120:, who proposed open access to education as a core goal. Some authors have noted scholarly discussion of open education originating in the progressive pedagogy movements of early childhood education, related to the openness of teaching methods and the promotion of learner autonomy within and outside the classroom. Returning to openness in higher education, the postwar era of the 1960s and 1970s faced a "world-wide crisis in education" as education systems responded slowly to the demand for higher education in an era of scientific and economic prosperity requiring new models to meet the needs of a much larger and diversified group of lifelong learners. These conditions led to the establishment of open and distance education systems globally, which itself developed many innovative and progressive ideas of how to meet the educational needs of large and diverse learner populations. The establishment of open education today as a growing part of mainstream education, particularly in higher education, is directly linked to the development of open education universities beginning in the 1970s.
187:
perspectives and the need for a nuanced examination of the contexts of openness, a focus on issues of participation, power and social justice, a move beyond the binaries of open and closed as well as examining relationships between formal, non-formal and informal forms of open education and the relationships between teachers and learners. Openness in education is considered both a comprehensible and a contested term with multiple layers and dimensions. It can be characterised as an adaptive, flexible, and evolving concept. Advocates of openness in education argue that to fully realise the benefits of open education, there is a need to focus on open educational practices (OEP). By using OEP, open educators recognise the ubiquity of knowledge across networks and orchestrate learning that aims to promote learner agency, empowerment, and global civic participation. Likewise, there are other parallel movements in education which support openness, included
104:
359:
particularly in education. Availability of web resources has transformed everything. Open education is founded on Open
Educational Resources (OER) comprised or learning, teaching, and research sources. With Open Education, the costs of textbooks which surged over three times the rate of inflation for many years must not hinder education. Based on the NBC News review of the Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics data, prices of student books increased three times inflation rates from January 1977 until June 2015 reflecting an increase of 1,041 percent.
245:
355:
opportunities easier. Through the
Internet, students can easily find information practically on any topic while mentors are capable of sharing their expertise with any student within seconds. Educational materials are disseminated to a global audience without additional costs. Evolving technology makes it possible for learners to interact with the global community in the comfort of their homes. Under distance learning, universities and colleges expand their impact through online courses that people in any country can take.
351:
be used to provide lecture notes, assessments, and other course materials. Videos are provided and feature speakers, class events, topic discussions, and faculty interviews. YouTube and iTunesU are often used for this purpose. Students may interact through computer conferencing with Skype, e-mail, online study groups, or annotations on social bookmarking sites. Other course content may be provided through tapes, print, and CDs.
375:
389:
316:, where communities of knowledge are formed through connections forged in a networked learning environment. Connectivism relates to openness through its emphasis on learner autonomy and agency and its use of OER. The study of self-determined learning, known as heutagogy also relates to open education, founded on the principles of
297:. Initial conceptualisations of open education were characterised by independent study, where learners are independent of time and space through asynchronous learning, but also independent in developing their own learning strategies and practices, focused on personalised learning and learner autonomy and agency.
346:
Available technologies for open education are important in the overall efficiency of the program. They promote an absolute openness in the dissemination of education, eliminating barriers including, but not limited to, cost and access to free and relevant resources. After available technologies have
337:
approach can also underlie forms of open education, characterised as an organic process where the curriculum is connected to the community and the learner navigates diversely connected learning environments by making links, negotiating the learning process, and adapting to change. In the most recent
332:
perspective, which is learning in different places simultaneously across the multiple contexts one inhabits. A learning ecologies approach rests on the possibilities of new technologies in facilitating self-sustaining, interest-driven and boundary crossing learning, interrelated with the openness in
362:
OER can possibly address this problem since materials are free online and economical in printed form. Resources intended for buying textbooks can be rechanneled towards technology, enhancing the medium of instructions, and lowering debt. Research studies also showed many students learn more because
350:
Since open education usually occurs at a different time and different place for most individuals across the world, certain technologies need to be utilized to enhance the program. These technologies are primarily online and serve a variety of purposes. Websites and other computer-based training may
260:
perspective. Throughout its history, open education has been associated with multiple meanings: access, flexibility, equity, collaboration, agency, democratisation, social justice, transparency, and removing barriers. Researchers and practitioners in the field of open education have adopted generic
123:
The interconnectedness of open education and scientific and economic progress is no coincidence. Openness in education is connected to the changing needs of societies, cultures, and economies, and in particular to the rapid evolution of digital and networked technologies. Technology, pedagogy, and
186:
Open education is often considered an unequivocal good, part of a larger movement of openness in society (i.e. open knowledge, open government, open access, open data, open source, and open culture). However, critical approaches to open education have also been developed which underline differing
354:
Governments, institutions, and people realize the importance of education. Human knowledge is crucial to producing competent leaders, innovators, and teachers. Educational systems must provide each individual the chance in building a better life. Technology has made the expansion of educational
358:
Open education includes resources such as practices and tools that are not hampered by financial, technical, and legal impediments. These resources are used and shared easily within the digital settings. Technology revolutionized techniques in sending receiving information on a daily basis
37:, and with an educational stance which favours widening participation and inclusiveness in society. Open education broadens access to the learning and training traditionally offered through formal education systems and is typically (but not necessarily) offered through
308:
in support of educational experiences, particularly relevant for online and open education. The CoI model argues that a meaningful online learning experience is created through a combination of and interaction between cognitive, social, and teaching presence.
338:
theoretical foundations of open education, including connectivism, heutagogy, and rhizomatic learning, openness arises from the learner-centred and non-linear design of learning contexts and resources and the promotion of learner agency and autonomy.
41:. The qualifier "open" refers to the elimination of barriers that can preclude both opportunities and recognition for participation in institution-based learning. One aspect of openness or "opening up" education is the development and adoption of
127:
The most recent emergence of open education is related to the ability to share resources on the web at little cost compared to the distribution of copy righted material common within higher education. Early examples of this are the
149:
328:
and heutagogy, reflecting a shift from teacher-centred to learner-determined environments and activities. A learning ecologies framework supports open education through both a lifelong and
124:
related socioeconomic developments have a symbiotic relationship with open and distance education, including in the intellectual and theoretical foundations which define its practice.
300:
More recently, theories which support open education have developed in line with the rapid evolution of networked digital technologies and the sophistication of social software. The
160:
is a more recent form of online course based on principles of openness which has gotten increasing attention since the early 2010's, exemplified by online platforms such
84:
are among the most recent and visible approaches to open education, adopted by universities worldwide. Although many MOOC's have free enrolment, the costs of acquiring a
833:
312:
A range of other theories and conceptual frameworks relate to open education, including connectivism which adopts a non-linear approach to learning, influenced by
1276:
1750:
320:
and capability, meta-cognition and reflection, and non-linear learning. Self determined learning is often viewed as part of a continuum experience between
304:(CoI) model proposed by Garrison, Anderson, and Archer (2000) was developed to provide conceptual order and act as a heuristic tool for the use of
116:
Open education is part of a broader openness movement. It has origins, particularly in higher education, to the 17th century in the thinking of
1140:
1165:
1066:
654:
1269:
65:
962:"Lifelong learning ecologies in online higher education: Students' engagement in the continuum between formal and informal learning"
363:
of their access to quality materials. Technology also has unlimited potentials in raising teaching and learning to a higher level.
559:"An analysis of peer reviewed publications on openness in education in half a century: Trends and patterns in the open hemisphere"
1262:
837:
632:
133:
1190:
1214:
153:
93:
1117:"The Digital Learning Challenge: Obstacles to Educational Uses of Content in the Digital Age A Foundational White Paper"
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494:
427:
1091:
1905:
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been found, there need to be appropriate applications on the technologies for the specific online education program.
1987:
1715:
1982:
894:
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56:, for example, eliminating academic admission requirements. Universities which follow such practices include the
1977:
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with others, across the boundaries of institutions, institutional systems, and geographic locations
1967:
929:"Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A review of heutagogical practice and self-determined learning"
290:
152:
from the Open Access movement, are the goals and intentions from open education specified in the
1839:
1829:
1730:
1680:
1563:
1141:"Open educational resources | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization"
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Common features of open education in practice attempt to build opportunities for learners to:
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558:
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675:"Openness and Praxis: Exploring the Use of Open Educational Practices in Higher Education"
8:
1915:
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52:
An example of an institutional practice in line with open education would be decreasing
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38:
1031:
Hakim, Sittara (2017). "SAGE Journals: Your gateway to world-class journal research".
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34:
913:
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1937:
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806:
795:"Intellectual roots of distance education: A progressive knowledge domain analysis"
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686:
603:
593:
528:
517:"Intellectual roots of distance education: a progressive knowledge domain analysis"
467:
380:
1009:
810:
598:
581:
532:
273:, and then generated their own theoretical foundations following the emergence of
88:
may be a barrier. Many open education institutes offer free certification schemes
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and the emergence of powerful and sophisticated digital technologies, such as
1961:
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317:
181:
150:
Berlin
Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Sciences and Humanities
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89:
85:
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education, open educational resources, open textbooks, and open scholarship
1864:
1801:
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1613:
1491:
1379:
1338:
864:"The first decade of the community of inquiry framework: A retrospective"
266:
1234:
977:
313:
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Open education is motivated by a belief that learners want to exercise
137:
1191:"College Textbook Prices Increasing Faster Than Tuition And Inflation"
701:
1859:
1444:
933:
The
International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning
741:
The
International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning
679:
The
International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning
460:
The
International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning
325:
1942:
1343:
321:
286:
253:
165:
145:
30:
1869:
1353:
169:
1399:
374:
285:. Open education has also been influenced by the philosophy of
737:"Elements of Open Education: An Invitation to Future Research"
456:"Elements of open education: An invitation to future research"
1166:"College Textbook Prices Have Risen 1,041 Percent Since 1977"
239:
1745:
961:
157:
33:, with connections to other educational movements such as
902:
161:
634:
Emancipation through open education: Rhetoric or reality
96:
in the UK and ANAB in the United States; others offer a
895:"Connectivism—A learning theory for the digital age"
370:
175:
582:"Open education: the need for a critical approach"
140:and organisations, and Connexions, established at
1284:
609:20.500.11820/8392c755-9e0c-4725-afa8-a9ab141653aa
1959:
1010:"Rhizomatic education: Community as curriculum"
734:
453:
1092:"How can technology improve school education?"
563:Australasian Journal of Educational Technology
1270:
111:
834:"Open Education and Education for Openness"
136:(MIT), which was followed by more than 200
1277:
1263:
779:Teaching Crowds: Learning and Social Media
966:British Journal of Educational Technology
944:
752:
700:
690:
607:
597:
471:
240:Theoretical foundations of open education
66:Thompson Rivers University, Open Learning
1188:
926:
861:
243:
102:
1067:"How Has Technology Changed Education?"
1007:
892:
792:
656:Open education: Walking a critical path
556:
514:
1960:
959:
831:
730:
728:
726:
724:
722:
720:
672:
652:
341:
256:in their studies, particularly from a
29:is an educational movement founded on
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134:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
1878:
775:
648:
646:
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552:
550:
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248:Open education and flexible learning
154:Cape Town Open Education Declaration
107:Open education and flexible learning
717:
495:Open education for a global economy
235:practices, networks, and identities
13:
1215:"Open Educational Resources (OER)"
852:
428:Virginia Open Education Foundation
289:, characterised by an emphasis on
14:
1999:
868:The Internet and Higher Education
641:
547:
440:
176:Common features of open education
387:
373:
144:in 1999, which transformed into
132:program, established in 2002 by
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886:
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306:computer-mediated communication
72:, in Spain, among many others (
1189:Kingkade, Tyler (2013-01-04).
735:Zawacki-Richter, Olaf (2020).
666:
624:
586:Learning, Media and Technology
573:
508:
499:
488:
454:Zawacki-Richter, Olaf (2020).
1:
1855:Open-source software movement
1584:Free and open-source software
1313:Commons-based peer production
927:Blaschke, Lisa-Marie (2012).
811:10.1080/01587919.2019.1681894
782:. Athabasca University Press.
662:. Brill Sense. pp. 9–25.
599:10.1080/17439884.2015.1065272
533:10.1080/01587919.2019.1681894
433:
261:educational theories such as
39:online and distance education
1033:E-Learning and Digital Media
880:10.1016/j.iheduc.2009.10.003
70:Open University of Catalonia
7:
998:(Cormier, 2008, p. 16)
366:
78:Massive open online courses
10:
2004:
1933:Open educational resources
946:10.19173/irrodl.v13i1.1076
754:10.19173/irrodl.v21i3.4659
692:10.19173/irrodl.v18i5.3096
673:Cronin, Catherine (2017).
653:Cronin, Catherine (2020).
473:10.19173/irrodl.v21i3.4659
413:Open educational resources
408:Open educational practices
179:
47:open educational practices
43:open educational resources
21:Open educational resources
18:
1820:
1759:
1721:Open Knowledge Foundation
1711:Open Architecture Network
1693:
1668:
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1576:
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1528:Open-door academic policy
1500:
1464:
1455:
1410:
1362:
1305:
1296:
960:Peters, Mitchell (2019).
418:Outline of open education
112:Origins of open education
1706:Free Software Foundation
1619:Open-source architecture
1235:"Open Education - SPARC"
1071:Purdue University Online
1045:10.1177/2042753017692724
893:Siemens, George (2005).
832:Peters, Michael (2014).
19:Not to be confused with
1988:Philosophy of education
1669:Politics and governance
637:. Open Book Publishers.
1983:Educational technology
1840:Free software movement
1731:Open Source Initiative
1681:Open-source governance
1564:Open-source journalism
1008:Cormier, Dave (2008).
793:Bozkurt, Aras (2019).
557:Boskurt, Aras (2019).
515:Bozkurt, Aras (2019).
505:Combs (1968 p. 4)
333:education movement. A
249:
108:
92:by organizations like
1978:Free culture movement
1845:Open science movement
1835:Free-culture movement
1513:Educational resources
1472:Collaborative writing
1349:Participatory culture
423:Personalized learning
263:social constructivism
247:
106:
1624:Open-source hardware
1602:Open-design movement
1595:Open-source software
1363:Research and science
1096:World Economic Forum
862:Garrison, D (2010).
580:Bayne, Sian (2015).
302:community of inquiry
62:Athabasca University
16:Educational movement
1906:Free Cultural Works
1850:Open Source Ecology
1736:Open Web Foundation
1633:Economic principles
1590:Free/libre software
1487:Participatory media
342:Technology utilized
335:rhizomatic learning
197:social technologies
1772:Alexandra Elbakyan
1716:Openmod Initiative
1553:Citizen journalism
1430:Open communication
1411:Data, information,
1334:Open collaboration
978:10.1111/bjet.12803
799:Distance Education
521:Distance Education
279:networked learning
250:
193:connected learning
189:networked learning
118:John Amos Comenius
109:
74:see full list here
68:in Canada and the
1955:
1954:
1951:
1950:
1943:Open Web movement
1928:Open Data Indices
1782:Peter Murray-Rust
1726:Open Rights Group
1689:
1688:
1572:
1571:
1425:Knowledge commons
1121:cyber.harvard.edu
631:Lane, A. (2016).
330:lifewide learning
314:complexity theory
275:open universities
258:lifelong learning
233:informal learning
148:. Similar to the
54:barriers to entry
35:critical pedagogy
1995:
1973:Education theory
1938:Open music model
1902:Definition docs
1891:Creative Commons
1876:
1875:
1792:Richard Stallman
1787:Douglas Rushkoff
1701:Creative Commons
1477:Democratic media
1462:
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1385:Notebook science
1303:
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1098:. 9 October 2015
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972:(4): 1729–1743.
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836:. Archived from
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776:Dron, J (2014).
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381:Education portal
378:
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225:knowledge openly
199:, among others.
2003:
2002:
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1816:
1777:Lawrence Lessig
1767:Tim Berners-Lee
1755:
1685:
1676:Open government
1664:
1660:Sharing economy
1645:Open innovation
1628:
1568:
1557:Wiki journalism
1536:
1496:
1482:Open publishing
1457:
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1370:Citizen science
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1195:Huffington Post
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142:Rice University
114:
58:Open University
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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1968:Open education
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1508:Open education
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1435:Open knowledge
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