593:
205:
638:
Accelerated motion on nearby normal faults, which indicates extension in the Basin and Range province, migrates east coincidentally with migration of the silicic volcanism. This is corroborated by measurements of recent deformation from GPS surveying, which finds the most intense zones of extension in the Basin and Range province in the far east and far west and little extension in the central 500 km. The
Yellowstone-Eastern Snake River Plain zone, therefore, likely reflects a locus of extension that has migrated from west to east. This is further supported by analogous extension-driven silicic magmatism elsewhere in the Western United States, for example in the
703:
indicating that the availability of melt increases with the thickness of the lithosphere. This suggests that decompression melting may contribute, as this, too, is expected to increase with lithospheric thickness. The significant increase in magmatism during the last 2 million years indicates a major increase in melt availability, implying that either a larger reservoir of pre-existing melt or an exceptionally fusible source region has become available. Petrological and geochemical evidence suggests that this source may be old metamorphosed oceanic crust in the asthenosphere, highly fusible material which would produce far greater magma volumes than mantle rocks.
185:, to pursue other explanations for volcanic activity not easily accounted for by plate tectonics. Rather than introducing another extraneous theory, these explanations essentially expand the scope of plate tectonics in ways that can accommodate volcanic activity previously thought to be outside its remit. The key modification to the basic plate-tectonic model here is a relaxation of the assumption that plates are rigid. This implies that lithospheric extension occurs not only at spreading plate boundaries but throughout plate interiors, a phenomenon that is well supported both theoretically and empirically.
503:
461:
magmatism. The same process can also produce small-volume magmatism on or near slowly extending continental rifts. Beneath continents, the lithosphere is up to 200 km thick. If lithosphere this thick undergoes severe and persistent extension, it can rupture, and the asthenosphere can upwell to the surface, producing tens of millions of cubic kilometres of melt along axes hundreds of kilometres long. This occurred, for example, during the opening of the North
Atlantic Ocean when the asthenosphere rose from base of the
572:
Iceland is the result of persistent extension of continental crust which was structurally resistant to continued propagation of the new oceanic ridges. As a result, continental extension continued for an exceptionally long period and has not yet given way to true ocean spreading. Melt production is similar to the adjacent mid-ocean ridges which produces oceanic crust around 10 km thick, though under
Iceland, rather than forming oceanic crust, melt is emplaced into and on top of stretched continental crust.
699:
Extension originated at a spreading ridge around 80 Ma. The plate's stress field evolved over the next 30 million years, causing the region of extension and consequent volcanism to migrate south-southeast. Around 50 Ma, the stress field stabilised and the region of extension became almost stationary. At the same time, the north-westerly motion of the
Pacific Plate increased, and over the next 50 million years, the Hawaiian chain formed as the plate moved across a near-stationary region of extension.
20:
671:, so age variations in the lithosphere are difficult to determine with accuracy. Reconstructing the tectonic history of the Pacific Ocean more generally is problematic because earlier plates and plate boundaries, including the spreading ridge where the Emperor chain began, have been subducted. Because of these issues, geoscientists have yet to produce a fully developed theory of the system's origins which can be positively tested.
609:. The belt, however, is covered with basaltic lavas that display no time progression. Being located on a continental interior, it has been studied extensively, though research has consisted largely of seismology and geochemistry aimed at locating sources deep in the mantle. These methods are not suitable for developing a plate theory, which holds that volcanism is associated with processes at shallow depths.
650:
extension can be found in northwest-oriented dike-fed rift zones responsible for basalt flows. Analogy with similar volcanic activity in
Iceland and on mid-ocean ridges indicates that periods of extension are brief and thus that basaltic volcanism along the Yellowstone-Eastern Snake River Plain zone occurs in short bursts of activity in between long inactive periods.
506:
Regional map of the North East
Atlantic. Bathymetry shown in colour; land topography in grey. RR: Reykjanes Ridge; KR: Kolbeinsey Ridge; JMMC: Jan Mayen Microcontinent; AR: Aegir Ridge; FI: Faroe Islands. Red lines: boundaries of the Caledonian orogen and associated thrusts, dashed where extrapolated
682:
The increasing volume of melt. Over the last 50 million years, the rate of melt production has increased from a mere 0.001 km per year to 0.25 km per year, a factor of around 250. The current rate of magmatism responsible for the formation of the Big Island has been in operation for only 2
658:
The Hawaii-Emperor volcanic system is notoriously difficult to study. It is thousands of kilometres from any major continental landmass and surrounded by deep ocean, very little of it is above sea level, and it is covered in thick basalt which obscures its deeper structure. It is situated within the
294:
Continental breakup begins with rifting. When extension is persistent and entirely compensated by magma from asthenospheric upwelling, oceanic crust is formed, and the rift becomes a spreading plate boundary. If extension is isolated and ephemeral it is classified as intraplate. Rifting can occur in
173:
data used to provide additional constraints on source temperatures are highly ambiguous. In addition to this, several predictions of the plume theory have proved unsuccessful at many locations purported to be underlain by mantle plumes, and there are also significant theoretical reasons to doubt the
637:
The volcanoes’ silicic composition indicates a lower crustal source. If volcanism resulted from lithospheric extension, then extension along the
Yellowstone-Eastern Snake River Plain zone must have migrated from west to east during the last 17 million years. There is evidence that this is the case.
571:
Properties of the crust beneath the
Greenland-Iceland-Faroe Ridge. Here the crust is mostly 30–40 km thick. Its combination of low seismic wave speed and high density defy classification as thick oceanic crust and indicate instead that it is magma-inflated continental crust. This suggests that
436:
The rate of magma formation from decompression of the asthenosphere depends on how high the asthenosphere can rise, which in turn depends on the thickness of the lithosphere. From numerical modelling it is evident that the formation of melt in the largest flood basalts cannot be concurrent with its
156:
theory, became the dominant explanation for apparent volcanic anomalies for the remainder of the 20th century. Testing the hypothesis, however, is beset with difficulties. A central tenet of the plume theory is that the source of melt is significantly hotter than the surrounding mantle, so the most
420:
There is abundant pre-existing melt throughout both the crust and the mantle. In the crust, melt is stored under active volcanoes in shallow reservoirs which are fed by deeper ones. In the asthenosphere, a small amount of partial melt is thought to provide a weak layer that acts as lubrication for
416:
The volume of magma that is intruded and/or erupted in a given area of lithospheric extension depends on two variables: (1) the availability of pre-existing melt in the crust and mantle; and (2) the amount of additional melt supplied by decompression upwelling. The latter depends on three factors:
596:
Geological map of northwest USA showing Basin and Range faults and basalts and rhyolites <17 Ma. Blue lines represent approximate age contours of silicic volcanic centres across the
Eastern Snake River Plain and a contemporaneous trend of oppositely propagating silicic volcanism across central
535:
began to break up. To the north of
Iceland's present location, the breakup axis propagated south along the Caledonian Suture. To the south, the breakup axis propagated north. The two axes were separated by around 100 km from east to west and 300 km from north to south. When the two axes
702:
The increasing rate of volcanic activity in the Hawaiian-Emperor system reflects the availability of melt in the crust and mantle. The oldest volcanoes in the Emperor chain formed on young, and therefore thin, oceanic lithosphere. The size of the seamounts increases with the age of the seafloor,
689:
Continuity of the Hawaiian chain with the Emperor chain via a 60° “bend”. The latter formed over a 30-million-year period during which the volcanic centre migrated south-southeast. Migration ceased at the beginning of the Hawaiian chain. The 60° bend cannot be accounted for by a change in plate
460:
If extension is severe and results in significant thinning of the lithosphere, the asthenosphere can rise to shallow depths, inducing decompression melting and producing larger volumes of melt. At mid-ocean ridges, where the lithosphere is thin, decompression upwelling produces a modest rate of
698:
indicates that the volcanoes are local thermal features. According to the plate theory, the Hawaiian-Emperor system formed at a region of extension in the Pacific Plate. Extension in the plate is a consequence of deformation at plate boundaries, thermal contraction, and isostatic adjustment.
649:
That persistent basaltic volcanism results from simultaneous extension along the entire length of the Yellowstone-Eastern Snake River Plain zone is evident in GPS measurements recorded between 1987 and 2003, which record extension to both the north and south of the zone. Evidence of historic
711:
Representatives of this theory see as the major virtue of the plate theory is that it extends plate tectonics into a unifying account of the Earth's volcanism which dispenses with the need to invoke extraneous hypotheses designed to accommodate instances of volcanic activity which appear
52:. The global distribution of volcanic activity at a given time reflects the contemporaneous lithospheric stress field, and changes in the spatial and temporal distribution of volcanoes reflect changes in the stress field. The main factors governing the evolution of the stress field are:
1305:
Foulger, G.R.; Doré, T.; Emeleus, C.H.; Franke, D.; Geoffroy, L.; Gernigon, L.; Hey, R.; Holdsworth, R.E.; Hole, M.; Höskuldsson, A.; Julian, B.; Kusznir, N.; Martinez, F.; McCaffrey, K.J.W.; Natland, J.H.; Peace, A.L.; Petersen, K.; Schiffer, C.; Stephenson, R.; Stoker, M. (2020).
678:
Hawaii's position in almost the exact geometric centre of the Pacific Plate, that is, at the middle point of a line dividing the western Pacific which is surrounded mainly by subduction zones and the eastern Pacific which is surrounded mainly by spreading
629:
that broadened the crust by several kilometres. The Basin and Range province then formed via normal faulting, producing scattered volcanism with especially abundant eruptions in three east–west zones: the Yellowstone-Eastern Snake River Plain,
511:
Iceland is a 1 km high, 450x300 km basaltic shield on the mid-ocean ridge in the northeast Atlantic Ocean. It comprises over 100 active or extinct volcanoes and has been extensively studied by Earth scientists for several decades.
98:
Developed during the late 1960s and 1970s, plate tectonics provided an elegant explanation for most of the Earth's volcanic activity. At spreading boundaries where plates move apart, the asthenosphere decompresses and melts to form new
212:
Global-scale lithospheric extension is a necessary consequence of the non-closure of plate motion circuits and is equivalent to an additional slow-spreading boundary. Extension results principally from the following three processes.
612:
As with Iceland, volcanism in the Yellowstone-Eastern Snake River Plain region must be understood in its broader tectonic context. The tectonic history of the western United States is heavily influenced by the subduction of the
473:
The vast majority of volcanic provinces which are thought to be anomalous in the context of rigid plate tectonics have now been explained using the plate theory. The type examples of this kind of volcanic activity are
634:, and St. George volcanic zones. Compared with the others, the Yellowstone-Eastern Snake River Plain zone is considered unusual because of its time-progressive silicic volcano chain and striking geothermal features.
23:
Schematic of the plate theory. Mid-blue: lithosphere; light-blue/green: inhomogeneous upper mantle; yellow: lower mantle; orange/red: core-mantle boundary. Lithospheric extension enables pre-existing melt (red) to
145:. Because of the perceived fixity of some volcanic sources relative to the plates, he proposed that this thermal boundary was deeper than the convecting upper mantle on which the plates ride and located it at the
310:. The latter was possibly caused by rollback of the Alpine slab, which generated extension throughout Europe. More severe rifting occurred along the Caledonian Suture, a zone of pre-existing weakness where the
321:
Some intracontinental rifts are essentially failed continental breakup axes, and some of these form triple junctions with plate boundaries. The East African Rift, for example, forms a triple junction with the
563:
around 400 km to the west. In the Reykjanes Ridge to the south, after around 16 million years of spreading perpendicular to the ridge strike, the direction of extension changed, and the ridge became a
2022:
Raymond, C.A.; Stock, J.M.; Cande, S.C. (2000). "Fast Paleogene motion of the Pacific hotspots from revised global plate circuit constraints". In Richards, M.A.; Gordon, R.G.; van der Hilst, R.D. (eds.).
551:
Persistence of a subaerial land-bridge from Greenland to the Faroe Islands which was broken up when the northeast Atlantic was around 1,000 km wide, older parts of which now form a shallow submarine
149:, 3,000 km beneath the surface. He suggested that narrow convection currents rise from fixed points at this thermal boundary and form conduits which transport abnormally hot material to the surface.
457:. There, thick lithosphere remained intact during large-volume magmatism, so decompression upwelling on the scale required can be ruled out, implying that large volumes of magma must have pre-existed.
878:
Anderson, D.L.; Natland, J.H. (2005). "A brief history of the plume hypothesis and its competitors: Concept and controversy". In Foulger, G.R.; Natland, J.H.; Presnall, D.C.; Anderson, D.L. (eds.).
1868:
621:
beginning around 17 Ma. A change in the plate boundary from subduction to shear induced extension across the western United States. This brought about widespread volcanism, commencing with the
1777:
Foulger, G.R.; Christiansen, R.L.; Anderson, D.L. (2015). "The Yellowstone "hot spot" track results from migrating basin-range extension". In Foulger, G.R.; Lustrino, M.; King, S.D. (eds.).
601:
Yellowstone and the Eastern Snake River Plain to the west comprise a belt of large, silicic caldera volcanoes that get progressively younger to the east, culminating in the currently active
1596:
1413:
544:
lavas were emplaced in and on the stretched continental crust. This style of extension persists across parallel rift zones which frequently become extinct and are replaced with new ones.
1135:
119:
extensions. Several volcanic provinces, however, do not fit this simple picture and have traditionally been considered exceptional cases which require a non-plate-tectonic explanation.
441:– and released by lithospheric extension. That large volumes of magma are stored at the base of the lithosphere is evinced in observations of large magmatic provinces such as the
330:, both of which have progressed to the seafloor spreading stage. Likewise, the Mid-American Rift constitutes two arms of a triple junction along with a third which separated the
848:
2181:
Norton, I.O. (2007). "Speculations on Cretaceous tectonic history of the northwest Pacific and a tectonic origin for the Hawaii hotspot". In Foulger, G.R.; Jurdy, D.M. (eds.).
1989:
Kuntz, M.A.; Covington, H.R.; Schorr, L.J. (1992). "An overview of basaltic volcanism of the Eastern Snake River Plain, Idaho". In Link, P.K.; Kuntz, M.A.; Piatt, L.B. (eds.).
188:
Over the last two decades, the plate theory has developed into a cohesive research programme, attracting many adherents, and occupying researchers in several subdisciplines of
1355:
Hirano, Naoto; Takahashi, Eiichi; Yamamoto, Junji; Abe, Natsue; Ingle, S.P.; Kaneoka, I.; Hirata, T.; Kimura, J-I.; Ishii, T.; Ogawa, Y.; Machida, S.; Suyehiro, K. (2006).
2148:
Stuart, W.D.; Foulger, G.R.; Barall, M. (2007). "Propagation of the Hawaiian-Emperor volcano chain by Pacific plate cooling stress". In Foulger, G.R.; Jurdy, D.M. (eds.).
2884:
Vogt, P.R.; Jung, W-Y. (2007). "Origin of the Bermuda volcanoes and Bermuda Rise: History, observations, models, and puzzles". In Foulger, G., G.R.; Jurdy, D.M. (eds.).
141:. In order to account for the long-lived supply of magma that some volcanic regions seemed to require, Morgan modified the hypothesis, shifting the source to a thermal
976:
Foulger, G.R.; Panza, G.F.; Artemieva, I.M.; Bastow, I.E.; Cammarano, F.; Evans, J.R.; Hamilton, W.B.; Julian, B.R.; Lustrino, M.; Thybo, H.; Yanovskaya, T.B. (2013).
2661:
Natland, J.H.; Winterer, E.L. (2005). "Fissure control on volcanic action in the Pacific". In Foulger, G.R.; Natland, J.H.; Presnall, D.C.; Anderson, D.L. (eds.).
421:
the movement of tectonic plates. The presence of pre-existing melt means that magmatism can occur even in areas where lithospheric extension is modest such as the
2058:
Tarduno, J.A.; Duncan, R.A.; Scholl, D.W.; Cottrell, R.D.; Steinberger, B.; Thordarson, T.; Kerr, B.C.; Neal, C.R.; Frey, F.A.; Torii, M.; Carvallo, C. (2003).
911:
Glen, W. (2005). "The origins and early trajectory of the mantle plume quasi-paradigm". In Foulger, G.R.; Natland, J.H.; Presnall, D.C.; Anderson, D.L. (eds.).
217:
Changes in the configuration of plate boundaries. These can result from various processes including the formation or annihilation of plates and boundaries and
2115:
DeLaughter, J.E.; Stein, C.A.; Stein, S. (2005). "Hotspots: A view from the swells". In Foulger, G.R.; Natland, J.H.; Presnall, D.C.; Anderson, D.L. (eds.).
208:
Digital terrain map of the Basin Range province of the Western USA, showing the fabric of the normal-fault-controlled, heavily extended continental crust.
592:
295:
both oceanic and continental crust and ranges from minor to amounts approaching those seen at spreading boundaries. All can give rise to magmatism.
1940:
1023:
Anderson, D.L. (2005). "Scoring hotspots: The plume and plate paradigms". In Foulger, G.R.; Natland, J.H.; Presnall, D.C.; Anderson, D.L. (eds.).
575:
Iceland's unusual petrology and geochemistry, which is around 10% silicic and intermediate, with geochemistry similar to such flood basalts as
2576:
Lustrino, M. (2016). "(More than) fifty shades of plumes". In Calcaterra, D.; Mazzoli, S.; Petti, F.M.; Carmina, B.; Zuccari, A. (eds.).
2579:
Geosciences on a Changing Planet: Learning from the Past, Exploring the Future. 88th National Congress of the Italian Geological Society
686:
Non-movement of the volcanic centre relative to both the geomagnetic pole and geometry of the Pacific Plate for around 50 million years.
2524:
Ivanov, A. (2007). "Evaluation of different models for the origin of the Siberian traps". In Foulger, G., G.R.; Jurdy, D.M. (eds.).
1550:"Insights from North America's failed Midcontinent Rift into the evolution of continental rifts and passive continental margins"
192:. It has also been the focus of several international conferences and many peer-reviewed papers and is the subject of two major
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2678:
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2385:
2366:
2314:
2198:
2165:
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2042:
2006:
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Stein, S.; Stein, C.A.; Elling, R.; Kley, J.; Kellerd, G.R.; Wysession, M.; Rooney, T.; Frederiksen, A.; Mouchah, R. (2018).
1477:
1241:
1213:
1185:
1112:
960:
368:
is the largest tectonic plate on Earth, covering about one third of Earth's surface. It undergoes considerable extension and
318:. As extension became localised, oceanic crust began to form around 54 Ma, with diffuse extension persisting around Iceland.
204:
516:
486:. Iceland is the type example of a volcanic anomaly situated on a plate boundary. Yellowstone, together with the Eastern
438:
345:
Diverse volcanic activity resulting from lithospheric extension has occurred throughout the western United States. The
2357:
Foulger, G.R. (2007). "The 'plate' model for the genesis of melting anomalies". In Foulger, G.R.; Jurdy, D.M. (eds.).
1176:
Foulger, G.R. (2007). "The 'plate' model for the genesis of melting anomalies". In Foulger, G.R.; Jurdy, D.M. (eds.).
2785:"Were the Deccan flood basalts derived in part from ancient oceanic crust within the Indian continental lithosphere?"
1040:
928:
895:
287:), fore-arc regions (e.g., the western Pacific), and continental regions undergoing lithospheric delamination (e.g.,
437:
emplacement. This means that melt is formed over a longer period, stored in reservoirs – most likely located at the
1941:"Intraplate deformation and microplate tectonics of the Yellowstone hot spot and surrounding western U.S. interior"
2929:
536:
developed to full seafloor spreading, the 100x300 km continental region between the two rifts formed the Iceland
491:
2349:
1760:
2325:
1736:
372:
deformation due to thermal contraction of the lithosphere. Shear deformation is greatest in the area between
193:
417:(a) lithospheric thickness; (b) the amount of extension; and (c) fusibility and temperature of the source.
2817:
2784:
2629:
2596:
2552:
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to its west, is the type example of an intra-continental volcanic anomaly. Hawaii, along with the related
622:
1968:
1867:
Monastero, F.C.; Katzenstein, A.M.; Miller, J.S.; Unruh, J.R.; Adams, M.C.; Richards-Dinger, K. (2005).
129:
suggested that chains of volcanic islands form from movement of the seafloor over relatively stationary
2595:
Meibom, A.; Anderson, D.L.; Sleep, N.H.; Frei, R.; Chamberlain, C.P.; Hren, M.T.; Wooden, J.L. (2003).
1686:
1549:
1502:
668:
298:
Various extensional styles are seen in the northeast Atlantic. Continental rifting began in the late
2730:
255:
Extension resulting from these processes manifests in a variety of structures including continental
2924:
450:
358:
268:
177:
The foregoing issues have inspired a growing number of geoscientists, led by American geophysicist
1908:"Transtensional deformation and structural control of contiguous but independent magmatic systems"
82:
to escape to the surface. If extension is severe and thins the lithosphere to the extent that the
2757:
2024:
1778:
108:
864:
502:
2493:"Plate tectonics began in Neoproterozoic time, and plumes from deep mantle have never operated"
225:
218:
2689:
40:
activity on Earth, even that which appears superficially to be anomalous, to the operation of
2415:
Foulger, G.R. (2021). "The plate theory for volcanism". In Alderton, D.; Elias, S.A. (eds.).
1460:
Foulger, G.R. (2021). "The plate theory for volcanism". In Alderton, D.; Elias, S.A. (eds.).
977:
660:
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The instability and decoupling of spreading ridges to the north and south. To the north, the
272:
87:
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1702:
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989:
813:
774:
664:
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537:
241:
146:
2690:"Some basic concepts and problems on the petrogenesis of intra-plate ocean island basalts"
2597:"Are high 3He/4He ratios in oceanic basalts an indicator of deep-mantle plume components?"
8:
2060:"The Emperor seamounts: Southward motion of the Hawaiian hotspot plume in Earth's mantle"
643:
602:
479:
354:
2886:
Plates, plumes, and planetary processes: Geological Society of America Special Paper 430
2866:
2833:
2800:
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Plates, plumes, and planetary processes: Geological Society of America Special Paper 430
2508:
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Plates, plumes, and planetary processes: Geological Society of America Special Paper 430
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Plates, plumes, and planetary processes: Geological Society of America Special Paper 430
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Plates, plumes, and planetary processes: Geological Society of America Special Paper 430
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1956:
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Plates, plumes, and planetary processes: Geological Society of America Special Paper 430
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Plates, plumes, and planetary processes: Geological Society of America Special Paper 430
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which underwent diffuse extension and shear along several north-oriented rift axes, and
2934:
2717:
2479:
2438:
2424:
2293:
2243:
2097:
1820:
Thatcher, W.; Foulger, G.R.; Julian, B.R.; Svarc, J.; Quilty, E.; Bawden, G.W. (1999).
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1005:
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2808:
2620:
2451:
2265:
2215:
247:
Thermal contraction, which sums to the largest amount across large plates such as the
44:. According to the plate theory, the principal cause of volcanism is extension of the
2897:
2674:
2577:
2537:
2471:
2442:
2428:
2381:
2362:
2310:
2285:
2235:
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2128:
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2002:
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1237:
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891:
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which have undergone silicic assimilation of, or contamination by, continental crust.
487:
389:
377:
346:
260:
157:
direct test is to measure the source temperature of magmas. This is difficult as the
130:
2721:
2483:
2297:
2247:
2101:
1822:"Present-day deformation across the Basin and Range Province, Western United States"
1806:
1526:
1332:
1307:
1159:
1089:
2889:
2870:
2837:
2804:
2769:
2742:
2709:
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2649:
2616:
2583:
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2529:
2512:
2463:
2420:
2345:
2277:
2227:
2186:
2153:
2120:
2079:
2030:
1994:
1960:
1919:
1888:
1841:
1784:
1756:
1706:
1665:
1624:
1616:
1569:
1522:
1465:
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576:
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405:
350:
331:
284:
126:
79:
57:
1845:
1718:
694:
The lack of any regional heatflow anomaly detected around the extinct islands and
137:
cells. In the early 1970s, Wilson's idea was revived by the American geophysicist
122:
Just prior to the development of plate tectonics in the early 1960s, the Canadian
2747:
2516:
1131:
732:
565:
475:
430:
393:
385:
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182:
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138:
116:
75:
41:
2587:
1573:
762:
2774:
2653:
2568:
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1710:
1151:
736:
631:
626:
483:
221:(vertical sinking of subducting slabs causing oceanward migration of trenches).
142:
2893:
2851:"Melt generation at volcanic continental margins: No need for a mantle plume?"
2713:
2670:
2663:
Plates, plumes, and paradigms: Geological Society of America Special Paper 388
2533:
2190:
2157:
2124:
2117:
Plates, plumes, and paradigms: Geological Society of America Special Paper 388
1788:
1414:"Instability of a lithospheric step beneath western North Island, New Zealand"
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Plates, plumes, and paradigms: Geological Society of America Special Paper 388
1025:
Plates, plumes, and paradigms: Geological Society of America Special Paper 388
913:
Plates, plumes, and paradigms: Geological Society of America Special Paper 388
887:
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Plates, plumes, and paradigms: Geological Society of America Special Paper 388
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100:
83:
2849:
van Wijk, J.W.; Huismans, R.S.; Ter Voorde, M.; Cloetingh, S.A.P.L. (2001).
2467:
2281:
2231:
2084:
2059:
1381:
1356:
1308:"The Iceland Microcontinent and a continental Greenland-Iceland-Faroe Ridge"
2475:
2289:
2239:
2093:
1853:
1390:
1204:
Foulger, G.R.; Natland, J.H.; Presnall, D.C.; Anderson, D.L., eds. (2005).
1057:
801:
580:
454:
381:
327:
280:
166:
158:
153:
112:
107:
zones, slabs of oceanic crust sink into the mantle, dehydrate, and release
49:
2875:
2850:
1964:
1259:"Dynamics of diffuse oceanic plate boundaries: Insensitivity to rheology"
556:
288:
276:
45:
19:
1998:
2034:
1924:
1907:
515:
Iceland must be understood in the context of the broader structure and
442:
303:
170:
134:
123:
104:
2758:"Oceanic volcanism from the low-velocity zone – without mantle plumes"
1685:
Silver, P.G.; Behn, M.D.; Kelley, K.; Schmitz, M.; Savage, B. (2006).
1670:
1645:
1629:
1001:
1892:
1620:
1437:
1081:
825:
524:
339:
335:
315:
307:
299:
256:
162:
33:
2729:
Peace, A.L.; Foulger, G.R.; Schiffer, C.; McCaffrey, K.J.W. (2017).
2026:
History and dynamics of plate motions: AGU Geophysical Monograph 121
786:
674:
Observations that must be accounted for by any such theory include:
547:
This model explains several distinct characteristics of the region:
2848:
695:
520:
446:
401:
397:
229:
2528:. Vol. 430. Geological Society of America. pp. 669–692.
2185:. Vol. 430. Geological Society of America. pp. 451–470.
2731:"Evolution of Labrador Sea-Baffin Bay: Plate or plume processes?"
2630:"Controls on post-Gondwana alkaline volcanism in Southern Africa"
1780:
The interdisciplinary Earth: A volume in honor of Don L. Anderson
606:
532:
528:
462:
323:
264:
237:
233:
48:. Extension of the lithosphere is a function of the lithospheric
37:
559:
became extinct around 31-28 Ma and extension transferred to the
361:, with small-scale volcanism distributed throughout the region.
1869:"The Coso geothermal field: A nascent metamorphic core complex"
1866:
1597:"Pacific plate deformation from horizontal thermal contraction"
541:
1646:"Genesis of flood basalts from eclogite-bearing mantle plumes"
1203:
2728:
2419:(second ed.). Academic Press, Oxford. pp. 879–890.
1464:(second ed.). Academic Press, Oxford. pp. 879–890.
373:
302:
and was followed by catastrophic destabilisation in the late
71:
494:, is the type example of an intra-oceanic volcanic anomaly.
2350:
10.1130/0016-7606(2002)114<1245:UMOOTY>2.0.CO;2
2057:
1776:
1761:
10.1130/0016-7606(2002)114<1245:UMOOTY>2.0.CO;2
1136:"Large igneous provinces, delamination, and fertile mantle"
975:
2452:"Is "hotspot" volcanism a consequence of plate tectonics?"
2216:"Is "hotspot" volcanism a consequence of plate tectonics?"
1819:
1354:
161:
of magmas is extremely complex, rendering inferences from
2627:
2323:
1734:
1411:
1304:
2594:
2553:"Why did not the Ontong Java Plateau form subaerially?"
2324:
Christiansen, R.L.; Foulger, G.R.; Evans, J.R. (2002).
1735:
Christiansen, R.L.; Foulger, G.R.; Evans, J.R. (2002).
1684:
1412:
Stern, T.; Houseman, G.; Salmon, M.; Evans, L. (2013).
267:), continental back-arc extensional regions (e.g., the
380:, an area replete with volcanic provinces such as the
1991:
Regional Geology of Eastern Idaho and Western Wyoming
1643:
111:
which lower the melting temperature and give rise to
2361:. The Geological Society of America. pp. 1–28.
2114:
1988:
1644:
Cordery, M.J.; Davies, G.F.; Campbell, I.H. (1997).
1547:
1500:
1180:. The Geological Society of America. pp. 1–28.
2888:. Geological Society of America. pp. 553–592.
2755:
2665:. Geological Society of America. pp. 687–710.
2152:. Geological Society of America. pp. 497–506.
2147:
2119:. Geological Society of America. pp. 257–278.
1993:. Geological Society of America. pp. 227–268.
1905:
1783:. Geological Society of America. pp. 215–238.
1256:
882:. Geological Society of America. pp. 119–145.
2108:
1772:
1770:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1199:
1197:
915:. Geological Society of America. pp. 91–117.
357:. Back-arc extension continues to the east in the
2628:Moore, A.; Blenkinsop, T.; Cotterill, F. (2008).
2021:
1860:
1501:Foulger, G.R.; Schiffer, C.; Peace, A.L. (2020).
1027:. Geological Society of America. pp. 31–54.
849:"Deep mantle convection plumes and plate motions"
706:
2911:
2326:"Upper-mantle origin of the Yellowstone hotspot"
2029:. American Geophysical Union. pp. 359–375.
1813:
1737:"Upper-mantle origin of the Yellowstone hotspot"
1494:
1126:
1124:
2660:
2051:
2015:
1767:
1730:
1728:
1637:
1291:
1227:
1225:
1194:
877:
2449:
2213:
1678:
1455:
1453:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1348:
1257:Zatman, S.; Gordon, R.G.; Mutnuri, K. (2005).
1250:
1171:
1169:
969:
228:of the lower crust and mantle lithosphere and
93:
2141:
1982:
1899:
1594:
1541:
1503:"A new paradigm for the North Atlantic Realm"
1405:
1121:
946:
944:
942:
940:
727:
725:
519:. The northeast Atlantic formed in the early
349:are a back-arc volcanic chain extending from
2582:. Geological Society of Italy. p. 235.
1906:Riley, P.; Tikoff, B.; Hildreth, W. (2012).
1725:
1231:
1222:
1096:
625:which erupted through a 250-km-long zone of
523:when, after an extensive period of rifting,
70:Lithospheric extension enables pre-existing
2378:Plates vs. plumes: A geological controversy
2207:
1938:
1444:
1166:
1016:
953:Plates vs. plumes: A geological controversy
865:10.1306/819A3E50-16C5-11D7-8645000102C1865D
763:"A possible origin of the Hawaiian Islands"
263:), diffuse oceanic plate boundaries (e.g.,
86:rises, then additional melt is produced by
2815:
2174:
1588:
937:
722:
690:direction because no such change occurred.
517:tectonic history of the northeast Atlantic
2874:
2773:
2746:
2309:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2083:
1932:
1923:
1669:
1628:
1380:
1331:
1282:
1232:Foulger, G.R.; Jurdy, D.M., eds. (2007).
1107:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1049:
871:
840:
793:
754:
199:
2883:
2818:"The planet beyond the plume hypothesis"
2575:
2550:
2490:
2304:
2263:
1357:"Volcanism in response to plate flexure"
1130:
1102:
1022:
591:
501:
203:
18:
2414:
2394:
2375:
2356:
1459:
1175:
950:
904:
802:"Convection plumes in the lower mantle"
731:
2912:
2756:Presnall, D.; Gudfinnsson, G. (2011).
2523:
2180:
1687:"Understanding cratonic flood basalts"
1058:"Thermal plumes in the Earth's mantle"
846:
799:
760:
275:), oceanic back-arc basins (e.g., the
2782:
2450:Foulger, G.R.; Natland, J.H. (2003).
2214:Foulger, G.R.; Natland, J.H. (2003).
1236:. The Geological Society of America.
1055:
568:system which later migrated eastward.
16:Model of volcanic activities on Earth
910:
2687:
2634:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2601:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2557:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
1691:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
169:to source temperatures unreliable.
13:
2425:10.1016/B978-0-08-102908-4.00105-3
2258:
1939:Puskas, C.M.; Smith, R.B. (2009).
1595:Kreemer, C.; Gordon, R.G. (2014).
1470:10.1016/B978-0-08-102908-4.00105-3
439:lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary
14:
2946:
1263:Geophysical Journal International
1208:. Geological Society of America.
712:superficially to be exceptional.
1284:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2005.02622.x
224:Vertical motions resulting from
56:Changes in the configuration of
2816:Smith, A.D.; Lewis, C. (1999).
2397:"The plate theory of volcanism"
1945:Journal of Geophysical Research
1650:Journal of Geophysical Research
1527:10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.103038
1333:10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.102926
978:"Caveats on tomographic images"
737:"The plate theory of volcanism"
492:Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain
411:
196:edited volumes and a textbook.
707:Advantages of the plate theory
663:, a relatively long period of
661:Cretaceous Magnetic Quiet Zone
587:
1:
2842:10.1016/S0012-8252(99)00049-5
2809:10.1016/S1342-937X(05)71112-6
2621:10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00038-4
1846:10.1126/science.283.5408.1714
715:
194:Geological Society of America
2855:Geophysical Research Letters
2748:10.12789/geocanj.2017.44.120
2517:10.1016/j.lithos.2010.12.007
507:into younger Atlantic Ocean.
465:lithosphere to the surface.
133:in stable centres of mantle
7:
2588:10.13140/RG.2.2.10244.12165
2380:. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
1574:10.1016/j.tecto.2018.07.021
955:. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
767:Canadian Journal of Physics
623:Columbia River Basalt Group
468:
94:Origins of the plate theory
10:
2951:
2654:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.01.007
2569:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.03.011
1711:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.01.050
1152:10.2113/gselements.1.5.271
497:
2714:10.1007/s11434-009-0668-3
2671:10.1130/0-8137-2388-4.687
2125:10.1130/0-8137-2388-4.257
888:10.1130/0-8137-2388-4.119
653:
181:and British geophysicist
2775:10.1093/petrology/egq093
2694:Chinese Science Bulletin
1033:10.1130/0-8137-2388-4.31
921:10.1130/0-8137-2388-4.91
451:Bushveld Igneous Complex
359:Basin and Range Province
269:Basin and Range Province
2646:2008E&PSL.268..151M
2613:2003E&PSL.208..197M
2491:Hamilton, W.B. (2011).
2468:10.1126/science.1083376
2417:Encyclopedia of geology
2307:New theory of the Earth
2305:Anderson, D.L. (2007).
2282:10.1126/science.1065448
2264:Anderson, D.L. (2001).
2232:10.1126/science.1083376
2085:10.1126/science.1086442
1703:2006E&PSL.245..190S
1462:Encyclopedia of geology
1382:10.1126/science.1128235
1105:New theory of the Earth
1103:Anderson, D.L. (2007).
2930:Structure of the Earth
2395:Foulger, G.R. (2020).
2376:Foulger, G.R. (2010).
951:Foulger, G.R. (2010).
669:Earth's magnetic field
598:
508:
209:
200:Lithospheric extension
25:
2894:10.1130/2007.2430(27)
2822:Earth-Science Reviews
2551:Korenaga, J. (2005).
2534:10.1130/2007.2430(31)
2191:10.1130/2007.2430(22)
2158:10.1130/2007.2430(24)
1789:10.1130/2015.2514(14)
1507:Earth-Science Reviews
1312:Earth-Science Reviews
847:Morgan, W.J. (1972).
800:Morgan, W.J. (1971).
761:Wilson, J.T. (1963).
595:
505:
273:Western United States
232:adjustment following
207:
22:
2876:10.1029/2000GL012848
2783:Sheth, H.C. (2005).
2762:Journal of Petrology
2266:"Top-down tectonics"
1965:10.1029/2008JB005940
1879:(11–12): 1534–1553.
619:North American Plate
147:core-mantle boundary
66:Thermal contraction.
36:that attributes all
2867:2001GeoRL..28.3995V
2834:1999ESRv...48..135S
2801:2005GondR...8..109S
2706:2009ChSBu..54.4148N
2509:2011Litho.123....1H
2342:2002GSAB..114.1245C
2276:(5537): 2016–2018.
2076:2003Sci...301.1064T
2070:(5636): 1064–1069.
1999:10.1130/MEM179-p227
1957:2009JGRB..114.4410P
1885:2005GSAB..117.1534M
1838:1999Sci...283.1714T
1832:(5408): 1714–1718.
1753:2002GSAB..114.1245C
1662:1997JGR...10220179C
1656:(B9): 20179–20197.
1613:2014Geo....42..847K
1566:2018Tectp.744..403S
1519:2020ESRv..20603038F
1430:2013Geo....41..423S
1373:2006Sci...313.1426H
1367:(5792): 1426–1428.
1324:2020ESRv..20602926F
1275:2005GeoJI.162..239Z
1074:1973Natur.244..398T
994:2013TeNov..25..259F
818:1971Natur.230...42M
779:1963CaJPh..41..863W
644:Long Valley Caldera
603:Yellowstone Caldera
398:Tuamotu Archipelago
355:Northern California
242:melting of ice caps
2768:(7–8): 1533–1546.
2035:10.1029/GM121p0359
1925:10.1130/GES00662.1
1056:Tozer, D. (1973).
599:
509:
314:closed around 420
210:
183:Gillian R. Foulger
26:
2903:978-0-8137-2430-0
2861:(20): 3995–3998.
2789:Gondwana Research
2735:Geoscience Canada
2700:(22): 4148–4160.
2680:978-0-8137-2388-4
2543:978-0-8137-2430-0
2462:(5621): 921–922.
2434:978-0-08-102909-1
2387:978-1-4443-3679-5
2368:978-0-8137-2430-0
2336:(10): 1245–1256.
2316:978-1-139-46208-2
2226:(5621): 921–922.
2200:978-0-8137-2430-0
2167:978-0-8137-2430-0
2134:978-0-8137-2388-4
2044:978-1-118-66853-5
2008:978-0-8137-1179-9
1798:978-0-8137-2514-7
1747:(10): 1245–1256.
1671:10.1029/97JB00648
1479:978-0-08-102909-1
1243:978-0-8137-2430-0
1215:978-0-8137-2388-4
1187:978-0-8137-2430-0
1114:978-1-139-46208-2
1068:(5416): 398–400.
1002:10.1111/ter.12041
962:978-1-4443-3679-5
615:East Pacific Rise
488:Snake River Plain
378:Easter Microplate
347:Cascade Volcanoes
261:East African Rift
63:Vertical motions.
2942:
2907:
2880:
2878:
2845:
2812:
2779:
2777:
2752:
2750:
2725:
2688:Niu, Y. (2009).
2684:
2657:
2640:(1–2): 151–164.
2624:
2607:(3–4): 197–204.
2591:
2572:
2563:(3–4): 385–399.
2547:
2520:
2487:
2446:
2411:
2409:
2407:
2401:MantlePlumes.org
2391:
2372:
2353:
2320:
2301:
2252:
2251:
2211:
2205:
2204:
2178:
2172:
2171:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2112:
2106:
2105:
2087:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2019:
2013:
2012:
1986:
1980:
1979:
1977:
1976:
1967:. Archived from
1936:
1930:
1929:
1927:
1903:
1897:
1896:
1893:10.1130/B25600.1
1864:
1858:
1857:
1817:
1811:
1810:
1774:
1765:
1764:
1732:
1723:
1722:
1697:(1–2): 190–210.
1682:
1676:
1675:
1673:
1641:
1635:
1634:
1632:
1621:10.1130/G35874.1
1592:
1586:
1585:
1545:
1539:
1538:
1498:
1492:
1491:
1457:
1442:
1441:
1438:10.1130/G34028.1
1409:
1403:
1402:
1384:
1352:
1346:
1345:
1335:
1302:
1289:
1288:
1286:
1254:
1248:
1247:
1229:
1220:
1219:
1201:
1192:
1191:
1173:
1164:
1163:
1128:
1119:
1118:
1100:
1094:
1093:
1082:10.1038/244398a0
1053:
1047:
1046:
1020:
1014:
1013:
973:
967:
966:
948:
935:
934:
908:
902:
901:
875:
869:
868:
844:
838:
837:
826:10.1038/230042a0
797:
791:
790:
758:
752:
751:
749:
747:
741:MantlePlumes.org
729:
640:Coso Hot Springs
561:Kolbeinsey Ridge
433:volcanic lines.
351:British Columbia
332:Amazonian Craton
285:Papua New Guinea
127:John Tuzo Wilson
58:plate boundaries
2950:
2949:
2945:
2944:
2943:
2941:
2940:
2939:
2925:Plate tectonics
2910:
2909:
2904:
2681:
2544:
2435:
2405:
2403:
2388:
2369:
2317:
2261:
2259:Further reading
2256:
2255:
2212:
2208:
2201:
2179:
2175:
2168:
2146:
2142:
2135:
2113:
2109:
2056:
2052:
2045:
2020:
2016:
2009:
1987:
1983:
1974:
1972:
1937:
1933:
1904:
1900:
1865:
1861:
1818:
1814:
1799:
1775:
1768:
1733:
1726:
1683:
1679:
1642:
1638:
1607:(10): 847–850.
1593:
1589:
1546:
1542:
1499:
1495:
1480:
1458:
1445:
1410:
1406:
1353:
1349:
1303:
1292:
1255:
1251:
1244:
1230:
1223:
1216:
1202:
1195:
1188:
1174:
1167:
1129:
1122:
1115:
1101:
1097:
1054:
1050:
1043:
1021:
1017:
974:
970:
963:
949:
938:
931:
909:
905:
898:
876:
872:
845:
841:
812:(5288): 42–43.
798:
794:
787:10.1139/p63-094
759:
755:
745:
743:
730:
723:
718:
709:
665:normal polarity
656:
646:in California.
590:
527:separated from
500:
471:
414:
406:Pitcairn Island
400:, the Fuca and
394:Society Islands
202:
179:Don L. Anderson
139:W. Jason Morgan
96:
42:plate tectonics
17:
12:
11:
5:
2948:
2938:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2902:
2828:(3): 135–182.
2795:(2): 109–127.
2679:
2542:
2433:
2386:
2367:
2315:
2260:
2257:
2254:
2253:
2206:
2199:
2173:
2166:
2140:
2133:
2107:
2050:
2043:
2014:
2007:
1981:
1951:(B4): B04410.
1931:
1918:(4): 740–751.
1898:
1859:
1812:
1797:
1766:
1724:
1677:
1636:
1587:
1554:Tectonophysics
1540:
1493:
1478:
1443:
1424:(4): 423–426.
1404:
1347:
1290:
1269:(1): 239–248.
1249:
1242:
1221:
1214:
1193:
1186:
1165:
1146:(5): 271–275.
1132:Anderson, D.L.
1120:
1113:
1095:
1048:
1041:
1015:
988:(4): 259–281.
968:
961:
936:
929:
903:
896:
870:
859:(2): 203–213.
839:
792:
773:(6): 863–870.
753:
720:
719:
717:
714:
708:
705:
692:
691:
687:
684:
683:million years.
680:
655:
652:
589:
586:
585:
584:
573:
569:
553:
538:microcontinent
499:
496:
470:
467:
413:
410:
253:
252:
245:
222:
201:
198:
143:boundary layer
95:
92:
68:
67:
64:
61:
32:is a model of
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2947:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2917:
2915:
2908:
2905:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2881:
2877:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2846:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2813:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2780:
2776:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2753:
2749:
2744:
2741:(3): 91–102.
2740:
2736:
2732:
2726:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
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174:hypothesis.
167:geochemistry
159:petrogenesis
154:mantle plume
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124:Geophysicist
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30:plate theory
29:
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2920:Geodynamics
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480:Yellowstone
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277:Manus Basin
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1630:1911/77150
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716:References
617:under the
443:Great Dyke
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304:Cretaceous
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2935:Volcanism
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1912:Geosphere
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525:Greenland
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336:Laurentia
308:Paleocene
300:Paleozoic
230:isostatic
163:petrology
109:volatiles
34:volcanism
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1134:(2007).
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735:(2020).
542:basaltic
521:Cenozoic
469:Examples
463:Pangaean
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447:Zimbabwe
427:Pitcairn
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402:Pukapuka
376:and the
326:and the
131:hotspots
117:back-arc
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597:Oregon.
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