2014 3309:Barnes 1987 3293:Barnes 1987 3229:Warren 2014 3161:Warren 2014 3145:Barnes 1987 3133:Warren 2014 3117:Warren 2014 3089:Graham 2008 3073:Graham 2008 3061:Warren 2014 3049:Graham 2008 3018:Warren 2014 2994:Warren 2014 2966:Warren 2014 2942:Warren 2014 2938:Barnes 1987 2902:Warren 2014 2838:Warren 2014 2750:Warren 2014 2746:Barnes 1987 2718:Barnes 1987 2706:Warren 2014 2702:Barnes 1987 2690:Warren 2014 2671:Barnes 1987 2659:Barnes 1987 2647:Barnes 1987 2619:Warren 2014 2579:Barnes 1987 2519:Barnes 1987 2503:Barnes 1987 2483:Barnes 1987 2467:Barnes 1987 2439:Barnes 1987 2427:Barnes 1987 2399:Barnes 1987 2383:Warren 2014 2371:Warren 2014 2315:Warren 2014 2279:Barnes 1987 2267:Warren 2014 2263:Barnes 1987 2207:Warren 2014 2195:Warren 2014 2191:Barnes 1987 2075:final cause 2062:Metaphysics 2032:physiologoi 1999:Karl Popper 1947:Hippocrates 1782:educational 1756:determinism 1418:aristocracy 1312:materialist 1167:Anaximander 1141:Anaximander 1135:Anaximander 1022:Anaximander 957:Cyrenaicism 681:Anaximander 561:Mesopotamia 488:doxographus 332:physiologoi 300:Terminology 290:rationalism 272:exist. The 163:Anaximander 130:natural law 9013:Amerindian 8920:Australian 8859:Vietnamese 8839:Indonesian 8388:Kantianism 8337:Positivism 8327:Pragmatism 8302:Naturalism 8282:Liberalism 8260:Subjective 8198:Empiricism 8102:Avicennism 8047:Bhedabheda 7931:East Asian 7854:Madhyamaka 7834:Abhidharma 7700:Pyrrhonism 7467:Nominalism 7462:Naturalism 7391:Skepticism 7381:Relativism 7371:Absolutism 7300:Naturalism 7210:Deontology 7182:Skepticism 7167:Naturalism 7157:Empiricism 7121:Aesthetics 7025:Philosophy 6931:Simplicius 6896:Iamblichus 6841:Nicomachus 6730:Arcesilaus 6697:Philodemus 6687:Metrodorus 6629:Posidonius 6619:Chrysippus 6558:Pyrrhonist 6482:Xenocrates 6477:Speusippus 6450:Panthoides 6291:Aristippus 6194:Euthydemus 6131:Protagoras 6104:Democritus 6067:Empedocles 6040:Anaxagoras 5991:Parmenides 5968:Xenophanes 5925:Hermotimus 5875:Pythagoras 5826:Heraclitus 5808:Anaximenes 5710:Pherecydes 5705:Epimenides 5655:PhilPapers 5580:De Gruyter 5302:Taub, Liba 4421:Frede 2008 4409:Frede 2008 4393:Frede 2008 3829:, Gorgias. 2395:Evans 2019 2331:Runia 2008 2259:Irwin 1999 2235:Runia 2008 2140:References 2089:Modern era 2022:Socrates, 1970:panta rhei 1898:mythologoi 1881:perainonta 1837:On Nature, 1830:relativism 1791:Protagoras 1764:relativist 1725:Democritus 1676:Empedocles 1624:panspermia 1602:Anaxagoras 1518:On What-is 1491:Parmenides 1483:Xenophanes 1471:Parmenides 1441:Echphantus 1406:Metapontum 1394:Pythagoras 1388:Pythagoras 1377:See also: 1373:Pythagoras 1294:Heraclitus 1288:Heraclitus 1282:Xenophanes 1239:naturalism 1225:Xenophanes 1219:Xenophanes 1196:Anaximenes 1127:theory of 1026:Anaximenes 965:Pyrrhonism 928:economical 924:systematic 831:Democritus 791:Protagoras 771:Empedocles 761:Anaxagoras 731:Parmenides 721:Heraclitus 711:Xenophanes 701:Pythagoras 691:Anaximenes 639:Pherecydes 483:doxography 471:testimonia 457:published 436:testimonia 416:Simplicius 351:mythologoi 286:naturalism 284:, such as 258:Democritus 248:offered a 246:Empedocles 242:Anaxagoras 230:Parmenides 216:to be the 195:Pythagoras 191:Heraclitus 187:Xenophanes 167:Anaximenes 142:autonomous 138:testimonia 84:Heraclitus 68:Parmenides 52:Pythagoras 8892:Pakistani 8854:Taiwanese 8801:Ethiopian 8774:By region 8760:By region 8575:Scientism 8570:Systemics 8430:Spinozism 8357:Socialism 8292:Modernism 8255:Objective 8163:Anarchism 8097:Averroism 7986:Christian 7938:Neotaoism 7909:Zurvanism 7899:Mithraism 7894:Mazdakism 7665:Cyrenaics 7592:Logicians 7225:Free will 7187:Solipsism 7134:Formalism 6964:Favorinus 6926:Damascius 6768:Antiochus 6735:Carneades 6702:Lucretius 6674:Epicurean 6649:Epictetus 6624:Panaetius 6614:Cleanthes 6505:Aristotle 6430:Dionysius 6425:Euphantus 6377:Eubulides 6339:Menedemus 6311:Anniceris 6217:Classical 6184:Lycophron 6179:Callicles 6099:Leucippus 6077:Pausanias 6045:Archelaus 6024:Pluralist 5920:Calliphon 5905:Brontinus 5885:Philolaus 5753:Cleobulus 5748:Periander 5505:New York: 5071:Routledge 5040:0073-2753 4594:Curd 2008 4481:Curd 2008 4457:Curd 2008 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