Patent - Knowledge

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protected with just a few modifications. In some countries, like the United States, there is liability for another two forms of infringement. One is contributory infringement, which is participating in another's infringement. This could be a company helping another company to create a patented product or selling the patented product which is created by another company. There is also inducement to infringement, which is when a party induces or assists another party in violating a patent. An example of this would be a company paying another party to create a patented product in order to reduce their competitor's market share. This is important when it comes to gray market goods, which is when a patent owner sells a product in country A, wherein they have the product patented, then another party buys and sells it, without the owner's permission, in country B, wherein the owner also has a patent for the product. With either national or regional exhaustion being the law the in country B, the owner may still be able to enforce their patent rights; however, if country B has a policy of international exhaustion, then the patent owner will have no legal grounds for enforcing the patent in country B as it was already sold in a different country.

3711:ſubordination one with another, through which all the king's grants muſt paſs, and be tranſcribed, and enrolled; that the ſame may by narrowly inſpected by his officers, who will inform him if any thing contained therein is improper, or unlawful to be granted. Theſe grants, whether of lands, honours, liberties, franchiſes, or ought beſides, are contained in charters, or letters patent, that is, open letters, literae patentes: ſo called becauſe they are not ſealed up, but expoſed to open view, with the great ſeal pendant at the bottom; and are uſually directed or addreſſed by the king to all his ſubjects at large. And therein they differ from certain other letters of the king, ſealed alſo with his great ſeal, but directed to particular perſons, and for particular purpoſes: which therefore, not being proper for public inſpection, are cloſed up and ſealed on the outſide, and are thereupon called writs cloſe, literae clauſae; and are recorded in the cloſe-rolls, in the ſame manner as the others are in the patent-rolls... 1910: 3023:(IPTS) shows that the 2,000 largest global companies invested more than 430 billion euros in 2008 in their R&D departments. If the investments can be considered as inputs of R&D, real products and patents are the outputs. Based on these groups, a project named Corporate Invention Board, had measured and analyzed the patent portfolios to produce an original picture of their technological profiles. Supporters of patents argue that without patent protection, R&D spending would be significantly less or eliminated altogether, limiting the possibility of technological advances or breakthroughs. Corporations would be much more conservative about the R&D investments they made, as third parties would be 1862: 38: 3380:"A patent is not the grant of a right to make or use or sell. It does not, directly or indirectly, imply any such right. It grants only the right to exclude others. The supposition that a right to make is created by the patent grant is obviously inconsistent with the established distinctions between generic and specific patents, and with the well-known fact that a very considerable portion of the patents granted are in a field covered by a former relatively generic or basic patent, are tributary to such earlier patent, and cannot be practiced unless by license thereunder." – 2038: 2492: 1690: 2764:) also require annual renewal fees to be paid for a patent application before it is granted. In the US, patent maintenance fees are due on 3.5, 7.5 and 11.5 anniversaries of the patent issuance. Only ca. 50% of issued US patents are maintained full term. Large corporations tend to pay maintenance fees through the full term, while small companies are more likely to abandon their patents earlier, even though the due fees are ca. 5 times lower for small businesses (microentities). 1769: 2934:. Compared to patents, the advantages of trade secrets are that the value of a trade secret continues until it is made public, whereas a patent is only in force for a specified time, after which others may freely copy the invention; does not require payment of fees to governmental agencies or filing paperwork; has an immediate effect; and does not require any disclosure of information to the public. The key disadvantage of a trade secret is its vulnerability to 2617:(WIPO) and covering more than 150 countries. The Patent Cooperation Treaty provides a unified procedure for filing patent applications to protect inventions in each of its contracting states along with giving owners a 30-month priority for applications as opposed to the standard 12 the Paris Convention granted. A patent application filed under the PCT is called an international application, or PCT application. The steps for PCT applications are as follows: 2952: 2695:

organisms, and biological processes cannot be patented, but if someone were to apply an inventive, non-obvious, step to them to synthesize something new, the result could be patentable. That includes genetically engineered strains of bacteria, as was decided in Diamond v. Chakrabarty. Patentability also depends on public policy and ethical standards. Additionally, patentable materials must be novel, useful, and a non-obvious inventive step.

2605:, initially signed in 1883. The Paris Convention sets out a range of basic rules relating to patents, and although the convention does not have direct legal effect in all national jurisdictions, the principles of the convention are incorporated into all notable current patent systems. The Paris Convention set a minimum patent protection of 20 years, but the most significant aspect of the convention is the provision of the right to claim 1374: 1313: 2826: 1325: 1928:–1980s. The decline is even more pronounced when the number of patent applications is normalized by the country's population each year, or when the country of origin rather than country of filing is used. For the US, the population-normalized peak in patenting occurred in 1915, and the number of subsequent patents induced per patent has been mostly declining since 1926. A study of 4,512 patents obtained by 2749:, to which the applicant may respond. The number of Office actions and responses that may occur vary from country to country, but eventually a final rejection is sent by the patent office, or the patent application is granted, which after the payment of additional fees, leads to an issued, enforceable patent. In some jurisdictions, there are opportunities for third parties to bring an 3187:

challenging in some countries, however, as the primary economic theories supporting patent law hold that inventors and innovators need patents to recoup the costs associated with research, inventing, and commercializing; this reasoning is weakened if the new technologies decrease these costs. A 2016 paper argued for substantial weakening of patents because current technologies (e.g.

2886:. According to Articles 2 and 3 of this treaty, juristic and natural persons who are either national of or domiciled in a state party to the Convention shall, as regards the protection of industrial property, enjoy in all the other countries of the Union, the advantages that their respective laws grant to nationals. 2484:

inventor's normal or specifically assigned employment duties, where an invention might reasonably be expected to result from carrying out those duties, or if the inventor had a special obligation to further the interests of the employer's company. Applications by artificial intelligence systems, such as

1849:(potassium carbonate). A revised patent law was passed in 1793, and in 1836 a major revision was passed. The 1836 law instituted a significantly more rigorous application process, including the establishment of an examination system. Between 1790 and 1836 about ten thousand patents were granted. By the 5837:

With the following assumptions: "18 pages (11 pages description, 3 pages claims, 4 pages drawings), 10 claims, patent validated in 6 countries (Germany, United Kingdom, France, Italy, Spain, Switzerland), excl. in-house preparation costs for the patentee" (the costs relate to European patents granted

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Patent infringement occurs when a third party, without authorization from the patentee, makes, uses, or sells a patented invention. Patents, however, are enforced on a national basis. The making of an item in China, for example, that would infringe a US patent, would not constitute infringement under

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A Classical Dictionary: Containing An Account of the Principal Proper Names Mentioned in Ancient Authors, And Intended To Elucidate All The Important Points Connected With The Geography, History, Biography, Mythology, And Fine Arts Of The Greeks And Romans Together With An Account Of Coins, Weights,

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Another effect of modern patent usage is the social benefit(s) of technology disclosure. Although patentees usually end up not reaping benefit from their patent monopoly, the society still benefits from patent disclosures. Also patents both enable and incentivize competitors to design around (or to

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The logical consequence of more efficient R&D is a more efficient national economy: An increase in patenting has proven to be linked with an increase of national income. A 2009 study on patent effects in various countries around the world finds, for instance, that a 10% increase in patenting in

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After a patent is issued, in most countries patent maintenance payments are required. In some countries (e.g. Russia) fees are due every year, and the amount due does not change much. In other countries (e.g. US) payments are due ca. every 4th year after the grant date, and the amount due increases

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did refer to "she", married women were unable to own property in their own name and were also prohibited from rights to their own income, including income from anything they invented. This historical gender gap has lessened over the course of the 20th and 21st centuries, however, disparity is still

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are often used as examples that can highlight the inadequacy of patent-based mechanisms. One workaround solution that has been applied by South Africa in the past is passing explained domestic law that gives the state the right to import inexpensive generic versions without permission and wait for

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Boldrin and Levine conclude "Our preferred policy solution is to abolish patents entirely and to find other legislative instruments, less open to lobbying and rent seeking, to foster innovation when there is clear evidence that laissez-faire undersupplies it." Abolishing patents may be politically

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One effect of modern patent usage is that a small-time inventor, who can afford both the patenting process and the defense of the patent, can use the exclusive right status to become a licensor. This allows the inventor to accumulate capital from licensing the invention and may allow innovation to

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that prohibits the defendant from engaging in future acts of infringement, or seeks either damages or injunction. To prove infringement, the patent owner must establish that the accused infringer practises all the requirements of at least one of the claims of the patent. (In many jurisdictions the

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Infringement includes literal infringement of a patent, meaning they are performing a prohibited act that is protected against by the patent. There is also the Doctrine of Equivalents. This doctrine protects from someone creating a product that is basically, by all rights, the same product that is

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in 1791. Patents were granted without examination since inventor's right was considered as a natural one. Patent costs were very high (from 500 to 1,500 francs). Importation patents protected new devices coming from foreign countries. The patent law was revised in 1844 – patent cost

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of poor quality patents has led to criticism of the patent office as well as the system itself. For example, in 2011, United States business entities incurred $ 29 billion in direct costs because of patent trolls. Lawsuits brought by "patent assertion companies" made up 61% of all patent cases in

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Alongside these international agreements for patents there was the Patent Law Treaty (PLT). This treaty standardized the filing date requirements, standardized the application and forms, allows for electronic communication and filing, and avoids unintentional loss of rights, and simplifies patent

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The grant and enforcement of patents are governed by national laws, and also by international treaties, where those treaties have been given effect in national laws. Patents are granted by national or regional patent offices, i.e. national or regional administrative authorities. A given patent is

1765:(1624) in which Parliament restricted the Crown's power explicitly so that the King could only issue letters patent to the inventors or introducers of original inventions for a fixed number of years. The Statute became the foundation for later developments in patent law in England and elsewhere. 2507:

The inventors, their successors or their assignees become the proprietors of the patent when and if it is granted. If a patent is granted to more than one proprietor, the laws of the country in question and any agreement between the proprietors may affect the extent to which each proprietor can

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to a corporate entity subsequently and inventors may be required to assign inventions to their employers under an employment contract. In most European countries, ownership of an invention may pass from the inventor to their employer by rule of law if the invention was made in the course of the

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to exclude by asserting the patent in court", for many granted patents turn out to be invalid once their proprietors attempt to assert them in court. A patent is a limited property right the government gives inventors in exchange for their agreement to share details of their inventions with the

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agreements in order to share the benefits of using each other's patented inventions. Freedom Licenses like the Apache 2.0 License are a hybrid of copyright/trademark/patent license/contract due to the bundling nature of the three intellectual properties in one central license. This can make it

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Before filing for an application, which must be paid for whether a patent is granted or not, a person will want to ensure that their material is patentable. Patentable material must be synthetic, meaning that anything natural cannot be patented. For example, minerals, materials, genes, facts,

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has been largely successful in providing a forum for nations to agree on an aligned set of patent laws. Conformity with the TRIPS agreement is a requirement of admission to the WTO and so compliance is seen by many nations as important. This has also led to many developing nations, which may

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in which the patent owner (the licensor) agrees to grant the licensee the right to make, use, sell, or import the claimed invention, usually in return for a royalty or other compensation. It is common for companies engaged in complex technical fields to enter into multiple license agreements

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A patent, being an exclusionary right, does not necessarily give the patent owner the right to exploit the invention subject to the patent. For example, many inventions are improvements of prior inventions that may still be covered by someone else's patent. If an inventor obtains a patent on

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THE king's grants are alſo matter of public record. For, as St. Germyn ſays, the king's excellency is ſo high in the law, that no freehold may be given to the king, nor derived from him, but by matter of record. And to this end a variety of offices are erected, communicating in a regular

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Legal scholars, economists, activists, policymakers, industries, and trade organizations have held differing views on patents and engaged in contentious debates on the subject. Critical perspectives emerged in the nineteenth century that were especially based on the principles of

2808:) was estimated to be from $ 10,000 to $ 30,000 per patent. When patent litigation is involved (which in year 1999 happened in about 1,600 cases compared to 153,000 patents issued in the same year), costs increase significantly: although 95% of patent litigation cases are settled 2356:

awarded by the courts to a party wishing to exploit a patented invention. The patentee has the opportunity to challenge the revocation or license, but is usually required to provide evidence that the reasonable requirements of the public have been met by the working of invention.

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explicitly prohibits any such discrimination. TRIPS Agreement Article 27.1 states that 'patents shall be available and patent rights enjoyable without discrimination as to the place of invention, the field of technology and whether products are imported or locally produced'.

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prevalent. In the UK, for example, only 8% of inventors were female as of 2015. This can partly be attributed to historical barriers for women to obtain patents, as well as to the fact that women are underrepresented in traditionally "patent-intensive" sectors, particularly

2377:, at the time the application was filed; or that some kind of fraud was committed during prosecution with regard to listing of inventors, representations about when discoveries were made, etc. Patents can be found to be invalid in whole or in part for any of these reasons. 3250:(EFF) initiative challenging patents that the organization claims are illegitimate and suppress innovation or limit online expression. The initiative launched in 2004 and involves two phases: documenting the damage caused by these patents, and submitting challenges to the 2647: 2515:

of a patent as property. Inventors can obtain patents and then sell them to third parties. The third parties then own the patents and have the same rights to prevent others from exploiting the claimed inventions, as if they had originally made the inventions themselves.

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Sometimes, nations grant others, other than the patent owner, permissions to create a patented product based on different situations that align with public policy or public interest. These may include compulsory licenses, scientific research, and in transit in country.

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to generate 11 million "obvious" nucleotide sequences to count as prior art and his algorithmic approach has already proven effective at anticipating prior art against oligonucleotide composition claims filed since his publication of the list and has been cited by the

2539:(if not protected by other patents) in countries where a patent applicant does not seek protection, the application thus generally becoming prior art against anyone (including the applicant) who might seek patent protection for the invention in those countries. 2702:

at the relevant patent office. The person or company filing the application is referred to as "the applicant". The applicant may be the inventor or its assignee. The application contains a description of how to make and use the invention that must provide

5995:(AIPLA) survey of patent lawyers (2005), and court documents for a sample of 89 court cases where one side was ordered to pay the other side's legal fees. The containing chapter ('The Costs of Disputes') also tries to quantify associated business costs. 2351:

Some countries have "working provisions" that require the invention be exploited in the jurisdiction it covers. Consequences of not working an invention vary from one country to another, ranging from revocation of the patent rights to the awarding of a

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in order to obtain legal protection against potential infringers. The period of protection was 10 years. As Venetians emigrated, they sought similar patent protection in their new homes. This led to the diffusion of patent systems to other countries.

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materials to make such materials obvious by patent standards. As the 3-D printing community is already grappling with legal issues, this development was hotly debated in the technical press. Chin made the same algorithm-based obvious argument in DNA

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The costs of preparing and filing a patent application, prosecuting it until grant and maintaining the patent vary from one jurisdiction to another, and may also be dependent upon the type and complexity of the invention, and on the type of patent.

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exploit the patent. For example, in some countries, each proprietor may freely license or assign their rights in the patent to another person while the law in other countries prohibits such actions without the permission of the other proprietor(s).

4229: 2369:. It is also possible to challenge the validity of a patent in court. In either case, the challenging party tries to prove that the patent should never have been granted. There are several grounds for challenges: the claimed subject matter is not 2776:

The European Patent Office estimated in 2005 that the average cost of obtaining a European patent (via a Euro-direct application, i.e. not based on a PCT application) and maintaining the patent for a 10-year term was around €32,000. Since the

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therefore only useful for protecting an invention in the country in which that patent is granted. In other words, patent law is territorial in nature. When a patent application is published, the invention disclosed in the application becomes

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between 1970 and 2020 showed that the university's patenting activity plateaued in the 2010s. Incidentally, only 20% of Stanford patents in that dataset produced a positive net income for the university, while the rest was a net loss.

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It has also been suggested that the rate of innovation is proportional to the rate of population growth (rather than to the total population), and that the observed decline in research productivity is related to the resource-limited

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decreasing value of patents in post-industrial economies, as businesses prefer less risky and more profitable investments in software rather than in hardware, which can be protected more effectively and at a lower cost by using

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incentive-systems or technical details of proposed "sharing" after certain amounts of profit were reported and some argue that, instead of intellectual property rights, manufacturing know-how is the main barrier to expanding

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for a person skilled in the art (i.e., the relevant area of technology) to make and use the invention. In some countries there are requirements for providing specific information such as the usefulness of the invention, the

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with responsibility for operating that nation's patent system, within the relevant patent laws. The patent office generally has responsibility for the grant of patents, with infringement being the remit of national courts.

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The procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a

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Primary incentives embodied in the patent system include incentives to invent in the first place; to disclose the invention once made; to invest the sums necessary to experiment, produce and market the invention; and to

2609:: filing an application in any one member state of the Paris Convention preserves the right for one year to file in any other member state, and receive the benefit of the original filing date. Another key treaty is the 2726:". While this term does not confer legal protection, and a patent cannot be enforced until granted, it serves to provide warning to potential infringers that if the patent is issued, they may be liable for damages. 4628: 3089:

occur because he or she may choose not to manage a manufacturing buildup for the invention. Thus the inventor's time and energy can be spent on pure innovation, allowing others to concentrate on manufacturability.

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found the full term maintenance rate of issued US patents has been fairly constant (40-50%) since 1992. Full term patents have more issued claims and receive on average more citations than earlier expired patents.

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and public identification as the creator/originator of an invention, although a defensive publication can also be anonymous. A defensive publication prevents others from later being able to patent the invention.

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patents that are registered but not commercialized, as is the case in around 50% of them, function as a barrier to the registration of similar ideas, effectively creating a growing zone of non-patentability.

3081:). Awarding patents generally makes the details of new technology publicly available, for exploitation by anyone after the patent expires, or for further improvement by other inventors. Furthermore, when a 1795:, established the principles that patents could be issued for improvements of an already existing machine and that ideas or principles without specific practical application could also legally be patented. 5219: 4539: 4221: 2348:

improvements to an existing invention which is still under patent, they can only legally use the improved invention if the patent holder of the original invention gives permission, which they may refuse.

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Twenty years of US nanopatenting: Maintenance renewal scoring as an indicator of patent value. 2023. World Pat Inf. 73/. A.L. Porter, M. Markley, R. Snead, N.C. Newman. doi: 10.1016/j.wpi.2023.102178.

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The number of patent applications filed each year has been growing for most countries although not smoothly, and jumps in activity are often observed due to changes in local laws. The high number of

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human civilization is reaching the limits of the human brain rather than technological limits. "For the first time in history people are bombarded with far more information than they can process."

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decrease in productivity per researcher; This occurred because factor (1) (higher hanging fruits) overwhelms increased efficiency in computation, automation, big data analysis and communication.

7721: 5384: 3182:"With the partial exception of the pharmaceutical industry, we just do not have clear evidence to support the assumption that patents provide significant incentives to inventive activity". 1787:, patent applications were required to supply a complete specification of the principles of operation of the invention for public access. Legal battles around the 1796 patent taken out by 4715:

Sariel, Aviram, Daniel Mishori, and Joseph Agassi. "The re-inventor's dilemma: a tragedy of the public domain." Journal of Intellectual Property Law & Practice 10.10 (2015): 759-766.

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Industrial R&D and national innovation policy: an institutional reappraisal of the US national innovation system. 2022. Ind Corp Change. 31/5, 1152–1176. I.A. Shaikh, K. Randhawa.

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In most countries, both natural persons and corporate entities may apply for a patent. In the United States, however, only the inventor(s) may apply for a patent, although it may be

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How does technology and population progress relate? An empirical study of the last 10,000 years. 2016. Technol Forecast Soc Chang. 103/57–70. J.L. Dong, W. Li, Y.H. Cao, J.W. Fang.

6917: 3664: 3961: 6082: 1574:, which was an open document or instrument issued by a monarch or government granting exclusive rights to a person, predating the modern patent system. Similar grants included 5594: 3861:

Online at Library of Congress: "A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875": First Congress, Session II, chapter VII, 1790:

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The authority for patent statutes in different countries varies. In the UK, substantive patent law is contained in the Patents Act 1977 as amended. In the United States, the

3130:) that could otherwise be used productively to improve technology. These and other research findings that patents decreased innovation because of the following mechanisms: 3097:" according to R S Praveen Raj) the patented invention. This may promote healthy competition among manufacturers, resulting in gradual improvements of the technology base. 4625: 3865: 2712:

of performing the invention known to the inventor, or the technical problem or problems solved by the invention. Drawings illustrating the invention may also be provided.

2000: 1996: 7419: 5469:"WIPO's Diplomatic Conference & New Treaty on Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources and Associated Traditional Knowledge (GRATK): A new Treaty against Biopiracy" 5147: 4329:

Systematic analysis of 50 years of Stanford University technology transfer and commercialization. 2022. Patterns. 3/9, 9. W.X. Liang, S. Elrod, D.A. Mcfarland, J. Zou.

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origins into the first modern patent system that recognised intellectual property in order to stimulate invention; this was the crucial legal foundation upon which the

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James W. Cortada, "Rise of the knowledge worker, Volume 8 of Resources for the knowledge-based economy", Knowledge Reader Series, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998, p. 141,

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by owners of pharmaceutical patents have also been a particular focus of criticism, as the high prices they enable puts life-saving drugs out of reach of many people.

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Gabriel Galvez-Behar,"La République des inventeurs. Propriété et organisation de l'invention en France, 1791–1922", Rennes, Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2008,

2442:. A patent can be found invalid on grounds described in the relevant patent laws, which vary between countries. Often, the grounds are a subset of requirements for 6798: 5568: 3723: 5211: 4531: 4506: 4203:

https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1009464/The-changing-profile-of-users-of-the-UK-patent-system.pdf

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In most jurisdictions, there are ways for third parties to challenge the validity of an allowed or issued patent at the national patent office; these are called

7330: 6851: 1977: 7775: 7153: 6431:"Kinsella, S., 2013. The Case Against Intellectual Property. In Handbook of the Philosophical Foundations of Business Ethics. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands" 3157:

Broad patents prevent companies from commercializing products and hurt innovation. In the worst case, such broad patents are held by non-practicing entities (

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However, in most technologically advanced countries (see, for example, France, Italy, Japan, Spain, Sweden, the UK in the figure on the right, as well as in

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Non-national treatments in national patent offices had been prevalent among the Northern countries until they were prohibited after the negotiation of the

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Patenting software-related inventions in Europe. 2019. Research Handbook on Patent Law and Theory, 2nd Edition. 106–131. S. Schohe, C. Appelt, H. Goddar.

2335:. From an economic and practical standpoint however, a patent is better and perhaps more precisely regarded as conferring upon its proprietor "a right to 1761:) was forced to revoke all existing monopolies and declare that they were only to be used for "projects of new invention". This was incorporated into the 7236: 6274: 6236: 2586: 2466:

associated with the production of a single product. Moreover, it is equally common for competitors in such fields to license patents to each other under

6506:"Miller, S.P., 2013. Where's the Innovation: An Analysis of the Quantity and Qualities of Anticipated and Obvious Patents. Va. JL & Tech., 18, p. 1" 4069: 5194: 4591:

Venture Capital and Cleantech: The wrong model for energy innovation. 2017. Energy Policy. 102/385–395. B.E. Gaddy, V. Sivaram, T.B. Jones, L. Wayman.

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Combinations of technology in US patents, 1926–2009: a weakening base for future innovation? 2018. Econ Innov New Technol. 27/8, 770–785. M.S. Clancy.

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Important developments in patent law emerged during the 18th century through a slow process of judicial interpretation of the law. During the reign of

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of a military aircraft, stating that the product is covered by multiple patents in the UK, South Africa, Canada and pending in "other" jurisdictions.

1921:), the total (i.e. regardless of the priority/inventors' country) number of patent families filed there have been declining in absolute numbers since 1837:

was passed on April 10, 1790, titled "An Act to promote the progress of useful Arts". The first patent under the Act was granted on July 31, 1790, to

5844: 2676:. Representatives of Indigenous peoples view the GRATK Treaty as a "first step towards guaranteeing just and transparent access to these resources." 1879: 6990:

Biagioli, M. (2019). Weighing intellectual property: Can we balance the social costs and benefits of patenting? History of Science, 57(1), 140–163.

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The changing profile of users of the UK patent system. Supporting the innovation ecosystem: Building the evidence base on the drivers of IP. 2021.

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is information that is intentionally kept confidential and that provides a competitive advantage to its possessor. Trade secrets are protected by

3990: 3020: 2408:(for example, for a US patent, by an action for patent infringement in a United States federal district court), although some countries (such as 2297: 4402: 3841: 3116: 6176:

Baten, Jörg; Labuske, Kirsten (2009). "On the Persistence of Human Capital and Patient Effects Around 1900 on Per Capita Levels in the 1960s".

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Bloom, Nicholas, Jones, Charles I., Van Reenen, John, Webb, Michael, 2020. Are Ideas getting harder to find? Am. Econ. Rev. 110 (4), 1104–1144

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the number of patent applications from PR China is expected to go down after 2025, when government subsidies for patent filing are to expire.

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that define the scope of protection that is being sought. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right.

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Trends and characteristics of patenting activity in Poland in 1990–2018. 2020. Przegląd Statystyczny. 67/3. J. Kwiatkowski, T. Tomaszewski.

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Phylarchus of Naucratis, "The Deipnosophists, or, Banquet of the Learned of Athenæus", Translated from Ancient Greek by H.Bohn 12:20, p. 835

3555: 3126:. Contemporary criticisms have echoed those arguments, claiming that patents block innovation and waste resources (e.g. with patent-related 1593:

usually refers to the right granted to anyone who invents something new, useful and non-obvious. A patent is often referred to as a form of

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https://ised-isde.canada.ca/site/canadian-intellectual-property-office/sites/default/files/attachments/2022/IP_Canada_Report_2016_en.pdf

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Patents apply a "one size fits all" model to industries with differing needs, that is especially unproductive for the software industry.

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Are 'Flow of Ideas' and 'Research Productivity' in secular decline? 2022. Technol Forecast Soc Chang. 174/16. P. Cauwels, D. Sornette.

3890: 3694: 3456: 3280: 7695: 7652: 6140: 3954: 4877: 3293: 3251: 2760:

to keep the patent in force. These fees are generally payable on a yearly basis. Some countries or regional patent offices (e.g. the

2563: 42: 6094: 5618: 2812:, those that reach the courts have legal costs on the order of a million dollars per case, not including associated business costs. 2585:(EPC) , that centralize some portion of the filing and examination procedure. Similar arrangements exist among the member states of 2471:

difficult to enforce because patent licenses cannot be granted this way under copyright and would have to be considered a contract.

7855: 7441:

Nalebuff, Barry J.; Stiglitz, Joseph E. (1983). "Prizes and Incentives: Towards a General Theory of Compensation and Competition".

4776: 4346:

Gold ER. The fall of the innovation empire and its possible rise through open science. Research Policy. Jun 2021;50(5):13. 104226.

2643: 2614: 6505: 6488: 3529: 3077:

did not have the legal protection of patents, in many cases, they might prefer or tend to keep their inventions secret (e.g. keep

1882:

sectors. Marcowitz-Bitton et al. argue that the gender gap in patents is also a result of internal bias within the patent system.

6119:

Olson, D.S. (2009). "Taking the Utilitarian Basis for Patent Law Seriously: The Case for Restricting Patentable Subject Matter".

6052: 6019: 5267: 2205: 170: 7389: 5363: 3057:

In accordance with the original definition of the term "patent", patents are intended to facilitate and encourage disclosure of

6380: 5805:, (under "IPO Home> Types of IP> Patents> Managing your patents> Using and enforcing") Consulted on August 5, 2009. 5545:"WIPO Member States Adopt Historic New Treaty on Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources and Associated Traditional Knowledge" 5186:

as an example. The laws across Europe vary from country to country but are generally harmonised. In an Australian context, see

2836: 4180: 3862: 7411: 5728: 5252:

Patent owners shall also have the right to assign, or transfer by succession, the patent and to conclude licensing contracts.

5155: 3741: 2450:, for example), some countries have sanctions to prevent the same validity questions being relitigated. An example is the UK 2163: 2004: 5443:

The WIPO Diplomatic Conference for a Treaty on Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources and Associated Traditional Knowledge

3648: 2315:

A patent does not give a right to make or use or sell an invention. Rather, a patent provides, from a legal standpoint, the

6413: 3167: 2781:

entered into force on May 1, 2008, this estimation is however no longer up-to-date, since fewer translations are required.

2673: 2220: 2122: 1902:). The US was the World's leader in terms of patent families filed between 1900 and 1966, when Japan took over. Since 2007 351: 6761: 6056: 6023: 2578:

historically have developed different laws to aid their development, enforcing patents laws in line with global practice.

2446:

in the relevant country. Although an infringer is generally free to rely on any available ground of invalidity (such as a

6877: 5334: 4698:

https://www.managingip.com/article/2a7cr03ux3sqhecb3m7sw/data-china-firms-patent-filings-fall-after-gov-cancels-subsidies

4562: 3262: 2290: 1895: 165: 6786: 5179: 4996: 3727: 3620: 3402: 2741:

requirements of that country. If the application does not comply, objections are communicated to the applicant or their

7493: 7300: 7039:

McKendrick, J., 2012. Time to eliminate patents altogether? Fed paper urges more open innovation. ZDNet. Available at:

6944: 6710: 6374: 6202: 5984: 5916: 4853: 4502: 3791: 3774: 3674: 3491: 2594: 2559: 2488:, have been rejected in the US, the UK, and at the European Patent Office on the grounds they are not natural persons. 1936:

Similar declines have been noted not only for the number of patents, but also for other measures of innovation output.

1526: 155: 5860:

The persistence of worthless patents? 2023. World Pat Inf. 72/. A. Schwall, J. Wagner. doi: 10.1016/j.wpi.2023.102179.

5415:"International negotiations on Indigenous knowledge to resume at WIPO: a view of the journey so far and the way ahead" 7832: 6330: 4689: 4426:

Are Ideas Getting Harder to Find? 2020. Am Econ Rev. 110/4, 1104–1144. N. Bloom, C.I. Jones, J. Van Reenen, M. Webb.

4009:"Married Women's Property Laws and Female Commercial Activity: Evidence from United States Patent Records, 1790–1895" 2994: 2869: 2786: 2451: 1457: 1438: 850: 7322: 6839: 5670: 7837: 7145: 5212:"No, an artificial intelligence can't legally invent something – only 'natural persons' can, says US patent office" 3047:. However, patenting is not the only factor influencing GDP growth: among others, schooling also plays a big role. 2252: 2077: 1568:, which means "to lay open" (i.e., to make available for public inspection). It is a shortened version of the term 1410: 1348: 5053: 4469:

A possible declining trend for worldwide innovation. 2005. Technol Forecast Soc Chang. 72/8, 980–986. J. Huebner.

4295:

A possible declining trend for worldwide innovation. 2005. Technol Forecast Soc Chang. 72/8, 980–986. J. Huebner.

3219: 6900: 5789: 3745: 3231: 2961: 2801:

increased its patent maintenance fees ten-fold, briefly becoming the most expensive country to maintain patents.

2200: 1861: 7885: 7352: 6542:"McCall, D.D., 2003. Stating the Obvious: Patents and Biological Material. U. Ill. JL Tech. & Pol'y, p. 239" 2558:

to make laws to "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts ...". The laws Congress passed are codified in

7615: 6577: 6261: 6232: 5793: 3247: 2283: 1395: 7232: 6282: 2648:

Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore

1656:

is sometimes used (primarily in the US) to distinguish the primary meaning from these other types of patents.

1417: 7927: 6304:

Kim, Linsui (2002). "Technology Transfer and Intellectual Property Rights: Lessons from Korea's Experience".

5020: 4084: 1713:

of 1474. However, recent historical research has suggested that the 1474 Statute was inspired by laws in the

1114: 772: 248: 4008: 3279:

to prevent patenting based on obviousness using lists or algorithms. For example, a professor of law at the

2906:

is the act of publishing a detailed description of a new invention without patenting it, so as to establish

7738:

Shots Fired: The 3D Printing Materials IP War Has Begun as Joshua Pearce Releases Algorithm for Obviousness

7588:"A Novel Approach to Obviousness: An Algorithm for Identifying Prior Art Concerning 3-D Printing Materials" 5126: 3509:(...) patents, trademarks and copyrights. These are often referred to as intellectual property rights (...) 2598: 1899: 1784: 1164: 1154: 325: 5839: 5385:"WTO | intellectual property – TRIPS and public health: Compulsory licensing of pharmaceuticals and TRIPS" 3035:

in 1960. The positive effects of patenting on national income were found to be particularly strong in the

2438:

An accused infringer has the right to challenge the validity of the patent allegedly being infringed in a

7323:"Canada lacks 'political will' to waive COVID-19 vaccine patents, Bolivian minister says | Globalnews.ca" 6635:"Vanishing Public Domain: Antibiotic Resistance, Pharmaceutical Innovation and Intellectual Property Law" 5666: 5520:"Nations agree landmark treaty on traditional knowledge, protecting Indigenous Peoples' rights | UN News" 5450: 2429:

scope of the patent may not be limited to what is literally stated in the claims, for example due to the

1819: 1341: 860: 797: 730: 708: 6580:; Eisenberg, Sue (May 1, 1998). "Can Patents Deter Innovation? The Anticommons in Biomedical Research". 6541: 1697:, issued by the Senate of Venice in 1474, and one of the earliest statutory patent systems in the world. 1424: 7937: 6194:

International Patent Law: Cooperation, Harmonization, and an Institutional Analysis of WIPO and the WTO

5414: 5080: 3138: 2582: 2551: 1169: 685: 3806:"The Patent System during the French Industrial Revolution: Institutional Change and Economic Effects" 2011:

and biological patents. Similar restrictions on software patents have been enacted in other countries.

4394: 3805: 3338: 3202:

Debates over the usefulness of patents for their primary objective are part of a larger discourse on

2709: 2704: 2610: 2374: 2370: 2107: 1866: 1838: 1815: 1627: 1534: 1483: 943: 630: 212: 191: 140: 109: 6594: 5937: 5544: 4957: 3913:

Medical Monopoly: Intellectual Property Rights and the Origins of the Modern Pharmaceutical Industry

1960:

increasing fragmentation of patent encumbrance and increasing number and cost of patent litigations;

1873:

In the US, married women were historically precluded from obtaining patents. While section 1 of the

3235: 3016: 2919: 2851: 2757: 2570: 2332: 2316: 1530: 1510: 1406: 1217: 913: 760: 599: 573: 495: 440: 344: 253: 160: 5691: 5296: 5191: 4364: 7932: 7263:"Covid-19: global vaccine production is a mess and shortages are down to more than just hoarding" 5496: 5283: 5075: 4794: 3551: 3207: 2809: 2778: 2431: 2112: 2082: 2072: 1954: 1710: 1694: 1617: 1391: 1384: 1109: 755: 750: 740: 435: 31: 17: 7875: 6589: 5976: 5767: 5753: 5240: 3243: 3032: 2965: 2794: 2761: 2555: 2183: 1834: 1664: 1262: 1139: 933: 792: 723: 610: 568: 274: 6702: 6696: 6156: 4268:"Global patent filings decline by 14% YoY in Q2 2022, mainly led by China, reveals GlobalData" 3085:

has expired, the public record ensures that the patentee's invention is not lost to humanity.

1894:

for Spain in the 1800s is related to the superior preservation and cataloguing of the data by

1541:

available should be a minimum of twenty years. Some countries have other patent-like forms of

7510: 5264: 4927: 3481: 3203: 2903: 2750: 2662: 2581:

Internationally, there are international treaty procedures, such as the procedures under the

2366: 2029: 1973: 1762: 1742: 1684: 1594: 1542: 1475: 1242: 1227: 1149: 1129: 1084: 981: 840: 830: 802: 675: 665: 593: 218: 78: 73: 7880: 7737: 7544: 5968: 5569:"New treaty addresses intellectual property for genetic resources and traditional knowledge" 5498:

WIPO Treaty on intellectual property, genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge

4898: 3882: 3698: 3448: 3112: 2652:

WIPO Treaty on Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources and Associated Traditional Knowledge

1814:, inventors could obtain patents through petition to a given colony's legislature. In 1641, 588: 7776:

Joshua Pearce creates new algorithm for obviousness to prevent 3D printing material patents

7680: 7637: 6320: 6137: 4806: 3226:

In 2020, multiple initiatives, including by India and South Africa, called for a waiver of

3141:, where future innovations can not take place outside of a single firm in an entire field". 3106: 3070: 2931: 2927: 1714: 1292: 1247: 1222: 1189: 893: 888: 825: 820: 578: 415: 83: 5871:"Ecuador Reversed the Increase of Its Patent Fees: Decreases It by 90% - Patent - Ecuador" 4869: 2976: 8: 7922: 6969: 5592: 3127: 2935: 2386: 2173: 1929: 1491: 1478:

that gives its owner the legal right to exclude others from making, using, or selling an

1006: 928: 883: 878: 745: 735: 635: 445: 410: 368: 337: 320: 243: 233: 228: 223: 124: 7890: 4810: 4761: 3649:"Book Review. Inventing the Industrial Revolution: The English Patent System, 1660–1800" 37: 7823: 7607: 7458: 7292: 7209: 7176: 6689: 6615: 6516: 6463: 5908: 5045: 4822: 4742: 4727:

Journal of Economic Perspectives, Stanford Law and Economics Olin Working Paper No. 288

4031: 3833: 3521: 3333: 3024: 2805: 2730: 2699: 2689: 2685: 2525: 2353: 2257: 2067: 2047: 1995:

a slow-down in patent applications in the US has been attributed to court decisions in

1913:

Number of patent families published by different authorities vs. earliest priority date

1874: 1850: 1730: 1517:, patents should be available in WTO member states for any invention, in all fields of 1499: 1252: 1212: 1089: 938: 903: 690: 650: 605: 525: 480: 460: 196: 119: 104: 99: 7871: 7485: 3434:

Article 33 of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (

3134:

Low quality, already known or obvious patents hamper innovation and commercialization.

2665:

from being granted. The Treaty contemplates revocation for patents incorrectly filed.

1721:

to developers of novel silk-making techniques. Patents were systematically granted in

7895: 7611: 7489: 7381: 7296: 7284: 7214: 7196: 6973: 6940: 6706: 6607: 6370: 6326: 6257: 6198: 5980: 5969: 5912: 5628: 5355: 5037: 4849: 4826: 4035: 3980: 3837: 3825: 3787: 3770: 3670: 3487: 3342: 3301: 3196: 3074: 2658: 2037: 1826: 1811: 1660: 1317: 1184: 1051: 1041: 986: 908: 782: 767: 645: 615: 545: 535: 470: 269: 238: 145: 6619: 6361: 2491: 1537:

from country to country, also among WTO member states. TRIPS also provides that the

1431: 7827: 7599: 7481: 7476:

Stiglitz, Joseph E. (1988). "Economic organization, information, and development".

7450: 7274: 7204: 7188: 7084: 7020: 6991: 6965: 6690:"Navigating the Patent Thicket: Cross Licenses, Patent Pools, and Standard-Setting" 6646: 6599: 6478: 5900: 5089: 5029: 4814: 4746: 4734: 4670: 4608: 4592: 4490: 4486: 4474: 4470: 4457: 4453: 4427: 4347: 4330: 4313: 4300: 4296: 4251: 4172: 4023: 3817: 2512: 2480: 2447: 2168: 1522: 1119: 1094: 1046: 1026: 971: 948: 898: 777: 680: 670: 660: 625: 515: 465: 455: 450: 284: 150: 114: 5720: 4317: 3749: 2668:

The treaty, and in particular its planned extension, is seen as complementing the

2417: 1798:

The English legal system became the foundation for patent law in countries with a

7782: 7763: 7744: 7725: 6921: 6603: 6357: 6353: 6192: 6163: 6144: 5848: 5802: 5777: 5271: 5247: 5198: 5183: 4704: 4693: 4632: 4351: 4334: 4209: 3869: 3258: 3227: 3223:

international regulations and incentive-systems to get upgraded at a later point.

3192: 2890: 2742: 2734: 2669: 2574: 2467: 2178: 2008: 1989: 1981: 1943:

increasing cost of doing research, as "lower-hanging fruits have been picked up";

1891: 1779:

was one of the first inventions required to provide a specification for a patent.

1672: 1668: 1640: 1579: 1514: 1329: 1174: 1079: 1036: 1016: 1011: 1001: 996: 918: 713: 310: 289: 279: 6746: 6398: 6230:

Jim Kerstetter. 2012. How much is that patent lawsuit going to cost you?. CNET.

4674: 4645:"It's Not Just COVID: Understanding the Drop in U.S. Patent Application Filings" 4596: 4532:"Every company is a software company: Six 'must dos' to succeed | McKinsey" 3272:

launched Ask Patents, a forum for crowdsourcing prior art to invalidate patents.

2847: 1939:

Several hypotheses have been proposed as explanations for the observed decline:

6873: 6256:

Stim, Rishand, "Profit from Your Idea: How to Make Smart Licensing Decisions",

6046: 6013: 5888: 5519: 3666:

Inventing the Industrial Revolution : The English patent system, 1660–1800

3576: 3269: 3151: 3082: 2723: 2606: 2373:

at all; the claimed subject matter was actually not new, or was obvious to the

2328: 2225: 2188: 2117: 2062: 1754: 1702: 1689: 1570: 1546: 1538: 1282: 1267: 1237: 1159: 655: 500: 490: 420: 405: 400: 7603: 7192: 6651: 6634: 5326: 4255: 4027: 1021: 7916: 7200: 6995: 6483: 5632: 5176: 5041: 5000: 3829: 3616: 3394: 3323:

by cross-licensing patents, thereby preventing legal action by such entities.

3297: 3158: 3145: 3094: 3062: 3036: 3009: 2746: 2738: 2543: 2536: 2496: 2443: 2247: 2142: 1969: 1701:

Although there is evidence that some form of patent rights was recognized in

1635: 1622: 1272: 1144: 1104: 976: 640: 540: 520: 7851: 7262: 7042:"Time to eliminate patents altogether? Fed paper urges more open innovation" 5938:"Holland & Bonzagni a full Service IP Law Firm in Western Massachusetts" 7288: 7218: 6977: 6937:

Patent Failure: How Judges, Bureaucrats, and Lawyers Put Innovators at Risk

6932: 6685: 5971:

Patent failure: how judges, bureaucrats, and lawyers put innovators at risk

5661: 5093: 3821: 3354: 3320: 3176: 3162: 3078: 2915: 2716: 2439: 2341: 2331:, which is usually 20 years from the filing date subject to the payment of 2273: 2242: 2237: 2210: 2132: 2092: 1792: 1772: 1768: 1503: 1194: 1134: 1061: 845: 620: 530: 315: 68: 7907: 7899: 6819:

Allison, J.R.; Mann, R.J. (2007). "Disputed Quality of Software Patents".

6787:"The Trouble with Trolls: Innovation, Rent-Seeking, and Patent Law Reform" 6611: 4686: 4612: 3154:, or "an overlapping set of patent rights", in particular slow innovation. 2797:

charges annual fees for pending applications. Also, between 2012 and 2016

2500: 2323:

from making, using, selling, offering for sale, or importing the patented

1869:

applications from 2009 till 2023. In 2023, 17.7% of inventors were women.

7903: 7719:

What are the legal aspects of 3D printing? A European law firm weighs in.

7511:"Open Season on Patents Starts Thursday, Thanks to Crowdsourced Platform" 7088: 6840:"Troll or no Troll? Policing Patent Usage with an Open Post-grant Review" 5652: 5466: 4431: 3316: 3305: 3188: 3066: 3051: 3040: 2232: 2158: 2127: 1803: 1738: 1575: 1487: 1277: 1179: 1099: 855: 550: 505: 475: 430: 7146:"High drug prices caused by US patent system, not 'foreign freeloaders'" 6747:"Blackberries and barnyards: Patent trolls and the perils of innovation" 5904: 5593:

Indigenous Caucus of the WIPO GRATK Diplomatic Conference (2024-05-28).

4738: 7462: 7025: 7008: 6048:

The Misappropriation of Trade Secrets in Germany and U.S. Discovery Aid

6015:

The Misappropriation of Trade Secrets in Germany and U.S. Discovery Aid

5049: 5015: 4818: 4068:

Marcowitz-Bitton, Miriam; Kaplan, Yotam; Michiko Morris, Emily (2020).

3123: 3058: 2923: 2569:

There is a trend towards global harmonization of patent laws, with the

2425: 2420:

infringement. Typically, the patent owner seeks monetary compensation (

1965: 1799: 1788: 1776: 1518: 1257: 966: 787: 718: 376: 294: 7279: 5771:(Excerpted from General Information Concerning Patents print brochure) 5619:"Un traité historique qui restaure la dignité des peuples autochtones" 4846:

Business Law: The Ethical, Global, and Budiness E-Commerce Environment

4222:"Facts and figures: patent, trade mark, design and hearing data: 2019" 3265:

in order to further advance solutions to global problems such as AIDS.

2815: 7360: 7075:

Osborn, Lucas; Pearce, Joshua M.; Haselhuhn, Amberlee (9 June 2015).

4992: 3288: 3276: 2907: 2532: 2324: 2193: 2137: 2057: 1807: 1746: 1602: 1598: 1583: 1479: 1297: 1287: 1232: 1056: 991: 835: 583: 390: 175: 7587: 7454: 7092: 6956:

Banta, D.H. (2001). "Worldwide Interest in Global Access to Drugs".

5468: 5033: 4110:"Gender Profiles in UK Patenting An analysis of female inventorship" 4067: 3479: 1709:, the first statutory patent system is generally regarded to be the 1373: 7862:

World Intellectual Property Indicators 2022 with patents statistics

6874:"'Patent trolls' cost other US bodies $ 29bn last year, says study" 5623: 5076:"On Monopolistic Licensing Strategies under Asymmetric Information" 2462: 2269: 2215: 2052: 1903: 1758: 1750: 1718: 1578:, which were land grants by early state governments in the US, and 1124: 1031: 485: 395: 6666:

Joel, D (2009). "Pools, thickets and Open Source Nanotechnology".

5119:"Problems with Apache license and Others Involving Copyright Uses" 4291: 4289: 3137:

Blocking the use of fundamental knowledge with patents creates a "

7115:"There's a Precedent for Overriding Patents on Vital Medications" 6726:

Burk, D; Lemley, M (2002). "Is patent law technology-specific?".

4143:"The end of quick and dirty? French patent system under scrutiny" 3953:

Patent Act of 1790, Chapter 7, 1 Stat. 109–112 (April 10, 1790).

2798: 2458: 2421: 2413: 2405: 2340:

public. Like any other property right, it may be sold, licensed,

1842: 1729:

by which new and inventive devices had to be communicated to the

1706: 1612:

Some other types of intellectual property rights are also called

1312: 425: 5118: 4725:

Lemley, Mark A.; Shapiro, Carl (2005). "Probabilistic Patents".

3234:

around the world. However, no mechanisms of alternative medical

6147:

produced by the Institute for Prospective Technological Studies

4503:"Patent Encumbrances Can Reduce Market Value up to 100 Percent" 4286: 3312: 3287:

research, which could apply to other technology. Chin wrote an

3044: 2719:

that define what a patent covers or the "scope of protection".

2593:, the analogous treaties among African countries, and the nine 2409: 1918: 1846: 1726: 1722: 1324: 7757:

New Algorithm Fights to Keep 3D Printing Materials Open to All

6322:

Piracy: The Intellectual Property Wars from Gutenberg to Gates

5282:

United Kingdom law requiring no explicit authority due to the

3810:

Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte / Economic History Yearbook

2804:

In the United States, in 2000 the cost of obtaining a patent (

2657:

mandating patent disclosure requirements for patents based on

1486:

of the invention. In most countries, patent rights fall under

7046: 5327:"Chapter 3, International Phase of the PCT Applicant's Guide" 4107: 3883:"Anniversary of the First Patent Issued in the United States" 3435: 3031:

1910 led on average to a 9 to 11% higher level of per capita

2650:

moved to a Diplomatic Conference in May 2024 and adopted the

2485: 1562: 510: 4724: 4365:"It's not about the low hanging fruit, it's about the ideas" 2737:

reviews the patent application to determine if it meets the

2601:. A key international convention relating to patents is the 2344:, assigned or transferred, given away, or simply abandoned. 2001:

Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc.

1997:

Mayo Collaborative Services v. Prometheus Laboratories, Inc.

1745:

could emerge and flourish. By the 16th century, the English

7177:"The high cost of prescription drugs: causes and solutions" 5505: 5492: 5419: 3117:

United States Patent and Trademark Office § Criticisms

1482:

for a limited period of time in exchange for publishing an

7796:"Tech, auto companies join forces to thwart patent trolls" 5154:. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO). Archived from 2884:

Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property

2603:

Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property

1749:

would habitually abuse the granting of letters patent for

7233:"WTO again fails to agree on Covid vaccine patent waiver" 3284: 3161:), which do not contribute to innovation. Enforcement by 2670:

Nagoya Protocol to the Convention on Biological Diversity

2392:

US patent law unless the item were imported into the US.

1985: 2756:

Once granted the patent is subject in most countries to

1607:

Intellectual property § The term "intellectual property"

5263:

Staff, World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)

3552:"General Information About 35 U.S.C. 161 Plant Patents" 1825:

The modern French patent system was created during the

3015:

Patents provide incentives for economically efficient

2972: 2843: 2722:

After filing, an application is often referred to as "

7256: 7254: 7074: 6352: 5692:"Bioethics and Patent Law: The Case of the Oncomouse" 3275:

Several authors have argued for developing defensive

3054:

by giving the a property right over its invention."

2511:

The ability to assign ownership rights increases the

1818:

was granted the first patent in North America by the

6576: 6233:"How much is that patent lawsuit going to cost you?" 6138:

The 2009 EU Industrial R&D Investment Scoreboard

5841:

The cost of a sample European patent – new estimates

1830:

was lowered and importation patents were abolished.

1605:, and which has proponents and detractors (see also 1597:

right, an expression which is also used to refer to

6939:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008. 5297:"Intellectual property: protection and enforcement" 4795:"Evaluating the Validity of a United States Patent" 2926:, each of which prevents information leaks such as 2816:

Non-national treatment in the application procedure

1984:). A related decline of manufacturing share in the 1659:Particular types of patents for inventions include 1398:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 7251: 6913:Richard A Posner for The Atlantic. July 12, 2012. 5467:Cannabis Embassy, Commission on Biopiracy (2024). 3952: 3073:after an embargo period (usually of 20 years). If 3069:. Thus patenting can be viewed as contributing to 2573:(WTO) being particularly active in this area. The 7545:"Artful prior art and the quality of DNA patents" 6949: 4848:(15th ed.). McGraw-Hill/Irwin. p. 266. 3522:"1502 Definition of a Design [R-08.2012]" 3480:Stuart Wall; Sonal Minocha; Bronwen Rees (2009). 3475: 3473: 3384:, 191 F. 579, 584–85, 112 CCA 185 (6th Cir. 1911) 2542:Commonly, a nation or a group of nations forms a 1737:The English patent system evolved from its early 7914: 7440: 7174: 4958:"The Exhaustion of Intellectual Property Rights" 3637:, March 1945, Vol. XXVII, No. 3, pp. 143 et seq. 3206:, which also reflects differing perspectives on 1533:. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is 7412:"Novell signs on to EFF patent busting project" 4563:"Patent lawsuits and damages on the rise in US" 4526: 4524: 3863:"An Act to Promote the Progress of Useful Arts" 3617:"Wolfgang-Pfaller.de: Patentgesetz von Venedig" 3021:Institute for Prospective Technological Studies 2404:Patents can generally only be enforced through 133:Patentability requirements and related concepts 6701:. Vol. I. Cambridge: MIT Press. pp. 6007: 6005: 6003: 6001: 5993:American Intellectual Property Law Association 4173:"Column「Soaring Patent Applications in China」" 3726:. Intellectual Property Office. Archived from 3470: 3430: 3428: 2753:between grant and issuance, or post-issuance. 2679: 2637: 2623:2. Examination during the international phase 7006: 6926: 6461: 5967:Bessen, James; Meurer, Michael James (2008). 4422: 4420: 3582:And Measures, With Tabular Values Of The Same 3486:. Financial Times Prentice Hall. p. 43. 3199:, etc.) have reduced the cost of innovation. 3019:(R&D). A study conducted annually by the 2291: 1349: 345: 7681:"Gene Probes As Unpatentable Printed Matter" 7638:"Gene Probes As Unpatentable Printed Matter" 6884: 6866: 6570: 6175: 5966: 5439: 4521: 4108:Intellectual Property Offiece (March 2016). 4070:"Unregistered Patents & Gender Equality" 3985:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3803: 1992:countries has been reported in some studies. 6958:Journal of the American Medical Association 6818: 6157:Technological profiles for global companies 6038: 5998: 5013: 4718: 3925:Organization, World Intellectual Property. 3425: 3315:and other technology companies founded the 2088:Integrated circuit layout design protection 1865:Share of women amongst listed inventors in 7852:Directory of Intellectual Property Offices 7070: 7068: 6725: 6076: 6074: 5838:in 2002/2003), in European Patent Office, 5203: 4762:"Patent Invalidity Versus Noninfringement" 4417: 3989:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 3604:Patent Law and Policy: Cases and Materials 3281:University of North Carolina School of Law 3213: 2975:. Please do not remove this message until 2715:The application also includes one or more 2698:A patent is requested by filing a written 2626:3. Examination during the national phase. 2298: 2284: 1356: 1342: 352: 338: 7822: 7674: 7672: 7538: 7536: 7278: 7208: 7024: 6915:Why There Are Too Many Patents in America 6744: 6695:. In Jaffe, Adam B.; et al. (eds.). 6650: 6632: 6593: 6482: 6114: 6112: 5889:"Rational Ignorance at the Patent Office" 5882: 5880: 4991: 4792: 3669:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3252:United States Patent and Trademark Office 2995:Learn how and when to remove this message 2870:Learn how and when to remove this message 2564:United States Patent and Trademark Office 1458:Learn how and when to remove this message 27:Type of legal protection for an invention 7856:World Intellectual Property Organization 7475: 7260: 6396: 6346: 6044: 6011: 5412: 5014:Katz, Michael L.; Shapiro, Carl (1985). 4363:Kaminska, Izabella (13 September 2017). 4362: 3955:"The First United States Patent Statute" 3924: 3449:"What are intellectual property rights?" 3376: 3374: 3372: 3370: 3304:algorithm for identifying prior art for 2971:Relevant discussion may be found on the 2842:Relevant discussion may be found on the 2615:World Intellectual Property Organization 2490: 1908: 1860: 1856: 1767: 1688: 1549:, which have a shorter monopoly period. 36: 7581: 7579: 7065: 6907: 6893:"Patent troll: 'I'm ethical and moral'" 6890: 6831: 6684: 6071: 5073: 4687:https://www.law360.com/articles/1358644 4140: 3662: 3646: 3627: 3283:, has demonstrated a method to protect 2206:Limitations and exceptions to copyright 1853:about 80,000 patents had been granted. 1802:heritage, including the United States, 1490:and the patent holder must sue someone 14: 7915: 7669: 7585: 7533: 7508: 7392:from the original on 27 September 2016 6837: 6784: 6312: 6109: 6080: 5975:. Princeton University Press. p. 5886: 5877: 5462: 5460: 5209: 5188:University of Western Australia v Gray 4843: 2854:to additional sources at this section. 2424:) for past infringement, and seeks an 7382:"Patent Office to Review VoIP Patent" 7333:from the original on 15 November 2021 7303:from the original on 16 November 2021 7239:from the original on 16 November 2021 7175:Vincent Rajkumar, S. (23 June 2020). 7156:from the original on 23 November 2021 6955: 6668:European Intellectual Property Review 6318: 6190: 6118: 4063: 4061: 4059: 4002: 4000: 3633:M. Frumkin, "The Origin of Patents", 3570: 3422:Article 27.1. of the TRIPs Agreement. 3367: 2620:1. Filing the PCT patent application 2164:Artificial intelligence and copyright 2005:Alice Corp. v. CLS Bank International 1885: 1531:are capable of industrial application 7678: 7576: 7542: 7521:from the original on 21 October 2017 7422:from the original on 22 October 2017 7143: 7013:The Journal of Economic Perspectives 6970:10.1001/jama.285.22.2844-jmn0613-3-1 6665: 6558:from the original on 17 October 2016 6471:The Journal of Economic Perspectives 6436:. pp. 1325–1357. Archived from 6217:Pooley, J. and Westman, D.P., 1997. 6166:by analysing their patent portfolios 6087:Journal of the Patent Office Society 5491: 5440:Muñoz Tellez, Viviana (2023-03-14). 5307:from the original on August 28, 2023 4141:Schulze, Christina (15 March 2019). 4006: 3967:from the original on 22 January 2021 3915:. University of Chicago Press (2014) 3804:Galvez-Behar, Gabriel (2019-05-27). 3635:Journal of the Patent Office Society 3526:Manual of Patent Examining Procedure 3168:Santa Clara University School of Law 2945: 2819: 2729:Once filed, a patent application is 2123:Supplementary protection certificate 1396:adding citations to reliable sources 1367: 6880:from the original on June 27, 2012. 6303: 5769:Patent Marking and "Patent Pending" 5485: 5457: 5406: 5222:from the original on 3 January 2021 4077:Harvard Journal of Law & Gender 3584:, Harper & Bros, 1841, p. 1273. 3558:from the original on 7 January 2015 3532:from the original on 7 January 2015 3263:Prizes as an alternative to patents 2642:After two decades of drafting, the 2597:member states that have formed the 2007:(2014) limiting the eligibility of 1896:Spanish Patent and Trademark Office 1822:for a new process for making salt. 24: 7816: 7261:Feinmann, Jane (28 October 2021). 7007:Boldrin, M.; Levine, D.K. (2013). 6462:Lemley, M.A.; Shapiro, C. (2005). 6083:"Special Problems in Patent Cases" 6045:Klinkert, Friedrich (April 2012). 6012:Klinkert, Friedrich (April 2012). 5948:from the original on 14 April 2016 5893:Northwestern University Law Review 5750:"What does 'patent pending' mean?" 5433: 4122:from the original on June 23, 2021 4056: 3997: 3296:a number of times. More recently, 3148:and innovation that comes from it. 3012:and improve upon earlier patents. 2835:relies largely or entirely upon a 2560:Title 35 of the United States Code 1494:in order to enforce their rights. 156:Inventive step and non-obviousness 25: 7949: 7845: 7833:Concise Encyclopedia of Economics 7478:Handbook of Development Economics 6854:from the original on 9 March 2013 6698:Innovation Policy and the Economy 6319:Johns, Adrian (15 January 2010). 6081:Markey, Howard T. 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Geneva: 5177:Section 39 of the UK Patents Act 4833:from the original on 2016-08-23. 4782:from the original on 2016-10-17. 4759: 4651:from the original on 7 June 2023 4573:from the original on 6 June 2023 4542:from the original on 7 June 2023 4509:from the original on 6 June 2023 4405:from the original on 7 June 2023 4375:from the original on 6 June 2023 4274:from the original on 6 June 2023 4232:from the original on 7 June 2023 4183:from the original on 7 June 2023 4153:from the original on 8 June 2023 3893:from the original on 1 June 2023 3623:from the original on 2007-06-30. 3230:vaccine patents for accelerated 3220:Patents on expensive medications 3204:intellectual property protection 2950: 2824: 2253:Outline of intellectual property 2078:Indigenous intellectual property 2036: 1725:as of 1474, where they issued a 1372: 1323: 1311: 43:U.S. Patent and Trademark Office 7802:from the original on 2016-06-13 7701:from the original on 2016-10-17 7688:The Federal Circuit Bar Journal 7658:from the original on 2016-10-17 7645:The Federal Circuit Bar Journal 7618:from the original on 2022-04-11 7565:from the original on 2016-10-17 7125:from the original on 2023-08-28 7054:from the original on 2016-08-21 6891:Goldman, David (July 2, 2013). 6801:from the original on 2017-12-11 6791:Berkeley Technology Law Journal 6767:from the original on 2017-08-16 6399:"Against Intellectual Property" 6325:. University of Chicago Press. 6239:from the original on 2016-08-23 6191:Stack, Alexander James (2011). 5930: 5919:from the original on 2020-07-27 5863: 5854: 5831: 5822: 5808: 5790:UK Intellectual Property Office 5783: 5760: 5742: 5731:from the original on 2020-11-11 5713: 5702:from the original on 2020-12-11 5684: 5673:from the original on 2021-01-02 5645: 5611: 5586: 5561: 5537: 5512: 5395:from the original on 2020-12-19 5377: 5366:from the original on 2021-01-19 5348: 5337:from the original on 2021-02-26 5319: 5289: 5276: 5257: 5234: 5169: 5140: 5129:from the original on 2021-08-29 5111: 5100:from the original on 2022-06-15 5067: 5056:from the original on 2022-02-07 5007: 4999:. cecollect.com. Archived from 4985: 4974:from the original on 2021-04-22 4949: 4938:from the original on 2020-11-12 4920: 4909:from the original on 2021-04-18 4891: 4880:from the original on 2021-01-27 4862: 4837: 4786: 4753: 4709: 4680: 4663: 4637: 4618: 4601: 4585: 4554: 4495: 4479: 4463: 4446: 4437: 4387: 4356: 4340: 4323: 4306: 4260: 4244: 4214: 4195: 4165: 4134: 4101: 4045:from the original on 2021-04-28 4016:The Journal of Economic History 3946: 3918: 3905: 3875: 3855: 3844:from the original on 2021-08-26 3797: 3780: 3763: 3746:UK Intellectual Property Office 3734: 3716: 3687: 3683:from the original on 2015-10-04 3659:from the original on 2015-10-04 3640: 3609: 3596: 3587: 3500:from the original on 2023-08-28 3459:from the original on 2019-07-06 3405:from the original on 2023-05-28 3232:deployment of COVID-19 vaccines 3113:Biological patent § Ethics 2897: 2380: 1652:. The additional qualification 1383:needs additional citations for 7357:Electronic Frontier Foundation 6406:Journal of Libertarian Studies 6369:. Cambridge University Press. 5780:, Consulted on August 5, 2009. 5721:"Patent Requirements (BitLaw)" 4491:10.1016/j.techfore.2015.11.011 4475:10.1016/j.techfore.2005.01.003 4458:10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121267 4301:10.1016/j.techfore.2005.01.003 3544: 3514: 3441: 3416: 3387: 3248:Electronic Frontier Foundation 2416:) have criminal penalties for 2399: 13: 1: 7486:10.1016/s1573-4471(88)01008-3 7443:The Bell Journal of Economics 7103:– via www.academia.edu. 7077:"The Case for Weaker Patents" 6363:Against intellectual monopoly 6308:. UNCTAD/ICTSD Working Paper. 6221:. Law Journal Seminars-Press. 5021:The RAND Journal of Economics 4793:Silverman, Arnold B. (1990). 4395:"The rising cost of research" 4318:10.1080/10438599.2017.1410007 3647:Leaffer, Marshall A. 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Edward Elgar Publishing. 6055:Lecture Series. p. 7. 6022:Lecture Series. p. 6. 5667:Chicago-Kent College of Law 4899:"Contributory Infringement" 4675:10.4337/9781785364129.00014 4597:10.1016/j.enpol.2016.12.035 3695:"Blackstone's Commentaries" 3663:MacLeod, Christine (1988). 3327: 2977:conditions to do so are met 2941: 2928:breaches of confidentiality 2680:Application and prosecution 2638:Anti-biopiracy dispositions 2613:(PCT), administered by the 2201:Idea–expression distinction 1820:Massachusetts General Court 861:Simple commodity production 10: 7954: 7886:U.S. Patent Classification 7009:"The case against patents" 6275:"Thehindubusinessline.com" 5081:Journal of Economic Theory 3653:Articles by Maurer Faculty 3139:tragedy of the anticommons 3110: 3104: 2683: 2674:Access and Benefit-Sharing 2583:European Patent Convention 2523: 2384: 2310: 1845:for a method of producing 1682: 1678: 1589:In modern usage, the term 1170:Perspectives on capitalism 262:By specific subject matter 29: 7604:10.1016/j.wpi.2015.07.003 7193:10.1038/s41408-020-0338-x 6935:, and Michael J. Meurer. 6838:Barker, David G. (2005). 6652:10.5195/lawreview.2005.70 6342:– via Google Books. 5627:(in French). 2024-05-24. 5599:Cosmovisiones Ancestrales 5356:"Patent Law Treaty (PLT)" 5148:"Assignee (Company) Name" 4870:"Doctrine of Equivalents" 4256:10.5604/01.3001.0014.7108 4028:10.1017/S002205070001648X 3619:(in German and Italian). 3321:patent assertion entities 2611:Patent Cooperation Treaty 2375:person skilled in the art 2371:patentable subject matter 1535:patentable subject matter 1527:involve an inventive step 1502:must include one or more 213:Patent Cooperation Treaty 192:Sufficiency of disclosure 171:Person skilled in the art 141:Patentable subject matter 7592:World Patent Information 7353:"Patent Busting Project" 6996:10.1177/0073275318797787 6745:Magliocca, G.N. (2007). 6484:10.1257/0895330054048650 6279:thehindubusinessline.com 6178:Brussels Economic Review 5301:World Trade Organization 4624:IP Canada Report. 2016. 4007:Khan, Zorina B. (1996). 3927:"PCT Yearly Review 2024" 3236:research and development 3017:research and development 2920:non-disclosure agreement 2767: 2743:patent agent or attorney 2571:World Trade Organization 2495:The plate of the Martin 1618:industrial design rights 1582:, a precursor of modern 1511:World Trade Organization 441:Economic interventionism 184:Other legal requirements 161:Industrial applicability 7586:Pearce, Joshua (2015). 7081:SSRN Electronic Journal 6464:"Probabilistic patents" 6397:Kinsella, N.S. (2001). 5887:Lemley, Mark A (2001). 5284:Supremacy of Parliament 3602:Robert Patrick Merges. 3214:Anti-patent initiatives 3166:2012, according to the 2432:doctrine of equivalents 2113:Plant genetic resources 2083:Industrial design right 2073:Geographical indication 1955:Malthusian growth model 1755:King James I of England 1753:. After public outcry, 1711:Venetian Patent Statute 1695:Venetian Patent Statute 1665:business method patents 1616:in some jurisdictions: 1110:Criticism of capitalism 41:A patent issued by the 32:Patent (disambiguation) 7891:OECD Patent statistics 7876:European Patent Office 7867:PCT Yearly Review 2024 7766:– 3D Printing Industry 6876:. BBC. June 29, 2012. 6728:Berkeley Technol Law J 5094:10.1006/jeth.2001.2863 3822:10.1515/jbwg-2019-0003 3748:. 2006. Archived from 3742:"History of Copyright" 3483:International Business 3244:Patent Busting Project 2795:European Patent Office 2762:European Patent Office 2504: 2367:opposition proceedings 2184:Criticism of copyright 2108:Plant breeders' rights 2021: 1914: 1870: 1780: 1698: 1628:plant breeders' rights 1140:Exploitation of labour 851:Primitive accumulation 45: 7679:Chin, Andrew (2010). 7543:Chin, Andrew (2005). 6785:Merges, R.P. (2010). 6754:Notre Dame Law Review 6633:Outterson, K (2005). 6093:: 675. Archived from 4844:Mallor, Jane (2012). 4505:. 13 September 2018. 4399:Science|Business 3606:. 7th ed., Chapter 1. 3105:Further information: 2904:defensive publication 2751:opposition proceeding 2663:traditional knowledge 2494: 2030:Intellectual property 1974:first mover advantage 1912: 1864: 1857:Gender gap in patents 1771: 1763:Statute of Monopolies 1743:Industrial Revolution 1692: 1685:History of patent law 1644:are sometimes called 1630:are sometimes called 1595:intellectual property 1543:intellectual property 1492:infringing the patent 1476:intellectual property 1318:Capitalism portal 1130:Culture of capitalism 1085:Capitalist propaganda 841:Industrial Revolution 831:Commercial Revolution 40: 7928:Monopoly (economics) 7874:, maintained by the 7181:Blood Cancer Journal 7089:10.2139/ssrn.2585764 5816:"USPTO fee schedule" 5413:Wendland, W (2022). 4432:10.1257/aer.20180338 4083:: 47. Archived from 3107:Criticism of patents 2932:industrial espionage 2848:improve this article 2459:licensing agreements 1978:download limitations 1715:Kingdom of Jerusalem 1561:originates from the 1521:, provided they are 1392:improve this article 1293:Right-libertarianism 1223:Classical liberalism 1190:Venture philanthropy 826:Capitalism and Islam 821:Age of Enlightenment 416:Capital accumulation 30:For other uses, see 7824:Henderson, David R. 5905:10.2139/ssrn.261400 5795:Display your rights 5573:The Gisborne Herald 5473:cannabisembassy.org 5210:Sonnemaker, Tyler. 4811:1990JOM....42g..46S 4760:Ford, Roger Allan. 4739:10.2139/ssrn.567883 4647:. 9 February 2022. 4613:10.1093/icc/dtac019 3911:Joseph M. Gabriel, 3349:WTO TRIPs Agreement 3144:Patents weaken the 2964:of this section is 2936:reverse engineering 2630:office procedures. 2387:Patent infringement 2174:Copyright abolition 1930:Stanford University 1484:enabling disclosure 1330:Business portal 446:Economic liberalism 436:Competitive markets 92:Procedural concepts 7781:2016-10-17 at the 7762:2016-05-24 at the 7743:2016-08-18 at the 7724:2016-09-13 at the 7552:Alabama Law Review 7026:10.1257/jep.27.1.3 6920:2017-03-10 at the 6522:on 17 October 2016 6443:on 17 October 2016 6285:on 24 October 2007 6180:. 52-2/3: 289–304. 6162:2010-03-27 at the 6143:2010-03-30 at the 6097:on 9 November 2016 5851:, 2005, p. 1. 5847:2008-05-27 at the 5801:2009-09-03 at the 5776:2009-08-02 at the 5756:on 29 August 2011. 5270:2013-02-25 at the 5246:2017-06-22 at the 5241:Article 28.2 TRIPs 5197:2023-08-28 at the 5182:2009-02-25 at the 4819:10.1007/bf03221022 4769:Cornell Law Review 4703:2023-06-07 at the 4692:2023-06-07 at the 4631:2023-06-07 at the 4208:2023-06-07 at the 4052:– via JSTOR. 3868:2016-01-18 at the 3724:"The 18th century" 3334:Outline of patents 3319:in 2014 to combat 3294:U.S. patent office 3027:any developments. 2806:patent prosecution 2690:Patent prosecution 2686:Patent application 2672:and its system of 2526:Outline of patents 2505: 2354:compulsory license 2329:term of the patent 2266:Higher categories: 2258:Outline of patents 1915: 1886:Innovation decline 1875:Patent Act of 1790 1871: 1851:American Civil War 1781: 1699: 1661:biological patents 1650:innovation patents 1539:term of protection 1500:patent application 1090:Capitalist realism 481:Goods and services 461:Fictitious capital 197:Unity of invention 46: 7938:Intangible assets 7280:10.1136/bmj.n2375 7095:on 7 January 2023 6964:(22): 2844–2846. 6821:The. Wash. UL Rev 6588:(5364): 698–701. 6121:Temple Law Review 5508:(published 2024). 4981:– via IISD. 4270:. 4 August 2022. 3197:synthetic biology 3005: 3004: 2997: 2889:In addition, the 2880: 2879: 2872: 2705:sufficient detail 2659:genetic resources 2448:prior publication 2308: 2307: 1812:Thirteen Colonies 1468: 1467: 1460: 1442: 1366: 1365: 1185:Spontaneous order 1155:History of theory 798:New institutional 768:Market monetarism 703:Economic theories 536:Supply and demand 471:Free price system 362: 361: 16:(Redirected from 7945: 7854:, maintained by 7841: 7836:(1st ed.). 7811: 7810: 7808: 7807: 7792: 7786: 7773: 7767: 7754: 7748: 7735: 7729: 7716: 7710: 7709: 7707: 7706: 7700: 7685: 7676: 7667: 7666: 7664: 7663: 7657: 7642: 7633: 7627: 7626: 7624: 7623: 7583: 7574: 7573: 7571: 7570: 7564: 7549: 7540: 7531: 7530: 7528: 7526: 7506: 7500: 7499: 7473: 7467: 7466: 7438: 7432: 7431: 7429: 7427: 7408: 7402: 7401: 7399: 7397: 7378: 7372: 7371: 7369: 7368: 7359:. Archived from 7349: 7343: 7342: 7340: 7338: 7319: 7313: 7312: 7310: 7308: 7282: 7258: 7249: 7248: 7246: 7244: 7229: 7223: 7222: 7212: 7172: 7166: 7165: 7163: 7161: 7141: 7135: 7134: 7132: 7130: 7111: 7105: 7104: 7102: 7100: 7091:. Archived from 7072: 7063: 7062: 7060: 7059: 7037: 7031: 7030: 7028: 7004: 6998: 6988: 6982: 6981: 6953: 6947: 6930: 6924: 6911: 6905: 6904: 6903:on July 6, 2013. 6899:. Archived from 6888: 6882: 6881: 6870: 6864: 6863: 6861: 6859: 6835: 6829: 6828: 6816: 6810: 6809: 6807: 6806: 6782: 6776: 6775: 6773: 6772: 6766: 6751: 6742: 6736: 6735: 6723: 6717: 6716: 6694: 6682: 6676: 6675: 6663: 6657: 6656: 6654: 6630: 6624: 6623: 6597: 6574: 6568: 6567: 6565: 6563: 6557: 6549:illinoisjltp.com 6546: 6538: 6532: 6531: 6529: 6527: 6521: 6515:. Archived from 6510: 6502: 6496: 6495: 6493: 6486: 6468: 6459: 6453: 6452: 6450: 6448: 6442: 6435: 6427: 6421: 6420: 6418: 6403: 6394: 6388: 6387: 6385: 6368: 6350: 6344: 6343: 6341: 6339: 6316: 6310: 6309: 6301: 6295: 6294: 6292: 6290: 6281:. Archived from 6271: 6265: 6254: 6248: 6247: 6245: 6244: 6228: 6222: 6215: 6209: 6208: 6188: 6182: 6181: 6173: 6167: 6154: 6148: 6135: 6129: 6128: 6116: 6107: 6106: 6104: 6102: 6078: 6069: 6068: 6066: 6064: 6042: 6036: 6035: 6033: 6031: 6009: 5996: 5990: 5974: 5964: 5958: 5957: 5955: 5953: 5934: 5928: 5927: 5925: 5924: 5884: 5875: 5874: 5867: 5861: 5858: 5852: 5835: 5829: 5826: 5820: 5819: 5812: 5806: 5787: 5781: 5766:USPTO web site, 5764: 5758: 5757: 5752:. Archived from 5746: 5740: 5739: 5737: 5736: 5717: 5711: 5710: 5708: 5707: 5688: 5682: 5681: 5679: 5678: 5649: 5643: 5642: 5640: 5639: 5615: 5609: 5608: 5606: 5605: 5590: 5584: 5583: 5581: 5580: 5565: 5559: 5558: 5556: 5555: 5541: 5535: 5534: 5532: 5531: 5516: 5510: 5509: 5503: 5489: 5483: 5482: 5480: 5479: 5464: 5455: 5454: 5448: 5437: 5431: 5430: 5428: 5427: 5410: 5404: 5403: 5401: 5400: 5381: 5375: 5374: 5372: 5371: 5352: 5346: 5345: 5343: 5342: 5323: 5317: 5316: 5314: 5312: 5293: 5287: 5280: 5274: 5261: 5255: 5238: 5232: 5231: 5229: 5227: 5216:Business Insider 5207: 5201: 5173: 5167: 5166: 5164: 5163: 5144: 5138: 5137: 5135: 5134: 5115: 5109: 5108: 5106: 5105: 5071: 5065: 5064: 5062: 5061: 5011: 5005: 5004: 4989: 4983: 4982: 4980: 4979: 4973: 4962: 4953: 4947: 4946: 4944: 4943: 4924: 4918: 4917: 4915: 4914: 4895: 4889: 4888: 4886: 4885: 4866: 4860: 4859: 4841: 4835: 4834: 4790: 4784: 4783: 4781: 4766: 4757: 4751: 4750: 4722: 4716: 4713: 4707: 4684: 4678: 4667: 4661: 4660: 4658: 4656: 4641: 4635: 4622: 4616: 4605: 4599: 4589: 4583: 4582: 4580: 4578: 4558: 4552: 4551: 4549: 4547: 4536:www.mckinsey.com 4528: 4519: 4518: 4516: 4514: 4499: 4493: 4483: 4477: 4467: 4461: 4450: 4444: 4441: 4435: 4424: 4415: 4414: 4412: 4410: 4391: 4385: 4384: 4382: 4380: 4360: 4354: 4344: 4338: 4327: 4321: 4310: 4304: 4293: 4284: 4283: 4281: 4279: 4264: 4258: 4248: 4242: 4241: 4239: 4237: 4218: 4212: 4199: 4193: 4192: 4190: 4188: 4169: 4163: 4162: 4160: 4158: 4138: 4132: 4131: 4129: 4127: 4121: 4114: 4105: 4099: 4098: 4096: 4095: 4089: 4074: 4065: 4054: 4053: 4051: 4050: 4044: 4013: 4004: 3995: 3994: 3984: 3976: 3974: 3972: 3966: 3959: 3950: 3944: 3943: 3941: 3940: 3931: 3922: 3916: 3909: 3903: 3902: 3900: 3898: 3879: 3873: 3859: 3853: 3852: 3850: 3849: 3801: 3795: 3784: 3778: 3767: 3761: 3760: 3758: 3757: 3738: 3732: 3731: 3720: 3714: 3713: 3707: 3706: 3697:. Archived from 3691: 3685: 3684: 3660: 3644: 3638: 3631: 3625: 3624: 3613: 3607: 3600: 3594: 3591: 3585: 3574: 3568: 3567: 3565: 3563: 3548: 3542: 3541: 3539: 3537: 3518: 3512: 3511: 3506: 3505: 3477: 3468: 3467: 3465: 3464: 3445: 3439: 3432: 3423: 3420: 3414: 3413: 3411: 3410: 3391: 3385: 3378: 3000: 2993: 2989: 2986: 2980: 2954: 2953: 2946: 2875: 2868: 2864: 2861: 2855: 2828: 2827: 2820: 2779:London Agreement 2562:and created the 2333:maintenance fees 2300: 2293: 2286: 2169:Brand protection 2103:Peasants' rights 2040: 2026: 2025: 1927: 1924: 1777:early autocannon 1673:software patents 1669:chemical patents 1580:printing patents 1463: 1456: 1452: 1449: 1443: 1441: 1400: 1376: 1368: 1358: 1351: 1344: 1328: 1327: 1316: 1315: 1120:Critique of work 1095:Capitalist state 778:Critique of work 661:Regulated market 563:Economic systems 516:Private property 466:Financial market 456:Entrepreneurship 451:Economic surplus 364: 363: 354: 347: 340: 48: 47: 21: 7953: 7952: 7948: 7947: 7946: 7944: 7943: 7942: 7913: 7912: 7848: 7819: 7817:Further reading 7814: 7805: 7803: 7794: 7793: 7789: 7783:Wayback Machine 7774: 7770: 7764:Wayback Machine 7755: 7751: 7745:Wayback Machine 7736: 7732: 7726:Wayback Machine 7717: 7713: 7704: 7702: 7698: 7683: 7677: 7670: 7661: 7659: 7655: 7640: 7634: 7630: 7621: 7619: 7584: 7577: 7568: 7566: 7562: 7547: 7541: 7534: 7524: 7522: 7507: 7503: 7496: 7474: 7470: 7455:10.2307/3003535 7439: 7435: 7425: 7423: 7416:arstechnica.com 7410: 7409: 7405: 7395: 7393: 7380: 7379: 7375: 7366: 7364: 7351: 7350: 7346: 7336: 7334: 7321: 7320: 7316: 7306: 7304: 7259: 7252: 7242: 7240: 7231: 7230: 7226: 7173: 7169: 7159: 7157: 7142: 7138: 7128: 7126: 7113: 7112: 7108: 7098: 7096: 7073: 7066: 7057: 7055: 7040: 7038: 7034: 7005: 7001: 6989: 6985: 6954: 6950: 6931: 6927: 6922:Wayback Machine 6912: 6908: 6889: 6885: 6872: 6871: 6867: 6857: 6855: 6836: 6832: 6817: 6813: 6804: 6802: 6783: 6779: 6770: 6768: 6764: 6749: 6743: 6739: 6724: 6720: 6713: 6692: 6683: 6679: 6664: 6660: 6639:U. Pitt. L. Rev 6631: 6627: 6595:10.1.1.336.6070 6578:Heller, Michael 6575: 6571: 6561: 6559: 6555: 6544: 6540: 6539: 6535: 6525: 6523: 6519: 6508: 6504: 6503: 6499: 6491: 6466: 6460: 6456: 6446: 6444: 6440: 6433: 6429: 6428: 6424: 6416: 6401: 6395: 6391: 6383: 6377: 6366: 6358:Michele Boldrin 6351: 6347: 6337: 6335: 6333: 6317: 6313: 6302: 6298: 6288: 6286: 6273: 6272: 6268: 6255: 6251: 6242: 6240: 6231: 6229: 6225: 6216: 6212: 6205: 6189: 6185: 6174: 6170: 6164:Wayback Machine 6155: 6151: 6145:Wayback Machine 6136: 6132: 6117: 6110: 6100: 6098: 6079: 6072: 6062: 6060: 6043: 6039: 6029: 6027: 6010: 5999: 5987: 5965: 5961: 5951: 5949: 5936: 5935: 5931: 5922: 5920: 5885: 5878: 5869: 5868: 5864: 5859: 5855: 5849:Wayback Machine 5836: 5832: 5827: 5823: 5818:. 8 March 2023. 5814: 5813: 5809: 5803:Wayback Machine 5788: 5784: 5778:Wayback Machine 5765: 5761: 5748: 5747: 5743: 5734: 5732: 5719: 5718: 5714: 5705: 5703: 5690: 5689: 5685: 5676: 5674: 5651: 5650: 5646: 5637: 5635: 5617: 5616: 5612: 5603: 5601: 5591: 5587: 5578: 5576: 5567: 5566: 5562: 5553: 5551: 5543: 5542: 5538: 5529: 5527: 5518: 5517: 5513: 5501: 5490: 5486: 5477: 5475: 5465: 5458: 5446: 5438: 5434: 5425: 5423: 5411: 5407: 5398: 5396: 5383: 5382: 5378: 5369: 5367: 5354: 5353: 5349: 5340: 5338: 5325: 5324: 5320: 5310: 5308: 5295: 5294: 5290: 5281: 5277: 5272:Wayback Machine 5262: 5258: 5248:Wayback Machine 5239: 5235: 5225: 5223: 5208: 5204: 5199:Wayback Machine 5184:Wayback Machine 5174: 5170: 5161: 5159: 5146: 5145: 5141: 5132: 5130: 5117: 5116: 5112: 5103: 5101: 5072: 5068: 5059: 5057: 5034:10.2307/2555509 5012: 5008: 4990: 4986: 4977: 4975: 4971: 4965:IISD Commentary 4960: 4954: 4950: 4941: 4939: 4926: 4925: 4921: 4912: 4910: 4897: 4896: 4892: 4883: 4881: 4868: 4867: 4863: 4856: 4842: 4838: 4791: 4787: 4779: 4764: 4758: 4754: 4723: 4719: 4714: 4710: 4705:Wayback Machine 4694:Wayback Machine 4685: 4681: 4668: 4664: 4654: 4652: 4643: 4642: 4638: 4633:Wayback Machine 4623: 4619: 4606: 4602: 4590: 4586: 4576: 4574: 4567:World IP Review 4561:Media, Newton. 4559: 4555: 4545: 4543: 4530: 4529: 4522: 4512: 4510: 4501: 4500: 4496: 4484: 4480: 4468: 4464: 4451: 4447: 4442: 4438: 4425: 4418: 4408: 4406: 4393: 4392: 4388: 4378: 4376: 4369:Financial Times 4361: 4357: 4345: 4341: 4328: 4324: 4311: 4307: 4294: 4287: 4277: 4275: 4266: 4265: 4261: 4249: 4245: 4235: 4233: 4220: 4219: 4215: 4210:Wayback Machine 4200: 4196: 4186: 4184: 4177:www.rieti.go.jp 4171: 4170: 4166: 4156: 4154: 4139: 4135: 4125: 4123: 4119: 4112: 4106: 4102: 4093: 4091: 4087: 4072: 4066: 4057: 4048: 4046: 4042: 4011: 4005: 3998: 3978: 3977: 3970: 3968: 3964: 3957: 3951: 3947: 3938: 3936: 3929: 3923: 3919: 3910: 3906: 3896: 3894: 3881: 3880: 3876: 3870:Wayback Machine 3860: 3856: 3847: 3845: 3802: 3798: 3785: 3781: 3768: 3764: 3755: 3753: 3740: 3739: 3735: 3722: 3721: 3717: 3704: 3702: 3693: 3692: 3688: 3677: 3645: 3641: 3632: 3628: 3615: 3614: 3610: 3601: 3597: 3592: 3588: 3575: 3571: 3561: 3559: 3550: 3549: 3545: 3535: 3533: 3520: 3519: 3515: 3503: 3501: 3494: 3478: 3471: 3462: 3460: 3447: 3446: 3442: 3433: 3426: 3421: 3417: 3408: 3406: 3393: 3392: 3388: 3379: 3368: 3364: 3330: 3259:Joseph Stiglitz 3257:Patent critic, 3216: 3193:cloud computing 3152:Patent thickets 3119: 3109: 3103: 3025:free to exploit 3001: 2990: 2984: 2981: 2970: 2955: 2951: 2944: 2900: 2891:TRIPS Agreement 2876: 2865: 2859: 2856: 2850:by introducing 2841: 2829: 2825: 2818: 2770: 2735:patent examiner 2692: 2684:Main articles: 2682: 2661:and associated 2640: 2575:TRIPS Agreement 2535:and enters the 2528: 2522: 2477: 2468:cross-licensing 2402: 2389: 2383: 2363: 2313: 2304: 2268: 2264: 2179:Copyright troll 2068:Farmers' rights 2048:Authors' rights 2024: 2009:business method 1990:post-industrial 1982:digital economy 1925: 1892:patent families 1888: 1859: 1705:in the city of 1687: 1681: 1641:Gebrauchsmuster 1555: 1515:TRIPS Agreement 1464: 1453: 1447: 1444: 1401: 1399: 1389: 1377: 1362: 1322: 1310: 1303: 1302: 1208: 1200: 1199: 1175:Post-capitalism 1080:Anti-capitalism 1075: 1067: 1066: 962: 954: 953: 874: 866: 865: 816: 808: 807: 704: 696: 695: 686:State-sponsored 564: 556: 555: 421:Capital markets 386: 358: 311:Patent analysis 275:Business method 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7951: 7941: 7940: 7935: 7933:Public records 7930: 7925: 7911: 7910: 7893: 7888: 7883: 7878: 7869: 7864: 7859: 7847: 7846:External links 7844: 7843: 7842: 7818: 7815: 7813: 7812: 7798:. 2016-02-03. 7787: 7768: 7749: 7730: 7711: 7668: 7636:Chin, Andrew. 7628: 7575: 7532: 7501: 7495:978-0444703378 7494: 7468: 7433: 7418:. 2007-05-23. 7403: 7388:. 2010-02-05. 7373: 7344: 7314: 7250: 7224: 7167: 7136: 7106: 7064: 7032: 6999: 6983: 6948: 6945:978-1400828692 6925: 6906: 6883: 6865: 6830: 6811: 6777: 6737: 6718: 6712:978-0262600415 6711: 6677: 6658: 6625: 6569: 6533: 6497: 6454: 6422: 6389: 6376:978-0521879286 6375: 6345: 6331: 6311: 6296: 6266: 6249: 6223: 6210: 6204:978-1849806091 6203: 6183: 6168: 6149: 6130: 6108: 6070: 6037: 5997: 5991:. Based on an 5986:978-0691134918 5985: 5959: 5929: 5876: 5862: 5853: 5830: 5821: 5807: 5782: 5759: 5741: 5725:www.bitlaw.com 5712: 5683: 5644: 5610: 5585: 5560: 5536: 5511: 5495:(2024-05-24). 5484: 5456: 5432: 5405: 5376: 5347: 5318: 5288: 5275: 5256: 5233: 5202: 5168: 5139: 5110: 5088:(1): 177–189. 5066: 5028:(4): 504–520. 5006: 5003:on 2007-10-06. 4984: 4948: 4919: 4890: 4861: 4855:978-0073524986 4854: 4836: 4785: 4752: 4717: 4708: 4679: 4662: 4636: 4617: 4600: 4584: 4553: 4520: 4494: 4478: 4462: 4445: 4436: 4416: 4386: 4355: 4339: 4322: 4305: 4285: 4259: 4243: 4213: 4194: 4164: 4133: 4100: 4055: 4022:(2): 356–388. 3996: 3945: 3917: 3904: 3874: 3854: 3796: 3792:978-2753506954 3779: 3775:978-0750670586 3762: 3733: 3730:on 2014-04-22. 3715: 3686: 3676:978-0521893992 3675: 3639: 3626: 3608: 3595: 3586: 3577:Charles Anthon 3569: 3543: 3513: 3493:978-0273723721 3492: 3469: 3440: 3424: 3415: 3386: 3365: 3363: 3360: 3359: 3358: 3352: 3346: 3336: 3329: 3326: 3325: 3324: 3310: 3273: 3270:Stack Exchange 3266: 3255: 3240: 3224: 3215: 3212: 3184: 3183: 3180: 3174: 3171: 3155: 3149: 3142: 3135: 3102: 3099: 3003: 3002: 2958: 2956: 2949: 2943: 2940: 2899: 2896: 2878: 2877: 2846:. Please help 2832: 2830: 2823: 2817: 2814: 2769: 2766: 2724:patent pending 2681: 2678: 2654:(GRATK Treaty) 2639: 2636: 2521: 2520:Governing laws 2518: 2476: 2473: 2406:civil lawsuits 2401: 2398: 2385:Main article: 2382: 2379: 2362: 2359: 2321:exclude others 2312: 2309: 2306: 2305: 2303: 2302: 2295: 2288: 2280: 2277: 2276: 2263: 2262: 2261: 2260: 2250: 2245: 2240: 2235: 2230: 2229: 2228: 2226:Right to quote 2223: 2218: 2213: 2203: 2198: 2197: 2196: 2189:Bioprospecting 2186: 2181: 2176: 2171: 2166: 2161: 2153: 2152: 2151:Related topics 2148: 2147: 2146: 2145: 2140: 2135: 2130: 2125: 2120: 2118:Related rights 2115: 2110: 2105: 2100: 2095: 2090: 2085: 2080: 2075: 2070: 2065: 2063:Database right 2060: 2055: 2050: 2042: 2041: 2033: 2032: 2023: 2020: 2019: 2018: 2015: 2012: 1993: 1961: 1958: 1950: 1947: 1944: 1887: 1884: 1858: 1855: 1839:Samuel Hopkins 1816:Samuel Winslow 1703:Ancient Greece 1683:Main article: 1680: 1677: 1654:utility patent 1636:utility models 1623:design patents 1571:letters patent 1554: 1551: 1547:utility models 1466: 1465: 1380: 1378: 1371: 1364: 1363: 1361: 1360: 1353: 1346: 1338: 1335: 1334: 1333: 1332: 1320: 1305: 1304: 1301: 1300: 1295: 1290: 1285: 1283:Ordoliberalism 1280: 1275: 1270: 1265: 1260: 1255: 1250: 1245: 1240: 1235: 1230: 1225: 1220: 1215: 1209: 1206: 1205: 1202: 1201: 1198: 1197: 1192: 1187: 1182: 1177: 1172: 1167: 1162: 1160:Market economy 1157: 1152: 1147: 1142: 1137: 1132: 1127: 1122: 1117: 1112: 1107: 1102: 1097: 1092: 1087: 1082: 1076: 1074:Related topics 1073: 1072: 1069: 1068: 1065: 1064: 1059: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1039: 1034: 1029: 1024: 1019: 1014: 1009: 1004: 999: 994: 989: 984: 979: 974: 969: 963: 960: 959: 956: 955: 952: 951: 946: 944:State monopoly 941: 936: 931: 926: 921: 916: 911: 906: 901: 896: 891: 886: 881: 875: 872: 871: 868: 867: 864: 863: 858: 853: 848: 843: 838: 833: 828: 823: 817: 814: 813: 810: 809: 806: 805: 800: 795: 790: 785: 780: 775: 770: 765: 764: 763: 758: 753: 743: 738: 733: 728: 727: 726: 716: 711: 705: 702: 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3209: 3205: 3200: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3181: 3178: 3175: 3172: 3169: 3164: 3163:patent trolls 3160: 3159:patent trolls 3156: 3153: 3150: 3147: 3146:public domain 3143: 3140: 3136: 3133: 3132: 3131: 3129: 3125: 3118: 3114: 3108: 3098: 3096: 3095:invent around 3090: 3086: 3084: 3083:patent's term 3080: 3079:trade secrets 3076: 3072: 3071:open hardware 3068: 3064: 3063:public domain 3060: 3055: 3053: 3048: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3028: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3013: 3011: 3010:design around 2999: 2996: 2988: 2978: 2974: 2968: 2967: 2963: 2957: 2948: 2947: 2939: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2912: 2909: 2905: 2895: 2892: 2887: 2885: 2874: 2871: 2863: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2839: 2838: 2837:single source 2833:This section 2831: 2822: 2821: 2813: 2811: 2807: 2802: 2800: 2796: 2791: 2788: 2782: 2780: 2774: 2765: 2763: 2759: 2754: 2752: 2748: 2747:Office action 2744: 2740: 2739:patentability 2736: 2732: 2727: 2725: 2720: 2718: 2713: 2711: 2706: 2701: 2696: 2691: 2687: 2677: 2675: 2671: 2666: 2664: 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1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1507: 1505: 1501: 1495: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1474:is a type of 1473: 1462: 1459: 1451: 1448:November 2023 1440: 1437: 1433: 1430: 1426: 1423: 1419: 1416: 1412: 1409: – 1408: 1404: 1403:Find sources: 1397: 1393: 1387: 1386: 1381:This article 1379: 1375: 1370: 1369: 1359: 1354: 1352: 1347: 1345: 1340: 1339: 1337: 1336: 1331: 1326: 1321: 1319: 1314: 1309: 1308: 1307: 1306: 1299: 1296: 1294: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1284: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1274: 1273:Neoliberalism 1271: 1269: 1266: 1264: 1261: 1259: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1249: 1246: 1244: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1234: 1231: 1229: 1226: 1224: 1221: 1219: 1218:Authoritarian 1216: 1214: 1211: 1210: 1204: 1203: 1196: 1193: 1191: 1188: 1186: 1183: 1181: 1178: 1176: 1173: 1171: 1168: 1166: 1163: 1161: 1158: 1156: 1153: 1151: 1148: 1146: 1145:Globalization 1143: 1141: 1138: 1136: 1133: 1131: 1128: 1126: 1123: 1121: 1118: 1116: 1113: 1111: 1108: 1106: 1105:Crisis theory 1103: 1101: 1098: 1096: 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