Pulse oximetry - Knowledge

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measure the level of oxygenated blood, often measured from a person's finger. Further studies and computer simulations show that the increased amounts of melanin found in people with darker skin scatter the photons of light used by the pulse oximeters, decreasing the accuracy of the measurements. As the studies used to calibrate the devices typically oversample people with lighter skin, the parameters for pulse oximeters are set based on information that is not equitably balanced to account for diverse skin colors. This inaccuracy can lead to potentially missing people who need treatment, as pulse oximetry is used for the screening of sleep apnea and other types of sleep-disordered breathing, which in the United States are conditions more prevalent among minorities. This bias is a significant concern, as a 2% decrease is important for respiratory rehabilitation, studies of sleep apnea, and athletes performing physical efforts; it can lead to severe complications for the patient, requiring an external oxygen supply or even hospitalization. Another concern regarding pulse oximetry bias is that insurance companies and hospital systems increasingly use these numbers to inform their decisions. Pulse oximetry measurements are used to identify candidates for reimbursement. Similarly, pulse oximetry data is being incorporated into algorithms for clinicians. Early Warning Scores, which provide a record for analyzing a patient's clinical status and alerting clinicians if needed, incorporate algorithms with pulse oximetry information and can result in misinformed patient records.

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improve patient outcomes. In one study, retinopathy of prematurity (eye damage) was reduced by 58% in very low birth weight neonates at a center using signal extraction technology, while there was no decrease in retinopathy of prematurity at another center with the same clinicians using the same protocol but with non-signal extraction technology. Other studies have shown that signal extraction technology pulse oximetry results in fewer arterial blood gas measurements, faster oxygen weaning time, lower sensor utilization, and lower length of stay. The measure-through motion and low perfusion capabilities it has also allow it to be used in previously unmonitored areas such as the general floor, where false alarms have plagued conventional pulse oximetry. As evidence of this, a landmark study was published in 2010 showing that clinicians at Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center using signal extraction technology pulse oximetry on the general floor were able to decrease rapid response team activations, ICU transfers, and ICU days. In 2020, a follow-up retrospective study at the same institution showed that over ten years of using pulse oximetry with signal extraction technology, coupled with a patient surveillance system, there were zero patient deaths and no patients were harmed by opioid-induced respiratory depression while continuous monitoring was in use.

508:, where patients were found to have oxygen saturation below 88% per arterial blood gas measurement despite pulse oximeter readings indicating 92% to 96% oxygen saturation, found that black patients were three times as likely as white patients to have their low oxygen saturation missed by pulse oximeters. Another research study investigated patients in the hospital with COVID-19 and found that occult hypoxemia occurred in 28.5% of black patients compared to only 17.2% of white patients. There has been research to indicate that black COVID-19 patients were 29% less likely to receive supplemental oxygen in a timely manner and three times more likely to have hypoxemia. A further study, which used a MIMIC-IV critical care dataset of both pulse oximeter readings and oxygen saturation levels detected in blood samples, demonstrated that black, Hispanic, and Asian patients had higher Sp 563: 939:(PVI), which multiple clinical studies have shown provides a new method for automatic, noninvasive assessment of a patient's ability to respond to fluid administration. Appropriate fluid levels are vital to reducing postoperative risks and improving patient outcomes: fluid volumes that are too low (under-hydration) or too high (over-hydration) have been shown to decrease wound healing and increase the risk of infection or cardiac complications. Recently, the National Health Service in the United Kingdom and the French Anesthesia and Critical Care Society listed PVI monitoring as part of their suggested strategies for intra-operative fluid management. 946:(CCHD). The CCHD workgroup cited the results of two large, prospective studies of 59,876 subjects that exclusively used signal extraction technology to increase the identification of CCHD with minimal false positives. The CCHD workgroup recommended newborn screening be performed with motion tolerant pulse oximetry that has also been validated in low perfusion conditions. In 2011, the US Secretary of Health and Human Services added pulse oximetry to the recommended uniform screening panel. Before the evidence for screening using signal extraction technology, less than 1% of newborns in the United States were screened. Today, 328:

electrical faults which causes them to heat up above this temperature. Patients at greater risk include those with delicate or fragile skin, such as infants, particularly premature infants, and the elderly. Additional risks for injury include lack of pain response where the probe is placed, such as having an insensate limb, or being unconscious or under anesthesia, or having communication difficulties. Patients who are at high risk for injury should be have the site of their probe moved frequently, i.e. every hour, whereas patients who are at lower risk should have theirs moved every 2-4 hours.

887:, using the ratio of red to infrared light absorption of pulsating components at the measuring site. Nihon Kohden manufactured the first pulse oximeter, Ear Oximeter OLV-5100. Surgeon Susumu Nakajima and his associates first tested the device in patients, reporting it in 1975. However, Nihon Kohden suspended the development of pulse oximetry and did not apply for a basic patent of pulse oximetry except in Japan, which facilitated further development and utilization of pulse oximetry later in U.S. In 1977, 571: 579: 504:. The issue was first identified decades ago; one of the earliest studies on this topic occurred in 1976, which reported reading errors in dark-skinned patients that reflected lower blood oxygen saturation values. Further studies indicate that while accuracy with dark skin is good at higher, healthy saturation levels, some devices overestimate the saturation at lower levels, which may lead to hypoxia not being detected. A study that reviewed thousands of cases of occult 40: 649:

subtracting the minimum transmitted light from the transmitted light in each wavelength, the effects of other tissues are corrected for, generating a continuous signal for pulsatile arterial blood. The ratio of the red light measurement to the infrared light measurement is then calculated by the processor (which represents the ratio of oxygenated hemoglobin to deoxygenated hemoglobin), and this ratio is then converted to Sp

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such as extending averaging times or freezing values on the screen, but they do not claim to measure changing conditions during motion and low perfusion. So there are still important differences in performance of pulse oximeters during challenging conditions. Also in 1995, Masimo introduced perfusion index, quantifying the amplitude of the peripheral

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Class IIB medical grade oximeters. Class IIB oximeters can be used on patients of all skin colors, low pigmentation and in the presence of motion. When a pulse oximeter is shared between two patients, to prevent cross-infection it should be cleaned with alcohol wipes after each use or a disposable probe or finger cover should be used.

911:(ROP). Furthermore, obtaining an arterial blood gas from a neonatal patient is painful to the patient and a major cause of neonatal anemia. Motion artifact can be a significant limitation to pulse oximetry monitoring, resulting in frequent false alarms and loss of data. This is because during motion and low peripheral 915:, many pulse oximeters cannot distinguish between pulsating arterial blood and moving venous blood, leading to underestimation of oxygen saturation. Early studies of pulse oximetry performance during subject motion made clear the vulnerabilities of conventional pulse oximetry technologies to motion artifact. 529:

In addition to pulse oximeters for professional use, many inexpensive "consumer" models are available. Opinions vary about the reliability of consumer oximeters; a typical comment is "The research data on home monitors has been mixed, but they tend to be accurate within a few percentage points". Some

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waveform. Perfusion index has been shown to help clinicians predict illness severity and early adverse respiratory outcomes in neonates, predict low superior vena cava flow in very low birth weight infants, provide an early indicator of sympathectomy after epidural anesthesia, and improve detection

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with a wavelength of 940 nm. Absorption of light at these wavelengths differs significantly between blood loaded with oxygen and blood lacking oxygen. Oxygenated hemoglobin absorbs more infrared light and allows more red light to pass through. Deoxygenated hemoglobin allows more infrared light

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is impaired with the use of supplemental oxygen, as it is only when patients breathe room air that abnormalities in respiratory function can be detected reliably with its use. Therefore, the routine administration of supplemental oxygen may be unwarranted if the patient is able to maintain adequate

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introduced Signal Extraction Technology (SET) that could measure accurately during patient motion and low perfusion by separating the arterial signal from the venous and other signals. Since then, pulse oximetry manufacturers have developed new algorithms to reduce some false alarms during motion,

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Continuous monitoring with pulse oximetry is generally considered safe for most patients for up to 8 hours. However, prolonged use in certain types of patients can cause burns due to the heat emitted by the infrared LED, which reaches up to 43°C. Additionally, pulse oximeters occasionally develop

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Portable battery-operated pulse oximeters are useful for pilots operating in non-pressurized aircraft above 10,000 feet (3,000 m) or 12,500 feet (3,800 m) in the U.S. where supplemental oxygen is required. Portable pulse oximeters are also useful for mountain climbers and athletes whose

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Published papers have compared signal extraction technology to other pulse oximetry technologies and have demonstrated consistently favorable results for signal extraction technology. Signal extraction technology pulse oximetry performance has also been shown to translate into helping clinicians

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pulse oximeters use the flashlight and the camera of the phone, instead of infrared light used in conventional pulse oximeters. However, apps do not generate as accurate readings because the camera cannot measure the light reflection at two wavelengths, so the oxygen saturation readings that are

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infection, quoted João Paulo Cunha of the University of Porto, Portugal: "these sensors are not precise, that's the main limitation ... the ones that you wear are only for the consumer level, not for the clinical level". Pulse oximeters used for diagnosis of conditions such as COVID-19 should be

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readings than white patients for a given blood oxygen saturation level measured in blood samples. As a result, black, Hispanic, and Asian patients also received lower rates of supplemental oxygen than white patients. It is suggested that melanin can interfere with the absorption of light used to

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The amount of light that is transmitted (in other words, that is not absorbed) is measured, and separate normalized signals are produced for each wavelength. These signals fluctuate in time because the amount of arterial blood that is present increases (literally pulses) with each heartbeat. By

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is a less common alternative, placing the photodetector on the same surface as the illumination. This method does not require a thin section of the person's body and therefore may be used almost anywhere on the body, such as the forehead, chest, or feet, but it still has some limitations.

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Connectivity advancements have made it possible for patients to have their blood oxygen saturation continuously monitored without a cabled connection to a hospital monitor, without sacrificing the flow of patient data back to bedside monitors and centralized patient surveillance systems.

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Gilbert, Barry; Haider, Clifton; Schwab, Daniel; Delp, Gary. "Development of a Capability to Measure and Record Physical and Electrical Parameters in Free-Living Subjects, Motivating the Requirement for a Machine to Measure Natural Analytes of Clinical Importance in Blood Samples".

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has documented near universal screening in the United States and international screening is rapidly expanding. In 2014, a third large study of 122,738 newborns that also exclusively used signal extraction technology showed similar, positive results as the first two large studies.

664:. The signal separation also serves other purposes: a plethysmograph waveform ("pleth wave") representing the pulsatile signal is usually displayed for a visual indication of the pulses as well as signal quality, and a numeric ratio between the pulsatile and baseline absorbance (" 645:

to pass through and absorbs more red light. The LEDs sequence through their cycle of one on, then the other, then both off about thirty times per second which allows the photodiode to respond to the red and infrared light separately and also adjust for the ambient light baseline.

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skin; or movement (such as shivering), especially during hypoperfusion. To ensure accuracy, the sensor should return a steady pulse and/or pulse waveform. Pulse oximetry technologies differ in their abilities to provide accurate data during conditions of motion and low perfusion.

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Zimmermann M, Feibicke T, Keyl C, Prasser C, Moritz S, Graf BM, Wiesenack C (June 2010). "Accuracy of stroke volume variation compared with pleth variability index to predict fluid responsiveness in mechanically ventilated patients undergoing major surgery".

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rates, which can significantly underestimate dips in blood oxygen levels. The accuracy of pulse oximetry deteriorates considerably for readings below 80%. Research has suggested that error rates in common pulse oximeter devices may be higher for adults with

365:, but saturation figures give no information about blood oxygen content. Most of the oxygen in the blood is carried by hemoglobin; in severe anemia, the blood contains less hemoglobin, which despite being saturated cannot carry as much oxygen. 3514:

Durbin CG, Rostow SK (August 2002). "More reliable oximetry reduces the frequency of arterial blood gas analyses and hastens oxygen weaning after cardiac surgery: a prospective, randomized trial of the clinical impact of a new technology".

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De Felice C, Leoni L, Tommasini E, Tonni G, Toti P, Del Vecchio A, Ladisa G, Latini G (March 2008). "Maternal pulse oximetry perfusion index as a predictor of early adverse respiratory neonatal outcome after elective cesarean delivery".

907:. Pulse oximetry was of particular value in the neonatal unit where the patients do not thrive with inadequate oxygenation, but too much oxygen and fluctuations in oxygen concentration can lead to vision impairment or blindness from 213:. The pulse oximeter may be incorporated into a multiparameter patient monitor. Most monitors also display the pulse rate. Portable, battery-operated pulse oximeters are also available for transport or home blood-oxygen monitoring. 4039:

Zhao QM, Ma XJ, Ge XL, Liu F, Yan WL, Wu L, Ye M, Liang XC, Zhang J, Gao Y, Jia B, Huang GY (August 2014). "Pulse oximetry with clinical assessment to screen for congenital heart disease in neonates in China: a prospective study".

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Ewer AK, Middleton LJ, Furmston AT, Bhoyar A, Daniels JP, Thangaratinam S, Deeks JJ, Khan KS (August 2011). "Pulse oximetry screening for congenital heart defects in newborn infants (PulseOx): a test accuracy study".

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By 1987, the standard of care for the administration of a general anesthetic in the U.S. included pulse oximetry. From the operating room, the use of pulse oximetry rapidly spread throughout the hospital, first to

813:, where the maximum and minimum Pi values are from one or many breathing cycles. It has been shown to be a useful, noninvasive indicator of continuous fluid responsiveness for patients undergoing fluid management. 745: 3840:

Kemper AR, Mahle WT, Martin GR, Cooley WC, Kumar P, Morrow WR, Kelm K, Pearson GD, Glidewell J, Grosse SD, Howell RR (November 2011). "Strategies for implementing screening for critical congenital heart disease".

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Ginosar Y, Weiniger CF, Meroz Y, Kurz V, Bdolah-Abram T, Babchenko A, Nitzan M, Davidson EM (September 2009). "Pulse oximeter perfusion index as an early indicator of sympathectomy after epidural anesthesia".

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continuous measurement of blood oxygen saturation. In contrast, blood gas levels must otherwise be determined in a laboratory on a drawn blood sample. Pulse oximetry is useful in any setting where a patient's

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gives a high reading because it reduces oxygen extraction from arterial blood. In this case, the reading is not false, as arterial blood oxygen is indeed high early in cyanide poisoning: the patient is not

127:. The two wavelengths measure the quantities of bound (oxygenated) and unbound (non-oxygenated) hemoglobin, and from their ratio, the percentage of bound hemoglobin is computed. The most common approach is 242:. Although a pulse oximeter is used to monitor oxygenation, it cannot determine the metabolism of oxygen, or the amount of oxygen being used by a patient. For this purpose, it is necessary to also measure 162:

Vasodilation and pooling of venous blood in the head due to compromised venous return to the heart can cause a combination of arterial and venous pulsations in the forehead region and lead to spurious Sp

779:, which in turn can be split into a DC component (the peak value) and an AC component (peak minus trough). The ratio of the AC component to the DC component, expressed as a percentage, is known as the 139:, is illuminated, and the photodetector is on the other side. Fingertips and earlobes have disproportionately high blood flow relative to their size, in order to keep warm, but this will be lacking in 3884:

de-Wahl Granelli A, Wennergren M, Sandberg K, Mellander M, Bejlum C, Inganäs L, Eriksson M, Segerdahl N, Agren A, Ekman-Joelsson BM, Sunnegårdh J, Verdicchio M, Ostman-Smith I (January 2009).

395:, most hemoglobin might be bound not to oxygen but to carbon monoxide. A pulse oximeter would correctly report most hemoglobin to be bound, but nevertheless the patient would be in a state of 3245:

De Felice C, Goldstein MR, Parrini S, Verrotti A, Criscuolo M, Latini G (March 2006). "Early dynamic changes in pulse oximetry signals in preterm newborns with histologic chorioamnionitis".

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Because pulse oximeter devices are calibrated for healthy subjects, their accuracy is poor for critically ill patients and preterm newborns. Erroneously low readings may be caused by

2676:"Pleth variability index to monitor the respiratory variations in the pulse oximeter plethysmographic waveform amplitude and predict fluid responsiveness in the operating theatre" 1075:

This definition used by Masimo varies from the mean value used in signal processing; it is meant to measure the pulsatile arterial blood absorbance over the baseline absorbance.

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Since pulse oximetry measures only the percentage of bound hemoglobin, a falsely high or falsely low reading will occur when hemoglobin binds to something other than oxygen:

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Lin JC, Strauss RG, Kulhavy JC, Johnson KJ, Zimmerman MB, Cress GA, Connolly NW, Widness JA (August 2000). "Phlebotomy overdraw in the neonatal intensive care nursery".

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obtained through an app on a smartphone are inconsistent for clinical use. At least one study has suggested these are not reliable relative to clinical pulse oximeters.

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Matthes K (1935). "Untersuchungen über die Sauerstoffsättigung des menschlichen Arterienblutes" [Studies on the Oxygen Saturation of Arterial Human Blood].

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and light sources; today this method is not used clinically. In 1964 Shaw assembled the first absolute reading ear oximeter, which used eight wavelengths of light.

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or with exercise. Some portable pulse oximeters employ software that charts a patient's blood oxygen and pulse, serving as a reminder to check blood oxygen levels.

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Shah N, Ragaswamy HB, Govindugari K, Estanol L (August 2012). "Performance of three new-generation pulse oximeters during motion and low perfusion in volunteers".

3745:"Comparisons of body fluid volumes, plasma renin activity, hemodynamics and pressor responsiveness between juvenile and aged patients with essential hypertension" 4201: 258:

Because of their simplicity of use and the ability to provide continuous and immediate oxygen saturation values, pulse oximeters are of critical importance in

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saturation value when blood was readmitted. The concept is similar to today's conventional pulse oximetry, but was difficult to implement because of unstable

81:) readings are typically within 2% accuracy (within 4% accuracy in 95% of cases) of the more accurate (and invasive) reading of arterial oxygen saturation (Sa 1910: 3601:"Inpatient Respiratory Arrest Associated With Sedative and Analgesic Medications: Impact of Continuous Monitoring on Patient Mortality and Severe Morbidity" 673: 3886:"Impact of pulse oximetry screening on the detection of duct dependent congenital heart disease: a Swedish prospective screening study in 39,821 newborns" 3381:

Granelli A, Ostman-Smith I (October 2007). "Noninvasive peripheral perfusion index as a possible tool for screening for critical left heart obstruction".

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High-resolution pulse oximetry (HRPO) has been developed for in-home sleep apnea screening and testing in patients for whom it is impractical to perform

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De Felice C, Latini G, Vacca P, Kopotic RJ (October 2002). "The pulse oximeter perfusion index as a predictor for high illness severity in neonates".

1643: 4106: 2190:, Hans MG, Tosteson TD, Strohl KP, Spry K (January 1997). "Racial differences in sleep-disordered breathing in African-Americans and Caucasians". 3696:"Goal-directed fluid management based on the pulse oximeter-derived pleth variability index reduces lactate levels and improves fluid management" 435: 3805:

Vallet B, Blanloeil Y, Cholley B, Orliaguet G, Pierre S, Tavernier B (October 2013). "Guidelines for perioperative haemodynamic optimization".

846: 1830: 1106: 4132:"Oxygen desaturation index from nocturnal oximetry: a sensitive and specific tool to detect sleep-disordered breathing in surgical patients" 542:

According to a report by iData Research, the US pulse oximetry monitoring market for equipment and sensors was over $ 700 million in 2011.

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N A Saunders; A C P Powles; A S Rebuck (Jun 1976). "Ear oximetry: accuracy and practicability in the assessment of arterial oxygenation".

4810: 4194: 250:) levels. It is possible that it can also be used to detect abnormalities in ventilation. However, the use of a pulse oximeter to detect 797:(PVI) is a measure of the variability of the perfusion index, which occurs during breathing cycles. Mathematically it is calculated as 238:

in unpressurized aircraft, for assessment of any patient's oxygenation, and determining the effectiveness of or need for supplemental

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variation can be seen in the light signal received (transmittance) by the sensor on an oximeter. The variation can be described as a

2779:"Respiratory variations in pulse oximetry plethysmographic waveform amplitude to predict fluid responsiveness in the operating room" 1255: 1153:

Brand TM, Brand ME, Jay GD (February 2002). "Enamel nail polish does not interfere with pulse oximetry among normoxic volunteers".

2032:"Racial and Ethnic Discrepancy in Pulse Oximetry and Delayed Identification of Treatment Eligibility Among Patients With COVID-19" 442:, which was built in 2005 by Masimo. By using additional wavelengths, it provides clinicians a way to measure the dyshemoglobins, 205:(as opposed to measuring oxygen saturation directly through a blood sample) and changes in blood volume in the skin, producing a 3560:"Impact of pulse oximetry surveillance on rescue events and intensive care unit transfers: a before-and-after concurrence study" 4187: 3290:"The perfusion index derived from a pulse oximeter for predicting low superior vena cava flow in very low birth weight infants" 3021: 2610: 3979:"Endorsement of Health and Human Services recommendation for pulse oximetry screening for critical congenital heart disease" 2642: 891:

commercialized the first finger pulse oximeter OXIMET MET-1471. In the U.S., the first pulse oximetry was commercialized by

2578:"Accuracy of Smartphone Pulse Oximeters in Patients Visiting an Outpatient Pulmonary Function Lab for a 6-Minute Walk Test" 501: 3131:

Jopling MW, Mannheimer PD, Bebout DE (January 2002). "Issues in the laboratory evaluation of pulse oximeter performance".

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in 1 second intervals and has been shown in one study to help to detect sleep disordered breathing in surgical patients.

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Sjoding, Michael W.; Dickson, Robert P.; Iwashyna, Theodore J.; Gay, Steven E.; Valley, Thomas S. (December 17, 2020).

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Maisel WH, Lewis RJ (October 2010). "Noninvasive measurement of carboxyhemoglobin: how accurate is accurate enough?".

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ranges for patients without pulmonary pathology are from 95 to 99 percent. For a person breathing room air at or near

3467:"Prevention of retinopathy of prematurity in preterm infants through changes in clinical practice and SpO₂technology" 2351:

Cabanas, Ana M.; Fuentes-Guajardo, Macarena; Latorre, Katina; León, Dayneri; Martín-Escudero, Pilar (29 April 2022).

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Absorption spectra of oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO2) and deoxygenated hemoglobin (Hb) for red and infrared wavelengths

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saturation meter with red and green filters (later red and infrared filters). It was the first device to measure O

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A blood-oxygen monitor displays the percentage of blood that is loaded with oxygen. More specifically, it uses

2087: 1347: 119:, allowing it to determine the absorbance due to arterial blood alone, excluding unchanging absorbance due to 4745: 4720: 2856:(1942). "The oximeter: an instrument for measuring continuously oxygen saturation of arterial blood in man". 2031: 942:

In 2011, an expert workgroup recommended newborn screening with pulse oximetry to increase the detection of

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through a translucent part of the patient's body, usually a fingertip or an earlobe. One LED is red, with

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Pulse oximetry also is not a complete measure of circulatory oxygen sufficiency. If there is insufficient

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Keller, Matthew D.; Harrison-Smith, Brandon; Patil, Chetan; Shahriar Arefin, Mohammed (19 October 2022).

1499:"Masimo Announces FDA Clearance of Radius PPG™, the First Tetherless SET® Pulse Oximetry Sensor Solution" 610: 4179: 4705: 4561: 4556: 4113: 2353:"Skin Pigmentation Influence on Pulse Oximetry Accuracy: A Systematic Review and Bibliometric Analysis" 994: 908: 1639: 349:

checked in a laboratory, because it gives no indication of base deficit, carbon dioxide levels, blood

282:, pulse oximetry readings will be in the 70–90% range for much of the time spent attempting to sleep. 4423: 392: 2490: 4785: 4612: 4579: 4571: 2294:"Racial/Ethnic Differences in Sleep Disturbances: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA)" 1370:"Sleep . 3: Clinical presentation and diagnosis of the obstructive sleep apnoea hypopnoea syndrome" 535: 342: 17: 4339: 4228: 982: – A test of blood taken from an artery that measures the amounts of certain dissolved gases 943: 936: 279: 174: 112: 2510:"Effect of using disposable polyethylene bag as a probe cover or finger cover in pulse oximetry" 4815: 4775: 4740: 4710: 4645: 4546: 4092: 1575: 1036: – Relative measure of the amount of oxygen that is dissolved or carried in a given medium 1021: 1003: 947: 787:(Pi) for a pulse, and typically has a range of 0.02% to 20%. An earlier measurement called the 178: 4755: 4418: 2957:

Severinghaus JW, Honda Y (April 1987). "History of blood gas analysis. VII. Pulse oximetry".

2187: 1904: 227: 817:(ΔPOP) is an analogous earlier technique for use on the manually-derived POP, calculated as 4627: 4602: 4413: 3784: 2867: 2853: 2674:

Cannesson M, Desebbe O, Rosamel P, Delannoy B, Robin J, Bastien O, Lehot JJ (August 2008).

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incorporate an oximeter function. An article on such devices, in the context of diagnosing

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Kripke DF, Ancoli-Israel S, Klauber MR, Wingard DL, Mason WJ, Mullaney DJ (January 1997).

2112:"Researcher addresses longstanding problem with pulse oximeters and dark-skinned patients" 1525:"COVID-19: efficacy of prehospital pulse oximetry for early detection of silent hypoxemia" 361:) concentration. The metabolism of oxygen can readily be measured by monitoring expired CO 8: 4825: 4750: 4732: 4700: 4650: 4275: 2777:

Cannesson M, Attof Y, Rosamel P, Desebbe O, Joseph P, Metton O, et al. (June 2007).

2415:"Hidden in Plain Sight - Reconsidering the Use of Race Correction in Clinical Algorithms" 2235:"Prevalence of sleep-disordered breathing in ages 40-64 years: a population-based survey" 904: 484: 2871: 2795: 2778: 2368: 2146: 4622: 4594: 4448: 4348: 4211: 4161: 4065: 3959: 3910: 3885: 3866: 3725: 3676: 3627: 3600: 3540: 3491: 3466: 3406: 3363: 3314: 3289: 3270: 3258: 3227: 3184: 3072: 2982: 2835: 2756: 2544: 2509: 2444: 2387: 2352: 2328: 2293: 2269: 2234: 2168: 2056: 2007: 1982: 1963: 1753: 1551: 1524: 1450: 1440: 1421: 1394: 1369: 1329: 1227: 1178: 1130: 1101: 1042: – Chart of tissue blood volume changes. Also, the measuring of carbon dioxide (CO 1039: 979: 766: 369: 262:

and are also very useful for patients with respiratory or cardiac problems, especially

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added a pressure capsule to squeeze blood out of the ear so as to obtain an absolute O

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is dangerously low. This happens to patients either in the hospital or at home. Low Sp

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and is not a complete measure of respiratory sufficiency. It is not a substitute for

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Chen X, Wang R, Zee P, Lutsey PL, Javaheri S, Alcántara C, et al. (June 2015).

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Lima A, Bakker J (October 2005). "Noninvasive monitoring of peripheral perfusion".

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of the extremity being used for monitoring (often due to a limb being cold or from

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oxygenation in room air, since it can result in hypoventilation going undetected.

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McGrath SP, McGovern KM, Perreard IM, Huang V, Moss LB, Blike GT (March 2020).

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Takahashi S, Kakiuchi S, Nanba Y, Tsukamoto K, Nakamura T, Ito Y (April 2010).

2155: 2130: 1541: 924: 772: 302: 243: 235: 231: 198: 108: 3215: 2744: 2718: 2319: 2260: 1298: 1166: 991: – Monitoring of the concentration of carbon dioxide in respiratory gases 4804: 4541: 4469: 4433: 4398: 2593: 2535: 2475: 2211: 1951: 1826: 1817: 1317: 1276: 1027: 900: 459: 447: 131:. In this approach, one side of a thin part of the patient's body, usually a 116: 100: 2508:

Mondal, Himel; Das, AmitKumar; Behera, JoshilKumar; Mondal, Shaikat (2022).

2251: 1385: 1299:"Supplemental oxygen impairs detection of hypoventilation by pulse oximetry" 1254:. Liverpool Hospital, New South Wales, Australia. March 2015. Archived from 578: 4637: 4479: 4382: 4312: 4307: 4157: 4061: 4004: 3995: 3978: 3955: 3919: 3883: 3862: 3854: 3826: 3721: 3672: 3636: 3585: 3536: 3500: 3451: 3402: 3359: 3323: 3266: 3223: 3180: 3144: 3068: 3060: 2940: 2931: 2914: 2804: 2752: 2701: 2553: 2440: 2396: 2337: 2164: 2065: 2016: 1959: 1926:"Effects of Skin Pigmentation on Pulse Oximeter Accuracy at Low Saturation" 1797: 1749: 1678: 1625: 1616: 1599: 1560: 1459: 1403: 1325: 1174: 1139: 884: 880: 657: 594:, the protein in blood that carries oxygen, is loaded. Acceptable normal Sa 587: 570: 487:

can reduce the accuracy of the results. Some home pulse oximeters have low

120: 3442: 3425: 3117: 2978: 2431: 2414: 2278: 2219: 1223: 628:

A typical pulse oximeter uses an electronic processor and a pair of small

4617: 4497: 4484: 4474: 4442: 4366: 4317: 4255: 4250: 4245: 4209: 3770: 3426:"Reliability of conventional and new pulse oximetry in neonatal patients" 2692: 2675: 1998: 1924:

Bickler, Philip E.; Feiner, John R.; Severinghaus, John W. (2005-04-01).

1896: 1055: 1049: 988: 480: 467: 439: 354: 346: 222: 170: 140: 124: 3305: 2128: 1196:

Jørgensen JS, Schmid ER, König V, Faisst K, Huch A, Huch R (July 1995).

1120: 879:

The first pulse oximetry was developed in 1972 by Japanese bioengineers

319:

may indicate severe COVID-19-related pneumonia, requiring a ventilator.

4607: 4489: 4390: 4291: 4265: 4260: 4237: 3761: 3744: 3092:"Effects of motion on the performance of pulse oximeters in volunteers" 2970: 2831: 2576:

Modi, Aashna; Kiroukas, Renee; Scott, Jonathan Brady (1 October 2019).

2310: 1724:"'Motion-resistant' pulse oximetry: a comparison of new and old models" 1426: 1214: 1197: 959: 883:

and Michio Kishi at Japanese medical electronic equipment manufacturer

740:{\displaystyle {\ce {SpO_2}}={\frac {{\ce {HbO2}}}{{\ce {{HbO2}+Hb}}}}} 637: 633: 591: 550: 3901: 2879: 2566:

U.S. Market for Patient Monitoring Equipment. iData Research. May 2012

2377: 1024: – Method to mechanically assist or replace spontaneous breathing 1006: – Method to mechanically assist or replace spontaneous breathing 574:

Simplified principle of operation of a transmissive LED pulse oximeter

4765: 4403: 4322: 3424:

Hay WW, Rodden DJ, Collins SM, Melara DL, Hale KA, Fashaw LM (2002).

1573: 912: 873: 865: 782: 602: 505: 493: 411: 396: 305:, in which the patients still look and feel comfortable, but their Sp 287: 132: 1297:

Fu ES, Downs JB, Schweiger JW, Miguel RV, Smith RA (November 2004).

997: – single value that describes the patient’s respiratory status 4374: 641: 298: 275: 4130:

Chung F, Liao P, Elsaid H, Islam S, Shapiro CM, Sun Y (May 2012).

2491:"Why can't your fitness tracker tell you if you have coronavirus?" 2350: 1874: 4584: 4219: 3244: 2232: 888: 476: 424:

characteristically causes pulse oximetry readings in the mid-80s.

136: 39: 189: 4760: 4457: 4437: 4299: 4018: 3804: 3287: 2673: 1775: 919: 471: 434:

A noninvasive method that allows continuous measurement of the

373: 239: 152: 144: 201:

that indirectly monitors the oxygen saturation of a patient's

3649: 271: 234:, operating, recovery, emergency and hospital ward settings, 202: 148: 104: 96: 3598: 3157: 2776: 2464:"What's a Pulse Oximeter, and Do I Really Need One at Home?" 2131:"Skin colour affects the accuracy of medical oxygen sensors" 3977:

Mahle WT, Martin GR, Beekman RH, Morrow WR (January 2012).

3932: 3558:

Taenzer AH, Pyke JB, McGrath SP, Blike GT (February 2010).

3201: 1052: – Disorder involving pauses in breathing during sleep 892: 427: 263: 3465:

Castillo A, Deulofeut R, Critz A, Sola A (February 2011).

3464: 2913:

Wood, EH; Leusen, IR; Warner, HR; Wright, JL (July 1954).

2192:

American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine

2185: 1195: 341:

Pulse oximetry solely measures hemoglobin saturation, not

1980: 1923: 1100:

Nitzan, Meir; Romem, Ayal; Koppel, Robert (8 July 2014).

724: 708: 688: 3976: 3336: 3046: 1600:"Pulse Oximetry Overestimates Oxygen Saturation in COPD" 935:

In 2007, Masimo introduced the first measurement of the

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Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

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Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

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Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

350: 3423: 2915:"Measurement of pressures in man by cardiac catheters" 2912: 1576:"Skin Integrity Issues Associated with Pulse Oximetry" 1296: 2507: 676: 4129: 3380: 2179: 1846:"Pulse oximeters are less accurate for Black people" 1474:"FAR Part 91 Sec. 91.211 effective as of 09/30/1963" 1102:"Pulse oximetry: fundamentals and technology update" 999:

Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

849:(1905–1962) developed the first two-wavelength ear O 95:

A standard pulse oximeter passes two wavelengths of

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A pulse oximeter probe applied to a person's finger

4076: 1813:"How a Popular Medical Device Encodes Racial Bias" 928:of critical congenital heart disease in newborns. 815:Pulse oximetry plethysmographic waveform amplitude 739: 3807:Annales Françaises d'Anesthésie et de Réanimation 3693: 2956: 2669: 2667: 2665: 2663: 2575: 2291: 2088:"An Overdue Fix: Racial Bias and Pulse Oximeters" 1909:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 ( 1367: 1363: 1361: 1359: 1357: 1099: 1030: – Device for measuring oxygen concentration 177:and mechanical ventilation or in patients in the 4802: 1522: 1270: 1268: 864:in the 1940s. In 1943 and as published in 1949, 453: 169:results. Such conditions occur while undergoing 2772: 2770: 1650: 1419: 1243: 1241: 771:Due to changes in blood volumes in the skin, a 391:than it does to oxygen. Therefore, in cases of 301:, pulse oximetry helps with early detection of 123:, skin, bone, muscle, fat, and, in many cases, 3238: 2952: 2950: 2820:Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology 2660: 1717: 1715: 1713: 1574:Pennsylvania Patient Safety Authority (2005), 1415: 1413: 1354: 1095: 1093: 1091: 1015: – Device to be used for medical purposes 470:agents); incorrect sensor application; highly 221:Pulse oximetry is particularly convenient for 4691: 4195: 2637: 2635: 1516: 1265: 1152: 3798: 3694:Forget P, Lois F, de Kock M (October 2010). 3687: 3513: 3003:. United States Food and Drug Administration 2767: 2344: 1810: 1771: 1769: 1767: 1591: 1238: 1155:Journal of Clinical Monitoring and Computing 143:patients. Other convenient sites include an 4038: 2947: 2605: 2603: 2514:Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 2461: 1983:"Racial Bias in Pulse Oximetry Measurement" 1710: 1656: 1410: 1088: 524: 500:in countries with multi-racial populations 4202: 4188: 3089: 2886: 2730: 2645:. Oximetry.org. 2002-09-10. Archived from 2632: 1843: 1277:"Covid: How a £20 gadget could save lives" 609:can be made from the blood-oxygen monitor 336: 38: 4147: 3994: 3909: 3760: 3742: 3711: 3626: 3616: 3575: 3490: 3441: 3313: 3107: 2930: 2794: 2713: 2711: 2691: 2543: 2525: 2430: 2386: 2376: 2327: 2309: 2285: 2268: 2250: 2226: 2154: 2055: 2006: 1941: 1764: 1739: 1615: 1598:Amalakanti S, Pentakota MR (April 2016). 1550: 1540: 1523:Quaresima V, Ferrari M (13 August 2020). 1449: 1439: 1393: 1274: 1213: 1129: 1119: 665: 380:despite high arterial oxygen saturation. 372:or insufficient hemoglobin in the blood ( 210: 2852: 2600: 2105: 2103: 2101: 1198:"Limitations of forehead pulse oximetry" 577: 569: 561: 188: 4082: 2817: 2488: 2408: 2406: 1974: 1368:Schlosshan D, Elliott MW (April 2004). 760: 53:Monitoring a person's oxygen saturation 14: 4803: 2708: 1877:American Review of Respiratory Disease 1721: 1422:"The uses of overnight pulse oximetry" 1107:Medical Devices: Evidence and Research 668:") can be used to evaluate perfusion. 27:Measurement of blood oxygen saturation 4183: 4019:"Newborn CCHD Screening Progress Map" 2109: 2098: 2085: 2029: 1844:Katsnelson, Alla (30 December 2020). 1580:Pennsylvania Patient Safety Authority 757:) and Hb is deoxygenated hemoglobin. 3024:. Masimo Corporation. Archived from 2412: 2403: 1275:Gallagher, James (21 January 2021). 623: 387:Hemoglobin has a higher affinity to 4552:High-resolution computed tomography 4210:Tests and procedures involving the 4021:. Cchdscreeningmap.org. 7 July 2014 3653:European Journal of Anaesthesiology 3340:Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 3090:Barker SJ, Shah NK (October 1996). 2796:10.1097/01.anes.0000267593.72744.20 2455: 2419:The New England Journal of Medicine 1987:The New England Journal of Medicine 1420:Singh S, Khan SZ, Talwar A (2020). 286:oxygen levels may decrease at high 209:that may be further processed into 24: 4811:Diagnostic intensive care medicine 3259:10.1097/01.PCC.0000201002.50708.62 1804: 1441:10.4103/lungindia.lungindia_302_19 860:The original oximeter was made by 582:The inner side of a pulse oximeter 25: 4852: 4175: 2092:Federation of American Scientists 1811:Moran-Thomas A (August 5, 2020). 1671:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2010.05.025 1348:"The Many Uses of Pulse Oximetry" 944:critical congenital heart disease 640:of 660 nm, and the other is 611:"saturation of peripheral oxygen" 147:foot or an unconscious patient's 3785:"NHS Technology Adoption Centre" 3529:10.1097/00003246-200208000-00010 3483:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2010.02001.x 3395:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2007.00439.x 3352:10.1111/j.1399-6576.2009.01968.x 3247:Pediatric Critical Care Medicine 3161:Pediatric Critical Care Medicine 3109:10.1097/00000542-199701000-00014 3001:"510(k): Premarket Notification" 2859:Review of Scientific Instruments 1943:10.1097/00000542-200504000-00004 1741:10.1213/00000539-200210000-00033 1476:. Airweb.faa.gov. Archived from 496:, leading to claims of encoding 4123: 4099: 4032: 4011: 3970: 3926: 3877: 3833: 3777: 3736: 3643: 3592: 3551: 3507: 3458: 3417: 3374: 3330: 3281: 3195: 3151: 3124: 3083: 3040: 3014: 2993: 2906: 2846: 2811: 2724: 2569: 2560: 2501: 2482: 2122: 2116:U.S National Science Foundation 2079: 2048:10.1001/jamainternmed.2022.1906 2023: 1917: 1868: 1850:Chemical & Engineering News 1837: 1685: 1632: 1567: 1491: 1466: 1069: 789:pulse oximetry plethysmographic 483:(low blood pressure), and some 184: 4330:Laryngotracheal reconstruction 3743:Ishii M, Ohno K (March 1977). 3204:European Journal of Pediatrics 2959:Journal of Clinical Monitoring 2680:British Journal of Anaesthesia 2611:"Principles of pulse oximetry" 1790:10.1016/j.jclinane.2011.10.012 1778:Journal of Clinical Anesthesia 1340: 1290: 1202:Journal of Clinical Monitoring 1189: 1146: 590:to measure what percentage of 545: 331: 13: 1: 4721:Positive pressure ventilation 4085:"Keeping a Pulse on Oximetry" 4054:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60198-7 3948:10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60753-8 2617:. 11 Sep 2004. Archived from 1082: 958:. It stores and records both 454:Conditions affecting accuracy 450:along with total hemoglobin. 216: 4716:Negative pressure ventilator 4149:10.1213/ane.0b013e318248f4f5 4112:. Maxtec Inc. Archived from 3819:10.1016/j.annfar.2013.09.010 3749:Japanese Circulation Journal 3713:10.1213/ANE.0b013e3181eb624f 3665:10.1097/EJA.0b013e328335fbd1 3618:10.1097/PTS.0000000000000696 3577:10.1097/aln.0b013e3181ca7a9b 3173:10.1097/pcc.0b013e3181670021 2462:Parker-Pope T (2020-04-24). 2204:10.1164/ajrccm.155.1.9001310 1659:Annals of Emergency Medicine 1249:"SpO₂ monitoring in the ICU" 605:, an estimate of arterial pO 557: 519: 403:(low cellular oxygen level). 111:, it measures the change in 72:Peripheral oxygen saturation 66:method for monitoring blood 7: 2527:10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_1364_21 2110:Bates, J (March 31, 2023). 1889:10.1164/arrd.1976.113.6.745 972: 266:, or for diagnosis of some 129:transmissive pulse oximetry 10: 4857: 4706:Surgical airway management 4562:Ventilation/perfusion scan 4362:Tracheoesophageal puncture 2156:10.1038/d41586-022-03161-1 1722:Barker SJ (October 2002). 1542:10.1186/s13054-020-03185-x 1046:) in the respiratory gases 995:Integrated pulmonary index 909:retinopathy of prematurity 845:In 1935, German physician 840: 764: 753:is oxygenated hemoglobin ( 159:Reflectance pulse oximetry 103:. Taking advantage of the 4821:Medical testing equipment 4731: 4684: 4664: 4636: 4593: 4570: 4532: 4525: 4432: 4338: 4227: 4218: 3605:Journal of Patient Safety 3216:10.1007/s00431-002-1042-5 2745:10.1007/s00134-005-2790-2 1693:"Total Hemoglobin (SpHb)" 502:such as the United States 430:may cause false readings. 393:carbon monoxide poisoning 322: 49: 37: 32: 4786:Pulmonary rehabilitation 4613:Bronchial challenge test 4580:Pneumonia severity index 4572:Clinical prediction rule 4136:Anesthesia and Analgesia 4083:Valenza T (April 2008). 3700:Anesthesia and Analgesia 3133:Anesthesia and Analgesia 2489:Charara S (6 May 2020). 1728:Anesthesia and Analgesia 1318:10.1378/chest.126.5.1552 1062: 525:Consumer pulse oximeters 466:secondary to the use of 3430:Journal of Perinatology 3294:Journal of Perinatology 2733:Intensive Care Medicine 2413:Vyas, Darshali (2020). 1891:(inactive 2024-09-12). 1386:10.1136/thx.2003.007179 1167:10.1023/A:1016385222568 937:pleth variability index 795:Pleth variability index 656:by the processor via a 337:Fundamental limitations 280:obstructive sleep apnea 230:is unstable, including 175:endotracheal intubation 4776:Hyperinflation therapy 4741:Artificial respiration 4711:Mechanical ventilation 4646:Bronchoalveolar lavage 4547:CT pulmonary angiogram 3996:10.1542/peds.2011-3211 3855:10.1542/peds.2011-1317 3517:Critical Care Medicine 3061:10.1542/peds.106.2.e19 2932:10.1161/01.res.2.4.294 2902:(Under Consideration). 2896:SPIE J. Of Biomed. Opt 2036:JAMA Internal Medicine 2030:Fawzy, Ashraf (2022). 1833:on September 16, 2020. 1617:10.4187/respcare.04435 1022:Mechanical ventilation 1004:Respiratory monitoring 948:The Newborn Foundation 741: 583: 575: 567: 376:), tissues can suffer 197:A pulse oximeter is a 194: 179:Trendelenburg position 4756:Decompression chamber 4424:Heart–lung transplant 4095:on February 10, 2012. 3443:10.1038/sj.jp.7210740 2719:U.S. patent 8,414,499 2432:10.1056/NEJMms2004740 2252:10.1093/sleep/20.1.65 742: 630:light-emitting diodes 581: 573: 565: 192: 115:over the course of a 4628:Impulse oscillometry 4603:Body plethysmography 1999:10.1056/NEJMc2029240 1503:www.businesswire.com 905:intensive care units 862:Glenn Allan Millikan 761:Derived measurements 674: 278:. For patients with 99:through tissue to a 4841:American inventions 4836:Japanese inventions 4751:Hyperbaric medicine 4733:Respiratory therapy 4651:Nasopharyngeal swab 4276:Acoustic rhinometry 4119:on January 7, 2009. 3306:10.1038/jp.2009.159 3139:(1 Suppl): S62–68. 2872:1942RScI...13..434M 2369:2022Senso..22.3402C 2147:2022Natur.610..449K 1121:10.2147/MDER.S47319 726: 710: 690: 530:smart watches with 485:hemoglobin variants 4831:Medical monitoring 4623:Diffusion capacity 4595:Lung function test 4212:respiratory system 3762:10.1253/jcj.41.237 3022:"Fact vs. Fiction" 2971:10.1007/bf00858362 2832:10.1007/BF01862691 2693:10.1093/bja/aen133 2468:The New York Times 2311:10.5665/sleep.4732 2086:Wickerson, Grace. 1215:10.1007/bf01617520 1040:Photoplethysmogram 980:Arterial blood gas 767:Photoplethysmogram 737: 714: 698: 678: 588:light spectrometry 584: 576: 568: 297:For patients with 260:emergency medicine 211:other measurements 207:photoplethysmogram 195: 90:arterial blood gas 4798: 4797: 4794: 4793: 4781:Pulmonary hygiene 4771:Postural drainage 4680: 4679: 4521: 4520: 4048:(9945): 747–754. 3942:(9793): 785–794. 3902:10.1136/bmj.a3037 3849:(5): e1259–1267. 3389:(10): 1455–1459. 2880:10.1063/1.1769941 2739:(10): 1316–1326. 2378:10.3390/s22093402 2141:(7932): 449–451. 1993:(25): 2477–2478. 1034:Oxygen saturation 1013:Medical equipment 965: 777:periodic function 735: 733: 717: 701: 681: 652: 624:Mode of operation 616: 597: 532:activity tracking 511: 444:carboxyhemoglobin 422:Methemoglobinemia 407:Cyanide poisoning 399:and subsequently 315: 308: 165: 84: 77: 68:oxygen saturation 57: 56: 44:A pulse oximeter. 16:(Redirected from 4848: 4689: 4688: 4685:Other procedures 4530: 4529: 4225: 4224: 4204: 4197: 4190: 4181: 4180: 4170: 4169: 4151: 4127: 4121: 4120: 4118: 4111: 4103: 4097: 4096: 4091:. Archived from 4080: 4074: 4073: 4036: 4030: 4029: 4027: 4026: 4015: 4009: 4008: 3998: 3974: 3968: 3967: 3930: 3924: 3923: 3913: 3881: 3875: 3874: 3837: 3831: 3830: 3813:(10): e151–158. 3802: 3796: 3795: 3793: 3792: 3781: 3775: 3774: 3764: 3740: 3734: 3733: 3715: 3691: 3685: 3684: 3647: 3641: 3640: 3630: 3620: 3596: 3590: 3589: 3579: 3555: 3549: 3548: 3523:(8): 1735–1740. 3511: 3505: 3504: 3494: 3471:Acta Paediatrica 3462: 3456: 3455: 3445: 3421: 3415: 3414: 3383:Acta Paediatrica 3378: 3372: 3371: 3346:(8): 1018–1026. 3334: 3328: 3327: 3317: 3285: 3279: 3278: 3242: 3236: 3235: 3199: 3193: 3192: 3155: 3149: 3148: 3128: 3122: 3121: 3111: 3087: 3081: 3080: 3044: 3038: 3037: 3035: 3033: 3028:on 13 April 2009 3018: 3012: 3011: 3009: 3008: 2997: 2991: 2990: 2954: 2945: 2944: 2934: 2910: 2904: 2903: 2890: 2884: 2883: 2850: 2844: 2843: 2815: 2809: 2808: 2798: 2789:(6): 1105–1111. 2774: 2765: 2764: 2728: 2722: 2721: 2715: 2706: 2705: 2695: 2671: 2658: 2657: 2655: 2654: 2643:"Pulse Oximetry" 2639: 2630: 2629: 2627: 2626: 2607: 2598: 2597: 2582:Respiratory Care 2573: 2567: 2564: 2558: 2557: 2547: 2529: 2505: 2499: 2498: 2486: 2480: 2479: 2459: 2453: 2452: 2434: 2410: 2401: 2400: 2390: 2380: 2348: 2342: 2341: 2331: 2313: 2289: 2283: 2282: 2272: 2254: 2230: 2224: 2223: 2183: 2177: 2176: 2158: 2126: 2120: 2119: 2107: 2096: 2095: 2083: 2077: 2076: 2074: 2072: 2059: 2027: 2021: 2020: 2010: 1978: 1972: 1971: 1945: 1921: 1915: 1914: 1908: 1900: 1872: 1866: 1865: 1863: 1861: 1841: 1835: 1834: 1829:. Archived from 1808: 1802: 1801: 1773: 1762: 1761: 1743: 1719: 1708: 1707: 1705: 1703: 1689: 1683: 1682: 1654: 1648: 1647: 1646: 1642: 1636: 1630: 1629: 1619: 1604:Respiratory Care 1595: 1589: 1588: 1587: 1586: 1571: 1565: 1564: 1554: 1544: 1535:(501): 423–427. 1520: 1514: 1513: 1511: 1510: 1495: 1489: 1488: 1486: 1485: 1470: 1464: 1463: 1453: 1443: 1417: 1408: 1407: 1397: 1365: 1352: 1351: 1344: 1338: 1337: 1312:(5): 1552–1558. 1303: 1294: 1288: 1287: 1285: 1283: 1272: 1263: 1262: 1261:on 15 June 2016. 1260: 1253: 1245: 1236: 1235: 1217: 1193: 1187: 1186: 1150: 1144: 1143: 1133: 1123: 1097: 1076: 1073: 1018: 1009: 1000: 985: 963: 836: 812: 773:plethysmographic 746: 744: 743: 738: 736: 734: 731: 727: 725: 722: 715: 711: 709: 706: 699: 696: 691: 689: 686: 679: 662:Beer–Lambert law 650: 632:(LEDs) facing a 614: 595: 509: 464:vasoconstriction 313: 306: 163: 82: 75: 42: 30: 29: 21: 4856: 4855: 4851: 4850: 4849: 4847: 4846: 4845: 4801: 4800: 4799: 4790: 4727: 4676: 4660: 4632: 4589: 4566: 4534:Medical imaging 4517: 4506:Mediastinoscopy 4446: 4441: 4428: 4414:Transplantation 4409:Wedge resection 4334: 4214: 4208: 4178: 4173: 4142:(5): 993–1000. 4128: 4124: 4116: 4109: 4105: 4104: 4100: 4081: 4077: 4037: 4033: 4024: 4022: 4017: 4016: 4012: 3975: 3971: 3931: 3927: 3882: 3878: 3838: 3834: 3803: 3799: 3790: 3788: 3783: 3782: 3778: 3741: 3737: 3692: 3688: 3648: 3644: 3597: 3593: 3556: 3552: 3512: 3508: 3463: 3459: 3422: 3418: 3379: 3375: 3335: 3331: 3286: 3282: 3243: 3239: 3210:(10): 561–562. 3200: 3196: 3156: 3152: 3129: 3125: 3088: 3084: 3045: 3041: 3031: 3029: 3020: 3019: 3015: 3006: 3004: 2999: 2998: 2994: 2955: 2948: 2911: 2907: 2891: 2887: 2866:(10): 434–444. 2851: 2847: 2816: 2812: 2775: 2768: 2729: 2725: 2717: 2716: 2709: 2672: 2661: 2652: 2650: 2641: 2640: 2633: 2624: 2622: 2609: 2608: 2601: 2574: 2570: 2565: 2561: 2506: 2502: 2487: 2483: 2460: 2456: 2411: 2404: 2349: 2345: 2290: 2286: 2231: 2227: 2184: 2180: 2127: 2123: 2108: 2099: 2084: 2080: 2070: 2068: 2028: 2024: 1979: 1975: 1922: 1918: 1902: 1901: 1873: 1869: 1859: 1857: 1842: 1838: 1809: 1805: 1774: 1765: 1720: 1711: 1701: 1699: 1691: 1690: 1686: 1655: 1651: 1644: 1638: 1637: 1633: 1596: 1592: 1584: 1582: 1572: 1568: 1521: 1517: 1508: 1506: 1497: 1496: 1492: 1483: 1481: 1472: 1471: 1467: 1418: 1411: 1366: 1355: 1346: 1345: 1341: 1301: 1295: 1291: 1281: 1279: 1273: 1266: 1258: 1251: 1247: 1246: 1239: 1194: 1190: 1151: 1147: 1098: 1089: 1085: 1080: 1079: 1074: 1070: 1065: 1060: 1045: 1016: 1007: 998: 983: 975: 968: 956:polysomnography 871: 856: 852: 843: 834: 830: 826: 822: 818: 810: 806: 802: 798: 769: 763: 752: 723: 718: 713: 712: 707: 702: 697: 695: 687: 682: 677: 675: 672: 671: 666:perfusion index 655: 626: 619: 608: 600: 560: 548: 527: 522: 514: 498:systemic racism 494:dark skin color 456: 389:carbon monoxide 364: 360: 339: 334: 325: 318: 311: 268:sleep disorders 252:hypoventilation 249: 219: 187: 168: 87: 80: 45: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4854: 4844: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4796: 4795: 4792: 4791: 4789: 4788: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4737: 4735: 4729: 4728: 4726: 4725: 4724: 4723: 4718: 4708: 4703: 4697: 4695: 4693:Oxygen therapy 4686: 4682: 4681: 4678: 4677: 4675: 4674: 4672:Blood gas test 4668: 4666: 4662: 4661: 4659: 4658: 4656:Sputum culture 4653: 4648: 4642: 4640: 4634: 4633: 4631: 4630: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4605: 4599: 4597: 4591: 4590: 4588: 4587: 4582: 4576: 4574: 4568: 4567: 4565: 4564: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4544: 4538: 4536: 4527: 4523: 4522: 4519: 4518: 4516: 4515: 4513:Nuss procedure 4509: 4508: 4503: 4501: 4493: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4465: 4462:pleural cavity 4453: 4451: 4430: 4429: 4427: 4426: 4421: 4416: 4411: 4406: 4401: 4396: 4394: 4386: 4385: 4380: 4378: 4370: 4369: 4364: 4359: 4357:Cricothyrotomy 4354: 4352: 4344: 4342: 4336: 4335: 4333: 4332: 4327: 4326: 4325: 4315: 4310: 4305: 4303: 4295: 4294: 4289: 4287: 4279: 4278: 4273: 4271:Rhinomanometry 4268: 4263: 4258: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4241: 4233: 4231: 4222: 4216: 4215: 4207: 4206: 4199: 4192: 4184: 4177: 4176:External links 4174: 4172: 4171: 4122: 4107:"PULSOX -300i" 4098: 4075: 4031: 4010: 3989:(1): 190–192. 3969: 3925: 3876: 3832: 3797: 3776: 3755:(3): 237–246. 3735: 3706:(4): 910–914. 3686: 3659:(6): 555–561. 3642: 3611:(8): 557–561. 3591: 3570:(2): 282–287. 3564:Anesthesiology 3550: 3506: 3477:(2): 188–192. 3457: 3436:(5): 360–366. 3416: 3373: 3329: 3300:(4): 265–269. 3280: 3253:(2): 138–142. 3237: 3194: 3167:(2): 203–208. 3150: 3123: 3102:(4): 774–781. 3096:Anesthesiology 3082: 3039: 3013: 2992: 2965:(2): 135–138. 2946: 2925:(4): 294–303. 2905: 2885: 2845: 2826:(6): 698–711. 2810: 2783:Anesthesiology 2766: 2723: 2707: 2686:(2): 200–206. 2659: 2631: 2615:Anaesthesia UK 2599: 2568: 2559: 2520:(2): 708–714. 2500: 2481: 2454: 2425:(9): 874–882. 2402: 2343: 2304:(6): 877–888. 2284: 2225: 2198:(1): 186–192. 2178: 2121: 2097: 2078: 2042:(7): 730–738. 2022: 1973: 1936:(4): 715–719. 1930:Anesthesiology 1916: 1883:(6): 745–749. 1867: 1836: 1803: 1784:(5): 385–391. 1763: 1734:(4): 967–972. 1709: 1684: 1665:(4): 389–391. 1649: 1631: 1610:(4): 423–427. 1590: 1566: 1515: 1490: 1465: 1434:(2): 151–157. 1409: 1380:(4): 347–352. 1353: 1339: 1289: 1264: 1237: 1208:(4): 253–256. 1188: 1145: 1086: 1084: 1081: 1078: 1077: 1067: 1066: 1064: 1061: 1059: 1058: 1053: 1047: 1043: 1037: 1031: 1025: 1019: 1010: 1001: 992: 986: 976: 974: 971: 966: 925:plethysmograph 903:, and then to 901:recovery rooms 869: 854: 850: 842: 839: 832: 828: 824: 820: 808: 804: 800: 762: 759: 750: 730: 721: 705: 694: 685: 653: 625: 622: 617: 606: 598: 559: 556: 547: 544: 526: 523: 521: 518: 512: 455: 452: 436:dyshemoglobins 432: 431: 425: 419: 404: 362: 358: 338: 335: 333: 330: 324: 321: 316: 309: 303:silent hypoxia 247: 244:carbon dioxide 232:intensive care 218: 215: 199:medical device 186: 183: 166: 109:arterial blood 85: 78: 60:Pulse oximetry 55: 54: 51: 47: 46: 43: 35: 34: 33:Pulse oximetry 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4853: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4816:Medical tests 4814: 4812: 4809: 4808: 4806: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4747: 4744: 4742: 4739: 4738: 4736: 4734: 4730: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4714: 4713: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4698: 4696: 4694: 4690: 4687: 4683: 4673: 4670: 4669: 4667: 4663: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4644: 4643: 4641: 4639: 4635: 4629: 4626: 4624: 4621: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4604: 4601: 4600: 4598: 4596: 4592: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4577: 4575: 4573: 4569: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4542:Bronchography 4540: 4539: 4537: 4535: 4531: 4528: 4524: 4514: 4511: 4510: 4507: 4504: 4502: 4500: 4499: 4495: 4494: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4470:Thoracentesis 4468: 4466: 4464: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4454: 4452: 4450: 4444: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4425: 4422: 4420: 4419:Decortication 4417: 4415: 4412: 4410: 4407: 4405: 4402: 4400: 4399:Pneumonectomy 4397: 4395: 4393: 4392: 4388: 4387: 4384: 4381: 4379: 4377: 4376: 4372: 4371: 4368: 4365: 4363: 4360: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4351: 4350: 4346: 4345: 4343: 4341: 4337: 4331: 4328: 4324: 4321: 4320: 4319: 4316: 4314: 4311: 4309: 4306: 4304: 4302: 4301: 4297: 4296: 4293: 4290: 4288: 4286: 4285: 4281: 4280: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4240: 4239: 4235: 4234: 4232: 4230: 4226: 4223: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4205: 4200: 4198: 4193: 4191: 4186: 4185: 4182: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4150: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4126: 4115: 4108: 4102: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4079: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4035: 4020: 4014: 4006: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3973: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3929: 3921: 3917: 3912: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3880: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3836: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3801: 3787:. Ntac.nhs.uk 3786: 3780: 3772: 3768: 3763: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3739: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3714: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3690: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3646: 3638: 3634: 3629: 3624: 3619: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3595: 3587: 3583: 3578: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3554: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3510: 3502: 3498: 3493: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3461: 3453: 3449: 3444: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3420: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3377: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3333: 3325: 3321: 3316: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3284: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3241: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3198: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3154: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3127: 3119: 3115: 3110: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3086: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3043: 3027: 3023: 3017: 3002: 2996: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2953: 2951: 2942: 2938: 2933: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2909: 2901: 2897: 2889: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2860: 2855: 2849: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2822:(in German). 2821: 2814: 2806: 2802: 2797: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2773: 2771: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2727: 2720: 2714: 2712: 2703: 2699: 2694: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2670: 2668: 2666: 2664: 2649:on 2015-03-18 2648: 2644: 2638: 2636: 2621:on 2015-02-24 2620: 2616: 2612: 2606: 2604: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2572: 2563: 2555: 2551: 2546: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2528: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2504: 2496: 2492: 2485: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2458: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2433: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2409: 2407: 2398: 2394: 2389: 2384: 2379: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2347: 2339: 2335: 2330: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2312: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2288: 2280: 2276: 2271: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2253: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2229: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2182: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2157: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2125: 2117: 2113: 2106: 2104: 2102: 2093: 2089: 2082: 2067: 2063: 2058: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2026: 2018: 2014: 2009: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1977: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1944: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1920: 1912: 1906: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1871: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1840: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1819: 1818:Boston Review 1814: 1807: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1772: 1770: 1768: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1742: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1718: 1716: 1714: 1698: 1694: 1688: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1653: 1641: 1635: 1627: 1623: 1618: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1594: 1581: 1577: 1570: 1562: 1558: 1553: 1548: 1543: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1529:Critical Care 1526: 1519: 1504: 1500: 1494: 1480:on 2018-06-19 1479: 1475: 1469: 1461: 1457: 1452: 1447: 1442: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1428: 1423: 1416: 1414: 1405: 1401: 1396: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1364: 1362: 1360: 1358: 1349: 1343: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1300: 1293: 1278: 1271: 1269: 1257: 1250: 1244: 1242: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1216: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1192: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1149: 1141: 1137: 1132: 1127: 1122: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1108: 1103: 1096: 1094: 1092: 1087: 1072: 1068: 1057: 1054: 1051: 1048: 1041: 1038: 1035: 1032: 1029: 1028:Oxygen sensor 1026: 1023: 1020: 1014: 1011: 1005: 1002: 996: 993: 990: 987: 981: 978: 977: 970: 961: 957: 952: 949: 945: 940: 938: 933: 929: 926: 921: 916: 914: 910: 906: 902: 896: 894: 890: 886: 882: 877: 875: 867: 863: 858: 848: 838: 816: 796: 792: 790: 786: 784: 781:(peripheral) 778: 774: 768: 758: 756: 755:oxyhemoglobin 747: 728: 719: 703: 692: 683: 669: 667: 663: 660:based on the 659: 646: 643: 639: 635: 631: 621: 612: 604: 593: 589: 580: 572: 564: 555: 552: 543: 540: 537: 533: 517: 507: 503: 499: 495: 490: 486: 482: 478: 473: 469: 465: 461: 460:hypoperfusion 451: 449: 448:methemoglobin 445: 441: 438:is the pulse 437: 429: 426: 423: 420: 417: 413: 408: 405: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 385: 384: 381: 379: 375: 371: 366: 356: 352: 348: 344: 329: 320: 304: 300: 295: 291: 289: 283: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 261: 256: 253: 245: 241: 237: 233: 229: 224: 214: 212: 208: 204: 200: 191: 182: 180: 176: 172: 160: 156: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 117:cardiac cycle 114: 110: 106: 102: 101:photodetector 98: 93: 91: 73: 69: 65: 61: 52: 48: 41: 36: 31: 19: 4496: 4480:Thoracoscopy 4456: 4389: 4383:Bronchoscopy 4373: 4347: 4313:Laryngectomy 4308:Laryngoscopy 4298: 4282: 4236: 4139: 4135: 4125: 4114:the original 4101: 4093:the original 4089:Sleep Review 4088: 4078: 4045: 4041: 4034: 4023:. Retrieved 4013: 3986: 3982: 3972: 3939: 3935: 3928: 3893: 3889: 3879: 3846: 3842: 3835: 3810: 3806: 3800: 3789:. Retrieved 3779: 3752: 3748: 3738: 3703: 3699: 3689: 3656: 3652: 3645: 3608: 3604: 3594: 3567: 3563: 3553: 3520: 3516: 3509: 3474: 3470: 3460: 3433: 3429: 3419: 3386: 3382: 3376: 3343: 3339: 3332: 3297: 3293: 3283: 3250: 3246: 3240: 3207: 3203: 3197: 3164: 3160: 3153: 3136: 3132: 3126: 3099: 3095: 3085: 3052: 3048: 3042: 3030:. Retrieved 3026:the original 3016: 3005:. Retrieved 2995: 2962: 2958: 2922: 2918: 2908: 2899: 2895: 2888: 2863: 2857: 2848: 2823: 2819: 2813: 2786: 2782: 2736: 2732: 2726: 2683: 2679: 2651:. Retrieved 2647:the original 2623:. Retrieved 2619:the original 2614: 2588:(Suppl 10). 2585: 2581: 2571: 2562: 2517: 2513: 2503: 2494: 2484: 2467: 2457: 2422: 2418: 2360: 2356: 2346: 2301: 2297: 2287: 2245:(1): 65–76. 2242: 2238: 2228: 2195: 2191: 2181: 2138: 2134: 2124: 2115: 2091: 2081: 2069:. Retrieved 2039: 2035: 2025: 1990: 1986: 1976: 1933: 1929: 1919: 1905:cite journal 1880: 1876: 1870: 1858:. Retrieved 1853: 1849: 1839: 1831:the original 1816: 1806: 1781: 1777: 1731: 1727: 1700:. Retrieved 1696: 1687: 1662: 1658: 1652: 1634: 1607: 1603: 1593: 1583:, retrieved 1579: 1569: 1532: 1528: 1518: 1507:. Retrieved 1505:. 2019-05-16 1502: 1493: 1482:. Retrieved 1478:the original 1468: 1431: 1425: 1377: 1373: 1342: 1309: 1305: 1292: 1280:. Retrieved 1256:the original 1205: 1201: 1191: 1161:(2): 93–96. 1158: 1154: 1148: 1111: 1105: 1071: 953: 941: 934: 930: 917: 897: 885:Nihon Kohden 881:Takuo Aoyagi 878: 859: 857:saturation. 847:Karl Matthes 844: 814: 794: 793: 788: 780: 770: 748: 670: 658:lookup table 647: 627: 585: 549: 541: 528: 457: 433: 382: 367: 340: 326: 296: 292: 284: 257: 220: 196: 185:Medical uses 158: 157: 128: 121:venous blood 94: 59: 58: 4618:Capnography 4498:mediastinum 4485:Thoracotomy 4475:Pleurodesis 4443:mediastinum 4367:Tracheotomy 4318:Laryngotomy 4256:Somnoplasty 4251:Septoplasty 4246:Rhinoplasty 2854:Millikan GA 2363:(9): 3402. 2186:Redline S, 1860:26 November 1114:: 231–239. 1056:CO-oximeter 1050:Sleep apnea 989:Capnography 620:) reading. 546:Mobile apps 481:hypotension 468:vasopressor 440:CO-oximeter 355:bicarbonate 347:blood gases 343:ventilation 332:Limitations 228:oxygenation 223:noninvasive 171:anaesthesia 141:hypothermic 125:nail polish 64:noninvasive 4826:Cardiology 4805:Categories 4701:Intubation 4608:Spirometry 4490:Chest tube 4434:Chest wall 4292:Sinusotomy 4266:Rhinectomy 4261:Alarplasty 4025:2015-04-02 3983:Pediatrics 3843:Pediatrics 3791:2015-04-02 3055:(2): E19. 3049:Pediatrics 3007:2017-02-23 2653:2015-04-02 2625:2015-02-24 2320:5849508571 2261:8138375775 2188:Tishler PV 2071:9 November 1640:UK 2320566 1585:2024-04-12 1509:2020-04-17 1484:2015-04-02 1427:Lung India 1282:21 January 1083:References 960:pulse rate 874:photocells 765:See also: 638:wavelength 634:photodiode 592:hemoglobin 551:Mobile app 217:Advantages 113:absorbance 92:analysis. 4766:Nebulizer 4557:Spiral CT 4449:diaphragm 4404:Lobectomy 4323:Thyrotomy 3896:: a3037. 2594:0020-1324 2536:2249-4863 2476:0362-4331 2449:221359557 2212:209489389 2173:252996241 1952:0003-3022 1827:0734-2306 918:In 1995, 913:perfusion 895:in 1980. 866:Earl Wood 783:perfusion 749:where HbO 603:sea level 558:Mechanism 520:Equipment 506:hypoxemia 472:calloused 414:, but is 412:hypoxemic 397:hypoxemia 370:bloodflow 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