Proto-Germanic language

9405:. For a single word, the grammatical stem could display different consonants depending on its grammatical case or its tense. As a result of the complexity of this system, significant levelling of these sounds occurred throughout the Germanic period as well as in the later daughter languages. Already in Proto-Germanic, most alternations in nouns were leveled to have only one sound or the other consistently throughout all forms of a word, although some alternations were preserved, only to be levelled later in the daughters (but differently in each one). Alternations in noun and verb endings were also levelled, usually in favour of the voiced alternants in nouns, but a split remained in verbs where unsuffixed (strong) verbs received the voiced alternants while suffixed (weak) verbs had the voiceless alternants. Alternation between the present and past of strong verbs remained common and was not levelled in Proto-Germanic, and survives up to the present day in some Germanic languages. 13251:, which caused alternation of suffixal -j- and -ij- depending on the length of the preceding part of the morpheme. If preceded within the same morpheme by only short vowel followed by a single consonant, -j- appeared. In all other cases, such as when preceded by a long vowel or diphthong, by two or more consonants, or by more than one syllable, -ij- appeared. The distinction between morphemes and words is important here, as the alternant -j- appeared also in words that contained a distinct suffix that in turn contained -j- in its second syllable. A notable example was the verb suffix *-atjaną, which retained -j- despite being preceded by two syllables in a fully formed word. 14486:'to be'. Similarly, the Latin imperfect and pluperfect stem from Italic innovations and are not cognate with the corresponding Greek or Sanskrit forms; and while the Greek and Sanskrit pluperfect tenses appear cognate, there are no parallels in any other Indo-European languages, leading to the conclusion that this tense is either a shared Greek-Sanskrit innovation or separate, coincidental developments in the two languages. In this respect, Proto-Germanic can be said to be characterized by the failure to innovate new synthetic tenses as much as the loss of existing tenses. Later Germanic languages did innovate new tenses, derived through 15832:, p. 85: "Early Jastorf, at the end of the seventh century BCE, is almost certainly too early for the last common ancestor of the attested languages; but later Jastorf culture and its successors occupy so much territory that their populations are most unlikely to have spoken a single dialect, even granting that the expansion of the culture was relatively rapid. It follows that our reconstructed PGmc was only one of the dialects spoken by peoples identified archeologically, or by the Romans, as 'Germans'; the remaining Germanic peoples spoke sister dialects of PGmc." 4075:

intelligibility might have still existed with other descendants of PIE, but it would have been strained, and the period marked the definitive break of Germanic from the other Indo-European languages and the beginning of Germanic proper, containing most of the sound changes that are now held to define this branch distinctively. This stage contained various consonant and vowel shifts, the loss of the contrastive accent inherited from PIE for a uniform accent on the first syllable of the word root, and the beginnings of the reduction of the resulting unstressed syllables.

13124:. Although this is true to some extent, it is probably due more to the late time of attestation of Germanic than to any inherent "simplicity" of the Germanic languages. As an example, there are less than 500 years between the Gothic Gospels of 360 and the Old High German Tatian of 830, yet Old High German, despite being the most archaic of the West Germanic languages, is missing a large number of archaic features present in Gothic, including dual and passive markings on verbs, reduplication in Class VII strong verb past tenses, the vocative case, and second-position ( 13288:

into them. The first two had variants in /ja/ and /wa/, and /jō/ and /wō/, respectively; originally, these were declined exactly like other nouns of the respective class, but later sound changes tended to distinguish these variants as their own subclasses. The /n/ nouns had various subclasses, including /ōn/ (masculine and feminine), /an/ (neuter), and /īn/ (feminine, mostly abstract nouns). There was also a smaller class of root nouns (ending in various consonants), nouns of relationship (ending in /er/), and neuter nouns in /z/ (this class was greatly expanded in

16971: 2394: 399: 2791: 2459: 451: 8060: 77: 36: 15837:, p. 51: "...if the Jastorf culture and, probably, the neighboring Harpstedt culture to the west constitute the Germanic homeland (Mallory 1989: 87), a spread of Proto-Germanic northwards and eastwards would have to be assumed, which might explain both the archaisms and the innovative features of North Germanic and East Germanic, and would fit nicely with recent views locating the homeland of the Goths in Poland." 361: 6102:

lost the PIE mobile pitch accent for a predictable stress accent, and had merged two of its vowels. The stress accent had already begun to cause the erosion of unstressed syllables, which would continue in its descendants. The final stage of the language included the remaining development until the breakup into dialects and, most notably, featured the development of nasal vowels and the start of

179: 13255:

alternation between -aV- and -aiC- from the loss of -j- between two vowels, which appeared in the present subjunctive of verbs: *-aų < *-ajų in the first person, *-ai- in the others. A combination of these two effects created an alternation between -ā- and -ai- found in class 3 weak verbs, with -ā- < -aja- < -əja- and -ai- < -əi- < -əji-.

9498:. Older accounts tended to suggest that the sounds were originally fricatives and later "hardened" into stops in some circumstances. However, Ringe notes that this belief was largely due to theory-internal considerations of older phonological theories, and in modern theories it is equally possible that the allophony was present from the beginning. 2751:, (which pertained mainly to consonants and were considered for many decades to have generated Proto-Germanic) as pre-Proto-Germanic and held that the "upper boundary" (that is, the earlier boundary) was the fixing of the accent, or stress, on the root syllable of a word, typically on the first syllable. Proto-Indo-European had featured a moveable 13177:

earlier locative and ablative cases are visible in a few pronominal and adverbial forms. Pronouns were declined similarly, although without a separate vocative form. The instrumental and vocative can be reconstructed only in the singular; the instrumental survives only in the West Germanic languages, and the vocative only in Gothic.

2340:(second to first millennia BC) to include "Pre-Germanic" (PreGmc), "Early Proto-Germanic" (EPGmc) and "Late Proto-Germanic" (LPGmc). While Proto-Germanic refers only to the reconstruction of the most recent common ancestor of Germanic languages, the Germanic parent language refers to the entire journey that the dialect of 10782:'to anoint'). However, the majority occurred in word-final syllables (inflectional endings) probably because in this position the vowel could not be resyllabified. Additionally, Germanic, like Balto-Slavic, lengthened bimoraic long vowels in absolute final position, perhaps to better conform to a word's 2692:, began with the development of a separate common way of speech among some geographically nearby speakers of a prior language and ended with the dispersion of the proto-language speakers into distinct populations with mostly independent speech habits. Between the two points, many sound changes occurred. 15700:

The first is a direct phonetic evolution of the PIE text. It does not take into account various idiomatic and grammatical shifts that occurred over the period. For example, the original text uses the imperfect tense, which disappeared in Proto-Germanic. The second version takes these differences into

13557:

Adjectives agree with the noun they qualify in case, number, and gender. Adjectives evolved into strong and weak declensions, originally with indefinite and definite meaning, respectively. As a result of its definite meaning, the weak form came to be used in the daughter languages in conjunction with

11540:

In many cases, the nasality was not contrastive and was merely present as an additional surface articulation. No Germanic language that preserves the word-final vowels has their nasality preserved. Word-final short nasal vowels do not show different reflexes compared to non-nasal vowels. However, the

8208:

with reference to Proto-Germanic refers to lexical items and phonological elements that do not appear to be descended from Proto-Indo-European. The substrate theory postulates that the elements came from an earlier population that stayed amongst the Indo-Europeans and was influential enough to bring

6101:

By this stage, Germanic had emerged as a distinctive branch and had undergone many of the sound changes that would make its later descendants recognisable as Germanic languages. It had shifted its consonant inventory from a system that was rich in plosives to one containing primarily fricatives, had

15725:

Awiz ehwōz-uh: awiz, sō wullǭ ne habdē, sahw ehwanz, ainanǭ kurjanǭ wagną teuhandų, ainanǭ-uh mikilǭ kuriþǭ, ainanǭ-uh gumanų sneumundô berandų. Awiz nu ehwamaz sagdē: hertô sairīþi mek, sehwandē ehwanz akandų gumanų. Ehwōz sagdēdun: gahauzī, awi! hertô sairīþi uns sehwandumiz: gumô, fadiz, uz awīz

9826:

Since its formulation, the validity of Kluge's Law has been contested. The development of geminate consonants has also been explained by the idea of "expressive gemination". Although this idea remains popular, it does not explain why many words containing geminated stops do not have "expressive" or

9481:

are reconstructed with the pronunciation of stops in some environments and fricatives in others. The pattern of allophony is not completely clear, but generally is similar to the patterns of voiced obstruent allophones in languages such as Spanish. The voiced fricatives of Verner's Law (see above),

8575:

The table below lists the consonantal phonemes of Proto-Germanic, ordered and classified by their reconstructed pronunciation. The slashes around the phonemes are omitted for clarity. When two phonemes appear in the same box, the first of each pair is voiceless, the second is voiced. Phones written

15738:

The Sheep and the Horses: A sheep that had no wool saw horses, one pulling a heavy wagon, one carrying a big load, and one carrying a man quickly. The sheep said to the horses: "My heart pains me, seeing a man driving horses." The horses said: "Listen, sheep, our hearts pain us when we see this: a

13287:

The system of nominal declensions was largely inherited from PIE. Primary nominal declensions were the stems in /a/, /ō/, /n/, /i/, and /u/. The first three were particularly important and served as the basis of adjectival declension; there was a tendency for nouns of all other classes to be drawn

11010:

By the end of the Proto-Germanic period, word-final long vowels were shortened to short vowels. Following that, overlong vowels were shortened to regular long vowels in all positions, merging with originally long vowels except word-finally (because of the earlier shortening), so that they remained

10981:

Trimoraic vowels are distinguished from bimoraic vowels by their outcomes in attested Germanic languages: word-final trimoraic vowels remained long vowels while bimoraic vowels developed into short vowels. Older theories about the phenomenon claimed that long and overlong vowels were both long but

7757:

Loans into Proto-Germanic from other (known) languages or from Proto-Germanic into other languages can be dated relative to each other by which Germanic sound laws have acted on them. Since the dates of borrowings and sound laws are not precisely known, it is not possible to use loans to establish

2870:

The following changes are known or presumed to have occurred in the history of Proto-Germanic in the wider sense from the end of Proto-Indo-European up to the point that Proto-Germanic began to break into mutually unintelligible dialects. The changes are listed roughly in chronological order, with

14577:

voice. The Proto-Germanic passive existed only in the present tense (an inherited feature, as the PIE perfect had no mediopassive). On the evidence of Gothic—the only Germanic language with a reflex of the Proto-Germanic passive—the passive voice had a significantly reduced inflectional system,

13176:

Nouns and adjectives were declined in (at least) six cases: vocative, nominative, accusative, dative, instrumental, genitive. The locative case had merged into the dative case, and the ablative may have merged with either the genitive, dative or instrumental cases. However, sparse remnants of the

11002:

had an "acute" (rising) tone, much like the tones of modern Scandinavian languages, Baltic, and Ancient Greek, and asserted that this distinction was inherited from PIE. However, this view was abandoned since languages in general do not combine distinctive intonations on unstressed syllables with

9400:

The loss of the Proto-Indo-European contrastive accent got rid of the conditioning environment for the consonant alternations created by Verner's law. Without this conditioning environment, the cause of the alternation was no longer obvious to native speakers. The alternations that had started as

15711:

Awiz ehwōz-uh: awiz, hwisi wullō ne est, spihi ehwanz, ainą kurų wagą wegandų, ainą-uh mekǭ burą, ainą-uh gumanų ahu berandų. Awiz nu ehwamaz wiuhi: hert agnutai mek, witandī ehwanz akandų gumanų. Ehwōz weuhą: hludi, awi! hert agnutai uns witundumaz: gumô, fadiz, wullǭ awją hwurniudi sibi warmą

14532:

originally 'put', in Germanic 'do'). Strong verbs were divided into seven main classes while weak verbs were divided into five main classes (although no attested language has more than four classes of weak verbs). Strong verbs generally have no suffix in the present tense, although some have a

13254:

Related to the above was the alternation between -j- and -i-, and likewise between -ij- and -ī-. This was caused by the earlier loss of -j- before -i-, and appeared whenever an ending was attached to a verb or noun with an -(i)j- suffix (which were numerous). Similar, but much more rare, was an

13258:

I-mutation was the most important source of vowel alternation, and continued well into the history of the individual daughter languages (although it was either absent or not apparent in Gothic). In Proto-Germanic, only -e- was affected, which was raised by -i- or -j- in the following syllable.

2729:

In the evolutionary history of a language family, philologists consider a genetic "tree model" appropriate only if communities do not remain in effective contact as their languages diverge. Early Indo-European had limited contact between distinct lineages, and, uniquely, the Germanic subfamily

2725:

at its root. Borrowing of lexical items from contact languages makes the relative position of the Germanic branch within Indo-European less clear than the positions of the other branches of Indo-European. In the course of the development of historical linguistics, various solutions have been

14460:

assumes for Proto-Germanic an early loss of the PIE imperfect aspect (something that also occurred in most other branches), followed by merging of the aspectual categories present-aorist and the mood categories indicative-subjunctive. (This assumption allows him to account for cases where

2883:

This stage began with the separation of a distinct speech, perhaps while it was still forming part of the Proto-Indo-European dialect continuum. It contained many innovations that were shared with other Indo-European branches to various degrees, probably through areal contacts, and mutual

4074:

that had lost its laryngeals and had five long and six short vowels as well as one or two overlong vowels. The consonant system was still that of PIE minus palatovelars and laryngeals, but the loss of syllabic resonants already made the language markedly different from PIE proper. Mutual

14549:

infix of PIE. Almost all weak verbs have a present-tense suffix, which varies from class to class. An additional small, but very important, group of verbs formed their present tense from the PIE perfect (and their past tense like weak verbs); for this reason, they are known as

16382:

The Germanic subfamily especially seemed to exhibit non-treelike behavior, evidently acquiring some of its characteristics from its neighbors rather than (only) from its direct ancestors. he internal diversification of West Germanic is known to have been radically non-treelike

3168:

The actual pronunciation of the "palatovelar" and "velar" series is not reconstructible; it may be that the "palatovelars" were actually plain velars, and the "velars" were pronounced even farther back (post-velar or uvular) so it may be more accurate to say that, for example,

14572:

mood. Indicative and subjunctive moods are fully conjugated throughout the present and past, while the imperative mood existed only in the present tense and lacked first-person forms. Proto-Germanic verbs have two voices, active and passive, the latter deriving from the PIE

2786:

Antonsen's own scheme divides Proto-Germanic into an early stage and a late stage. The early stage includes the stress fixation and resulting "spontaneous vowel-shifts" while the late stage is defined by ten complex rules governing changes of both vowels and consonants.

5041:: Voiceless fricatives are voiced when preceded by an unaccented vowel, including cases where the vowel and fricative are separated by a sonorant (/n, m, r, l, j, w). This allophonic voicing became phonemic only after the regularization of stress placement (see below). 12487:

Due to the emergence of a word-initial stress accent, vowels in unstressed syllables were gradually reduced over time, beginning at the very end of the Proto-Germanic period and continuing into the history of the various dialects. Already in Proto-Germanic, word-final

9327:"Grimm's and Verner's Laws ... together form the First Germanic Consonant Shift. A second, and chronologically later Second Germanic Consonant Shift ... affected only Proto-Germanic voiceless stops ... and split Germanic into two sets of dialects, 2730:

exhibited a less treelike behaviour, as some of its characteristics were acquired from neighbours early in its evolution rather than from its direct ancestors. The internal diversification of West Germanic developed in an especially non-treelike manner.

11981:

Proto-Germanic allowed any single consonant to occur in one of three positions: initial, medial and final. However, clusters could only consist of two consonants unless followed by a suffix, and only certain clusters were possible in certain positions.

13200:

Several sound changes occurred in the history of Proto-Germanic that were triggered only in some environments but not in others. Some of these were grammaticalised while others were still triggered by phonetic rules and were partially allophonic or

9827:"intensive" semantics. The idea has been described as "methodically unsound", because it attempts to explain the phonological phenomenon through psycholinguistic factors and other irregular behaviour instead of exploring regular sound laws. 8974:. Verner's Law explains a category of exceptions to Grimm's Law, where a voiced fricative appears where Grimm's Law predicts a voiceless fricative. The discrepancy is conditioned by the placement of the original Indo-European word accent. 9397:, a new phoneme. Sometime after Grimm's and Verner's law, Proto-Germanic lost its inherited contrastive accent, and all words became stressed on their root syllable. This was generally the first syllable unless a prefix was attached. 14464:

However, many of the tenses of the other languages (e.g. future, future perfect, pluperfect, Latin imperfect) are not cognate with each other and represent separate innovations in each language. For example, the Greek future uses a

13164:

Proto-Germanic had six cases, three genders, three numbers, three moods (indicative, subjunctive (PIE optative), imperative), and two voices (active and passive (PIE middle)). This is quite similar to the state of Latin, Greek, and

14494:

likely possessing the most elaborated tense system ("Yes, the house will still be being built a month from now"). On the other hand, even the past tense was later lost (or widely lost) in most High German dialects as well as in

9513:

had a slightly different pattern of allophony from the others, but in general stops occurred in "strong" positions (word-initial and in clusters) while fricatives occurred in "weak" positions (post-vocalic). More specifically:

2716:

of language evolution, best explains the paths of descent of all the members of a language family from a common language, or proto-language (at the root of the tree) to the attested languages (at the leaves of the tree). The

9799:

since the 19th century.) The Proto-Germanic consonant gradation is not directly attested in any of the Germanic dialects, but may nevertheless be reconstructed on the basis of certain dialectal discrepancies in root of the

13232:

Another form of alternation was triggered by the Germanic spirant law, which continued to operate into the separate history of the individual daughter languages. It is found in environments with suffixal -t, including:

9823:-verbs, it gave rise to an alternation of geminated and non-geminated consonants in the same paradigms. These were largely regularized by various ways of analogy in the Germanic daughter languages (e.g. Kroonen 2011). 11107:

began in West Germanic at a time when final vowels were still long, and spread to North Germanic through the late Germanic dialect continuum, but only reaching the latter after the vowels had already been shortened.

9461:"Then, Proto-Germanic already had long consonants … but they contrasted with short ones only word-medially. Moreover, they were not very frequent and occurred only intervocally almost exclusively after short vowels." 13188:. Although the pronominal dual survived into all the oldest languages, the verbal dual survived only into Gothic, and the (presumed) nominal and adjectival dual forms were lost before the oldest records. As in the 13578:, such terms have no relevance. The strong declension was based on a combination of the nominal /a/ and /ō/ stems with the PIE pronominal endings; the weak declension was based on the nominal /n/ declension. 14554:. All three of the previously mentioned groups of verbs—strong, weak and preterite-present—are derived from PIE thematic verbs; an additional very small group derives from PIE athematic verbs, and one verb 14481:

ending, from a different desiderative verb construction and often with a different ablaut grade from Greek; while the Latin future uses endings derived either from the PIE subjunctive or from the PIE verb

10401:. At the time of the merger, the vowels probably were and , or perhaps and . Their timbres then differentiated by raising (and perhaps rounding) the long vowel to . It is known that the raising of 2552:

The Proto-Germanic language developed in southern Scandinavia (Denmark, south Sweden and southern Norway) and the northern-most part of Germany in Schleswig Holstein and northern Lower Saxony, the

13292:). Present participles, and a few nouns, ended in /nd/. The neuter nouns of all classes differed from the masculines and feminines in their nominative and accusative endings, which were alike. 2758:

The fixation of the stress led to sound changes in unstressed syllables. For Lehmann, the "lower boundary" was the dropping of final -a or -e in unstressed syllables; for example, post-PIE

2654:, although the delineation of Late Common Germanic from Proto-Norse at about that time is largely a matter of convention. The first coherent text recorded in a Germanic language is the 9449:

Many of the consonants listed in the table could appear lengthened or prolonged under some circumstances, which is inferred from their appearing in some daughter languages as doubled

8484:. Most commonly in literature, they are denoted simply by a following n. However, this can cause confusion between a word-final nasal vowel and a word-final regular vowel followed by 16190: 15697:

in the PIE language he had just reconstructed, which, though it has been updated a few times by others, still bears his name. Below is a rendering of this fable into Proto-Germanic.

2570:('original homeland') of the Proto-Germanic language, the ancestral idiom of all attested Germanic dialects, was primarily situated in an area corresponding to the extent of the 13219:

Between different grades of strong verbs. The voiceless alternants appeared in the present and past singular indicative, the voiced alternants in the remaining past tense forms.

11125:

is uncertain as a phoneme and only reconstructed from a small number of words; it is posited by the comparative method because whereas all provable instances of inherited (PIE)

4248:: Chain shift of the three series of plosives. Voiced plosives had already been devoiced before a voiceless obstruent prior to this stage. Labiovelars were delabialised before 11099:

raising, points to an early difference in the articulation height of the two vowels that was not present in North Germanic. It could be seen as evidence that the lowering of

2454:

Some sources also give a date of 750 BC for the earliest expansion out of southern Scandinavia and northern Germany along the North Sea coast towards the mouth of the Rhine.

10056:

Proto-Germanic had four short vowels, five or six long vowels, and at least one "overlong" or "trimoraic" vowel. The exact phonetic quality of the vowels is uncertain.

14593:

Although most Proto-Germanic strong verbs are formed directly from a verbal root, weak verbs are generally derived from an existing noun, verb or adjective (so-called

17228: 15941:

While the details of the reconstructed pronunciation vary somewhat, this phonological system is generally agreed upon; for example, coronals are sometimes listed as

2871:

changes that operate on the outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list. The stages distinguished and the changes associated with each stage rely heavily on

17227:

Hall, T.A. (2000), "The Distribution of Trimoraic Syllables in German and English as Evidence for the Phonological Word", in Hall, T. A.; Rochoń, Marzena (eds.),

11212:, and it may have been in the process of transition from a diphthong to a long simple vowel in the Proto-Germanic period. Lehmann lists the following origins for 8090:

Numerous loanwords believed to have been borrowed from Proto-Germanic are known in the non-Germanic languages spoken in areas adjacent to the Germanic languages.

17695: 14609:. These are formed in a way that reflects a direct inheritance from the PIE causative class of verbs. PIE causatives were formed by adding an accented suffix 4257:

Voiceless plosives become fricatives, unless preceded by another obstruent. In a sequence of two voiceless obstruents, the second obstruent remains a plosive.

2733:

Proto-Germanic is generally agreed to have begun about 500 BC. Its hypothetical ancestor between the end of Proto-Indo-European and 500 BC is termed

14590:) has an inflected mediopassive, it is not inherited from Proto-Germanic, but is an innovation formed by attaching the reflexive pronoun to the active voice. 10631:

was still underlyingly a consonant and therefore the conditioning environment for the loss was not met. This is also confirmed by the fact that later in the

3682:

In word-final position, the resulting long vowels remain distinct from (shorter than) the overlong vowels that were formed from PIE word-final long vowels —

11968: 2755:

consisting of "an alternation of high and low tones" as well as stress of position determined by a set of rules based on the lengths of a word's syllables.

18419: 15739:

man, the master, makes the wool of the sheep into a warm garment for himself. And the sheep has no wool." Having heard this, the sheep fled into the plain.

14092:

in the northern languages while being ousted itself in the southern languages (i.e. Old High German). This is the basis of the distinction between English

10500:

sequences. It was a rare phoneme, and occurred only in a handful of words, the most notable being the verbs of the third weak class. The agent noun suffix

8580:

and are not themselves independent phonemes. For descriptions of the sounds and definitions of the terms, follow the links on the column and row headings.

10616:

Diphthongs in Proto-Germanic can also be analysed as sequences of a vowel plus an approximant, as was the case in Proto-Indo-European. This explains why

13128:) clitics. Many more archaic features may have been lost between the Proto-Germanic of 200 BC or so and the attested Gothic language. Furthermore, 2635:

spanning about 1,200 km (700 mi). The period marks the breakup of Late Proto-Germanic and the beginning of the (historiographically recorded)

20012: 19974: 19961: 19953: 13109:

Reconstructions are tentative and multiple versions with varying degrees of difference exist. All reconstructed forms are marked with an asterisk (*).

8033: 11924: 19969: 9815:, by which geminates arose from stops followed by a nasal in a stressed syllable. Since this sound law only operated in part of the paradigms of the 225: 13243:

Nouns derived from verbs by means of the suffixes *-tiz, *-tuz, *-taz, which also possessed variants in -þ- and -d- when not following an obstruent.

10409:

can not have occurred earlier than the earliest contact between Proto-Germanic speakers and the Romans. This can be verified by the fact that Latin

2642:

The earliest available complete sentences in a Germanic language are variably dated to the 2nd century AD, around 300 AD or the first century AD in

2541:, from the second century AD and later, is still quite close to reconstructed Proto-Germanic, but other common innovations separating Germanic from 19989: 17546: 14088:) and appears entirely absent in North Germanic. In the West Germanic languages, it evolved into a third-person pronoun, displacing the inherited 17033: 14602: 11893: 2236: 14135:. In the North-West Germanic languages (but not in Gothic), a new proximal demonstrative ('this' as opposed to 'that') evolved by appending 11011:

distinct in that position. This was a late dialectal development, because the result was not the same in all Germanic languages: word-final

2200: 19829: 18794: 17872: 9555:

When geminate, they were pronounced as stops , , . This rule continued to apply at least into the early West Germanic languages, since the

9359:

at the time of the change was the one inherited from Proto-Indo-European, which was free and could occur on any syllable. For example, PIE

11812:

Similar surface (possibly phonemic) nasal/non-nasal contrasts occurred in the West Germanic languages down through Proto-Anglo-Frisian of

18592: 16322:

Bandle, Oskar et al. (eds.) 2002. The Nordic Languages. An International Handbook of the History of the North Germanic Languages. P. XIV.

2884:

intelligibility with other dialects would have remained for some time. It was nevertheless on its own path, whether dialect or language.

1398: 9662:, showing that the language possessed a labial allophone as well. In this case the entire clusters , and are delabialized to , and . 20004: 19979: 16831: 11513:, in which the nasal consonant lost its occlusion and was converted into lengthening and nasalisation of the preceding vowel, becoming 9401:

mere phonetic variants of sounds became increasingly grammatical in nature, leading to the grammatical alternations of sounds known as

17796: 9272:) or after other plosives (which were shifted to fricatives by the Germanic spirant law); for example, where Latin (with the original 141: 9830:

The origin of the Germanic geminate consonants remains a disputed part of historical linguistics with no clear consensus at present.

11642:. When the vowels were shortened and denasalised, these two vowels no longer had the same place of articulation, and did not merge: 11003:

contrastive stress and vowel length. Modern theories have reinterpreted overlong vowels as having superheavy syllable weight (three

113: 17824: 14157:), with complex subsequent developments in the various daughter languages. The new demonstrative underlies the English determiners 8036:

in the Carpathian Basin (sixth to fifth centuries BC), or by later contact with Sarmatians, who followed the same route. Unsure is

94: 49: 2556:(original home) of the Germanic tribes. It is possible that Indo-European speakers first arrived in southern Scandinavia with the 14863:

that is permanently attached to the verb. At least in Gothic, preverbs could also be stacked one on top of the other (similar to

12612:

did not occur in nasalized vowels or before back vowels, this created a vowel alternation because the nasality of the back vowel

2856:

By 250 BC Proto-Germanic had branched into five groups of Germanic: two each in the West and the North and one in the East.

17321: 12504:

in unstressed syllables. Vowels in third syllables were also generally lost before dialect diversification began, such as final

2533:

points to a non-substratic development away from other branches of Indo-European. Proto-Germanic itself was likely spoken after

2321:

and its gradual divergence into a separate language. The end of the Common Germanic period is reached with the beginning of the

19938: 12575:, but later lost them in long-stemmed words and then Old High German lost them in many short-stemmed ones as well, by analogy. 11055:

The shortened overlong vowels in final position developed as regular long vowels from that point on, including the lowering of

2588:. A number of Celtic loanwords in Proto-Germanic have been identified. By the first century AD, Germanic expansion reached the 120: 20077: 20058: 20038: 17833: 17756: 17673: 17620: 17608: 17587: 17572: 16741: 2337: 2207: 2179: 403: 17236:, ZAS Papers in Linguistics 19, Berlin: ZAS, Zentrum für Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft (ZAS), pp. 41–90, archived from 19946: 18409: 17482: 10734:

boundaries where a bimoraic long vowel and a short vowel in hiatus contracted, especially after the loss of an intervening

1058: 17237: 14568:

Proto-Germanic verbs have three moods: indicative, subjunctive and imperative. The subjunctive mood derives from the PIE

14070:'that') which could serve as both adjectives and pronouns. The proximal was already obsolescent in Gothic (e.g. Goth acc. 9611:

In other positions, fricatives occurred singly after vowels and diphthongs, and after non-nasal consonants in the case of

16800: 13144:, respectively, and overall probably no more archaic than Gothic. In addition, some parts of the inflectional systems of 8847: 8833: 2164: 382: 127: 19321: 14123:

Ultimately, only the distal survived in the function of demonstrative. In most languages, it developed a second role as

2794:

A proposed distribution of five primary Proto-Germanic dialect groups in Europe around the turn of the Common Era (CE):

15751: 14522:

perfect), while weak verbs use a dental suffix (now generally held to be a reflex of the reduplicated imperfect of PIE

11836:

as well). The contrast between nasal and non-nasal long vowels is reflected in the differing output of nasalized long

2229: 2186: 1117: 11779:. The inherited Proto-Germanic nasal vowels were joined in Old Norse by nasal vowels from other sources, e.g. loss of 17775: 17737: 17711: 17426: 16950: 16925: 16900: 16875: 16522: 16304:

Mallory, J.P. and D.Q. Adams. 2006. The Oxford introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Indo-European world. P.22.

16229: 16174: 16143: 16108: 16083: 16049: 16020: 15987: 15927: 11816:

400 or so. Proto-Germanic medial nasal vowels were inherited, but were joined by new nasal vowels resulting from the

2621: 450: 255: 160: 63: 14835:

that could be separated from the verb (as also in Gothic, as shown by the behavior of second-position clitics, e.g.

10670:'whereto, whither'). None of the documented languages still include such vowels. Their reconstruction is due to the 2712:

involves the evolutionary descent of languages. The phylogeny problem is the question of what specific tree, in the

109: 19822: 17865: 16345:"Perfect Phylogenetic Networks: A New Methodology for Reconstructing the Evolutionary History of Natural Languages" 9413:

Some of the consonants that developed from the sound shifts are thought to have been pronounced in different ways (

8097:, which have received hundreds of Proto-Germanic or pre-Proto-Germanic loanwords. Well-known examples include PGmc 3181:(see e.g. Ringe 2006, p. 87). Some also claim that the two series may not even have been distinct in PIE. See 2666: 2352: 2193: 957: 16165:. Vol. 1. Translated by Ernest A. Menze. Harald and Ruth Bukor (Maps). Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. p. 12640:

must necessarily have occurred very early in the history of the Anglo-Frisian languages, before the loss of final

19926: 11433:

Proto-Germanic developed nasal vowels from two sources. The earlier and much more frequent source was word-final

3370:

was inserted already in PIE after dental consonants when they were followed by a suffix beginning with a dental.

468: 16398:(January–March 1961). "A Definition of Proto-Germanic: A Study in the Chronological Delimitation of Languages". 2783:, 'I, Wakraz, … wrote (this)'. He says: "We must therefore search for a new lower boundary for Proto-Germanic." 17555:

Harðarson, Jón Axel (2018). "The Morphology of Germanic". In Jared Klein; Brian Joseph; Matthias Fritz (eds.).

15918:

Mees, Bernard (2003), "Stratum and Shadow: The Indo-European West: Sigmund Feist", in Andersen, Henning (ed.),

9768:'they saw' (subjunctive), which were reanalysed and regularised differently in the various daughter languages. 2049: 1824: 1228: 98: 15718:

Reconstructed Proto-Germanic, with more probable grammar and vocabulary derived from later Germanic languages

13112:

It is often asserted that the Germanic languages have a highly reduced system of inflections as compared with

10678:

in final syllables, which unexpectedly remained long in some morphemes but shows normal shortening in others.

8071: 5632:

Some words that could be unstressed as a whole were also affected, often creating stressed/unstressed pairs —

2875:, Chapter 3, "The development of Proto-Germanic". Ringe in turn summarizes standard concepts and terminology. 19688: 17474: 16192:

The Role of Migration in the History of the Eurasian Steppe: Sedentary Civilization Vs. 'Barbarian' and Nomad

9339:

Verner's law is usually reconstructed as following Grimm's law in time, and states that unvoiced fricatives:

8199: 2522: 2222: 1794: 1063: 1000: 801: 687: 372: 16222:

The Role of Migration in the History of the Eurasian Steppe: Sedentary Civilization v. "Barbarian" and Nomad

13208:

Probably the most far-reaching alternation was between and , the voiceless and voiced fricatives, known as

19849: 19718: 18888: 18850: 18835: 17455: 14519: 11817: 8776: 8744: 8413: 8230:

in Germanic; however, his speculations, too, are generally rejected by specialists in the relevant fields.

4071: 2722: 2689: 2318: 1482: 985: 796: 791: 786: 681: 368: 55: 17: 19963: 19955: 18162: 14483: 12609: 12605: 12501: 12497: 12493: 12489: 11663: 11659: 11651: 11647: 11635: 11631: 10644: 10617: 10610: 10606: 10602: 10598: 10594: 10590: 10586: 10582: 10574: 10570: 10566: 10562: 10556: 10552: 10548: 10544: 10540: 10536: 10532: 10493: 10366: 10362: 10358: 10354: 10350: 10346: 10342: 10338: 10334: 10327: 10323: 10319: 10301: 10296: 10280: 10275: 10255: 10250: 10245: 10240: 10185: 10180: 10162: 10157: 10150: 10145: 10140: 10126: 10121: 10114: 10109: 9980:

as generalizations of the original allomorphy. In the cases concerned, this would imply reconstructing an

9740: 9736: 9711: 9707: 9689: 9685: 9681: 9670: 9666: 9659: 9644:, it was immediately converted to a plain velar. This caused alternations in certain verb paradigms, e.g. 9641: 9616: 9612: 9601: 9578: 9574: 9570: 9566: 9562: 9530: 9523: 9519: 9510: 9506: 9502: 9495: 9491: 9487: 9483: 9478: 9474: 9470: 9466: 9442: 9438: 9434: 9430: 9422: 9418: 9394: 9390: 9352: 9348: 9344: 9340: 9313: 9309: 9305: 9249: 9245: 9241: 9237: 9232: 9228: 9224: 9219: 9215: 9211: 9206: 9202: 9197: 9193: 9188: 9184: 9180: 9176: 9172: 9168: 9156: 9152: 9148: 9143: 9139: 9135: 9130: 9126: 9121: 9117: 9103: 9099: 9095: 9090: 9086: 9082: 9077: 9073: 9068: 9064: 9050: 9046: 9042: 9037: 9033: 9029: 9024: 9020: 9015: 9011: 8944: 8920: 8909: 8905: 8901: 8894: 8887: 8813: 8807: 8731: 8726: 8667: 8558:

Long vowels followed by a non-high vowel were separate syllables and are written as such here, except for

8485: 8481: 8436: 8432: 8409: 8399: 8395: 8391: 8387: 8383: 8379: 8360: 8356: 8352: 8348: 8344: 8340: 8336: 8332: 8287: 8283: 8279: 8275: 8271: 8267: 8209:

over some elements of its own language. The theory of a non-Indo-European substrate was first proposed by

2721:

form a tree with Proto-Germanic at its root that is a branch of the Indo-European tree, which in turn has

2564:

cultures by the early second millennium BC. According to Mallory, Germanicists "generally agree" that the

20113: 20108: 19815: 19698: 19558: 18908: 18867: 18857: 17858: 13216:

In the person-and-number endings of verbs, which were voiceless in weak verbs and voiced in strong verbs.

13166: 13063:

Some Proto-Germanic endings have merged in all of the literary languages but are still distinct in runic

1799: 1294: 995: 874: 860: 841: 10431:). It is explained by Ringe that at the time of borrowing, the vowel matching closest in sound to Latin 8250:

The following conventions are used in this article for transcribing Proto-Germanic reconstructed forms:

18074: 17652:

The Evolution of Germanic Phonological Systems: Proto-Germanic, Gothic, West Germanic, and Scandinavian

16733: 11690: 8839: 8760: 8695: 8681: 8617: 3182: 1137: 1095: 695: 10443:). And since Proto-Germanic therefore lacked a mid(-high) back vowel, the closest equivalent of Latin 19415: 16295:

Beekes, Robert S. P. 2011. Comparative Indo-European Linguistics. An Introduction. 2nd edition. P.28.

13181: 12637: 10674:, particularly as a way of explaining an otherwise unpredictable two-way split of reconstructed long 8792: 8783: 8752: 5384:. The PIE contrastive accent is lost, phonemicising the voicing distinction created by Verner's law. 2348: 2261: 1839: 1804: 1477: 781: 134: 2627:

By the third century, Late Proto-Germanic speakers had expanded over significant distance, from the

20118: 19884: 19693: 19647: 19642: 19566: 19176: 19160: 19039: 18898: 18789: 18784: 13092: 12647:

The outcome of final vowels and combinations in the various daughters is shown in the table below:

12582:

was preserved into the separate history of the language. This can be seen in the infinitive ending

12534: 10632: 9556: 7722: 2865: 2824: 2800: 2734: 2514: 2329: 2291: 2279: 2099: 1989: 1809: 1340: 1172: 1123: 1019: 821: 776: 771: 691: 204: 16012: 13278:

Nouns and adjectives derived with a variety of suffixes including -il-, -iþō, -į̄, -iskaz, -ingaz.

9533:

was , subsequently developing to in a number of languages. This is clearest from developments in

2347:

The Proto-Germanic language is not directly attested by any complete surviving texts; it has been

19864: 19859: 19576: 19571: 19491: 19164: 19114: 18414: 18232: 17988: 17916: 17904: 17703: 15701:

account, and is therefore closer to the language the Germanic people would have actually spoken.

14474: 14453: 13266:

Noun endings beginning with -i- in u-stem nouns: dative singular, nominative and genitive plural.

9605: 9534: 8768: 8713: 8702: 8688: 8205: 7902:

cultures when the Celts dominated central Europe, although the period spanned several centuries.

2844: 2287: 2283: 2272: 1994: 1721: 826: 816: 460: 378: 87: 19754: 19474: 18872: 17815: 17683: 17640: 17471:

Sprache und Herkunft der Germanen. Abriss des Frühurgermanischen vor der Ersten Lautverschiebung

8213:, who estimated that about a third of all Proto-Germanic lexical items came from the substrate. 19637: 19119: 19085: 18703: 18519: 18379: 18219: 18114: 16075: 16069: 15785: 14551: 13263:

Verb endings beginning with -i-: present second and third person singular, third person plural.

13104: 11870: 9552:

nasal consonants: , , , . This was the only place where a voiced labiovelar could still occur.

8800: 2709: 2398: 1984: 1956: 1740: 1642: 1408: 1254: 878: 716: 608: 547: 502: 442: 434: 221: 16166: 13212:

and triggered by the earlier operation of Verner's law. It was found in various environments:

13189: 19896: 19795: 19759: 19027: 19020: 18972: 18742: 18713: 18682: 18645: 18570: 18327: 18240: 18101: 18063: 15694: 13209: 11861: 10783: 9402: 8867: 8821: 8645: 8634: 8032:

from the Ukraine plain, groups of whom entered Central Europe via the Danube and created the

2737:. Whether it is to be included under a wider meaning of Proto-Germanic is a matter of usage. 2677: 2131: 1960: 868: 864: 849: 845: 19260: 18135: 17602: 16004: 7605:). The two vowels that come to stand in hiatus then contract to long vowels or diphthongs — 20045: 19906: 19764: 19744: 19713: 19586: 19446: 19192: 19010: 18602: 18429: 18391: 18386: 18260: 18207: 17965: 17329: 15813: 14617:-grade of a non-derived verb. In Proto-Germanic, causatives are formed by adding a suffix 14503: 14427: 13571: 13125: 12564: 12548: 11270: 9538: 9482:

which only occurred in non-word-initial positions, merged with the fricative allophones of

8720: 4495: 3628: 2526: 2307: 2299: 2077: 2042: 1355: 1038: 990: 927: 897: 855: 835: 699: 553: 294: 19420: 17567:(Oxford Studies in Diachronic and Historical Linguistics), Oxford University Press, 2023. 14461:

Proto-Germanic has present indicative verb forms that look like PIE aorist subjunctives.)

8239: 1223: 8: 19874: 19703: 18939: 18893: 18827: 18580: 18227: 18140: 17938: 17837: 17784: 17691: 16344: 15885:

Feist was proposing the idea as early as 1913, but his classical paper on the subject is

15817: 11165:). Gothic makes no orthographic and therefore presumably no phonetic distinction between 9796: 8738: 2673:

in 348. Early West Germanic text is available from the fifth century, beginning with the

2636: 2557: 2542: 2360: 2341: 1350: 1345: 1241: 1165: 1130: 1053: 1043: 902: 603: 598: 567: 347: 336: 323: 19250: 19095: 18342: 17821: 16313:

Fortson, Benjamin W. 2010. Indo-European Language and Culture. 2nd edition. Pp. 349–350.

15890:(1932). "The Origin of the Germanic Languages and the Europeanization of North Europe". 15726:

wullō wurkīþi siz warmą wastijǭ. Awiz-uh wullǭ ne habaiþi. Þat hauzidaz awiz akrą flauh.

13574:, where the strong declensions have more distinct endings. In the proto-language, as in 2859: 19994: 19889: 19838: 19749: 19673: 19601: 19591: 19546: 19308: 19235: 19132: 18977: 18952: 18947: 18840: 18668: 18553: 18374: 18152: 18147: 18126: 18087: 17891: 17881: 17810: 17751:. Linguistic history of English, v. 1 (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 17687: 17027: 16602: 16493: 16458: 16450: 16415: 16395: 16367: 16037: 15946: 15907: 15756: 14587: 14507: 14431: 11004: 10983: 10735: 10671: 9787:. (This is distinct from the consonant mutation processes occurring in the neighboring 9780: 9658:'they sang'. Apparently, this delabialization also occurred with labiovelars following 9640:

in Proto-Germanic; in newly generated environments where a labiovelar occurred next to

9356: 8657: 8602: 8592: 3541: 3204: 2814: 2740: 2718: 2643: 2582: 2578: 2518: 2303: 2268: 2056: 2007: 1941: 1925: 1550: 1203: 942: 628: 533: 528: 423: 284: 230: 18903: 17659: 7899: 2688:

The evolution of Proto-Germanic from its ancestral forms, beginning with its ancestor

2585: 19984: 19723: 19522: 19438: 19431: 19386: 19330: 19090: 19080: 19063: 19058: 18962: 18845: 18724: 18524: 18485: 18465: 18303: 18195: 18177: 18029: 17771: 17752: 17733: 17707: 17669: 17616: 17583: 17568: 17521: 17505: 17489: 17478: 17422: 16946: 16921: 16896: 16871: 16825: 16737: 16518: 16476:

Antonsen, Elmer H. (January–March 1965). "On Defining Stages in Prehistoric German".

16462: 16225: 16170: 16160: 16139: 16131: 16104: 16079: 16045: 16016: 16005: 15983: 15923: 15704:

Reconstructed Proto-Germanic, phonetic evolution derived from reconstructed PIE only

15690: 13136:

of the fourth century AD—contemporaneous with Gothic—were significantly simpler than

11501:. Another source, developing only in late Proto-Germanic times, was in the sequences 8607: 8266:; this does not imply any particular analysis of the underlying phonemes as plosives 8224: 7895: 7894:'fortified enclosure'. These loans would likely have been borrowed during the Celtic 2772: 2705: 2674: 2662: 2613: 2561: 2546: 2495: 2356: 2355:. However, there is fragmentary direct attestation of (late) Proto-Germanic in early 2333: 2070: 2036: 2028: 1972: 1966: 1948: 1919: 1898: 1884: 1876: 1646: 1507: 1447: 1429: 1370: 1365: 1360: 1327: 1322: 1151: 1014: 663: 656: 649: 635: 621: 581: 560: 497: 489: 411: 17230:

Investigations in Prosodic Phonology: The Role of the Foot and the Phonological Word

16724: 14578:

with a single form used for all persons of the dual and plural. Note that although

11541:

comparative method does require a three-way phonemic distinction between word-final

11067:

in Northwest Germanic produced a phoneme which merged with this new word-final long

8535:. However, when immediately followed by the corresponding semivowel, they appear as 8179: 20050: 19678: 19469: 19403: 19359: 19354: 19314: 19303: 19295: 19100: 19068: 19015: 19004: 18917: 18626: 18565: 18355: 18337: 18172: 17933: 17925: 17612: 17293: 17288: 17276: 16594: 16485: 16442: 16407: 16359: 15950: 15942: 15899: 15810: 14583: 14124: 9792: 8597: 8187: 8183: 8094: 8044: 7926: 7767: 7120: 3709: 3523: 2601: 2597: 2506: 2322: 2313:

A defining feature of Proto-Germanic is the completion of the process described by

2295: 2064: 2014: 1831: 1637: 1525: 1465: 1442: 1385: 1380: 1317: 1304: 1299: 1289: 962: 575: 523: 515: 508: 19515: 16371: 14605:

verbs). For example, a significant subclass of Class I weak verbs are (deverbal)

12365:, with nasalisation and lengthening of the previous vowel, in late Proto-Germanic) 9633: 19879: 19708: 19668: 19501: 19408: 19391: 19376: 19371: 19364: 19073: 18982: 18967: 18922: 18774: 18737: 18729: 18708: 18695: 18675: 18661: 18424: 18401: 18332: 18322: 18314: 18094: 17828: 17663: 16620: 16512: 14630: 13575: 13567: 13289: 13248: 12560: 12552: 11553:, which each has a distinct pattern of reflexes in the later Germanic languages: 9788: 8961: 8855: 8626: 8612: 8295: 8220: 6711: 6103: 5037: 4188:

When the lost vowel was accented, the accent shifted to the preceding syllable —

2848: 2748: 2609: 2581:(fifth to first centuries BC) placed Proto-Germanic speakers in contact with the 2571: 2484: 2475: 2377: 2332:" may be used to include a larger scope of linguistic developments, spanning the 2306:), which arose from West Germanic dialects, and had remained in contact with the 2145: 2114: 2109: 2104: 2085: 2021: 2000: 1978: 1563: 1452: 1375: 1284: 1217: 1158: 1024: 756: 741: 731: 726: 642: 614: 419: 13222:

Between strong verbs (voiceless) and causative verbs derived from them (voiced).

13192:, it may have been lost before Proto-Germanic became a different branch at all. 12519:

Word-final short nasal vowels were however preserved longer, as is reflected in

10903:

But vowels that were lengthened by laryngeals did not become overlong. Compare:

9811:

Diachronically, the rise of consonant gradation in Germanic can be explained by

20030: 19911: 19901: 19789: 19683: 19663: 19615: 19507: 19381: 19051: 18818: 18757: 18536: 18493: 18450: 18367: 18362: 18251: 18201: 18052: 18003: 17958: 17951: 16708:

Kylstra, A.D.; Hahmo, Sirkka-Liisa; Hofstra, Tette; Nikkilä, Osmo (1991–2012).

15975: 14868: 14860: 14606: 14594: 14491: 13202: 13145: 13113: 10966: 10939: 10264: 9812: 9637: 8957: 8675: 8216: 7771: 4244: 2647: 2530: 2405: 2314: 2264: 1890: 1757: 1632: 1190: 1144: 1112: 1048: 539: 16807: 12287:

It allowed continuant + obstruent clusters in medial and final position only:

11091:. This split, combined with the asymmetric development in West Germanic, with 9319:(A similar shift on the consonant inventory of Proto-Germanic later generated 8923:) in Proto-Germanic. Evidence for this is the fact that in Gothic, word-final 8351:

in certain positions at a later stage of Proto-Germanic itself. Similarly for

2393: 2282:

into three Germanic branches during the fifth century BC to fifth century AD:

20102: 19739: 19581: 19337: 19288: 19105: 19044: 18957: 18862: 18800: 18747: 18631: 18558: 17466: 17388:

Einar Haugen, "First Grammatical Treatise. The Earliest Germanic Phonology",

15887: 14515: 14437: 14423: 13566:

are based on the later development of these declensions in languages such as

13129: 11182: 8306: 8300: 8210: 7917: 7448: 2834: 2790: 2463: 2458: 2364: 2150: 1614: 1530: 1247: 1105: 967: 721: 194: 16723:

Kallio, Petri (2012). "The Prehistoric Germanic Loanword Strata in Finnic".

16710:

Lexikon der älteren germanischen Lehnwörter in den ostseefinnischen Sprachen

14456:, featured by a loss of tenses present in Proto-Indo-European. For example, 11698:

sequences were preserved in Old Icelandic as shown by examples given in the

10349:

also occurred word-finally. Word-internal nasal vowels only occurred before

937: 19608: 19032: 18996: 18929: 18752: 18575: 18548: 18531: 18475: 18434: 18016: 17995: 16340: 16336: 16332: 14813:

As in other Indo-European languages, a verb in Proto-Germanic could have a

14574: 14487: 14470: 14457: 14445: 13133: 9928:

paradigms in Proto-Germanic explains root alternations such as Old English

9542: 7906: 7399:

A number of loanwords in the Finnic and Samic demonstrate earlier *e, e.g.

7361: 2752: 2655: 2368: 1769: 1607: 1081: 952: 751: 746: 736: 398: 390: 214: 19255: 16363: 14436:

Proto-Germanic had only two tenses (past and present), compared to 5–7 in

11824:

in Proto-Germanic) to all environments before a fricative (thus including

2658:, written in the later fourth century in the East Germanic variety of the 2317:, a set of sound changes that occurred between its status as a dialect of 20070: 20065: 19869: 19425: 19398: 19216: 19124: 18806: 18767: 18350: 18045: 18009: 17944: 16943:

Quantity and Prosodic Asymmetries is Alemannic: Synchronic and Diachronic

16044:. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. pp. 298–299. 14773:'to carry across', i.e. 'to cause to travel' (an archaic instance of the 13064: 12616:

in the infinitive ending prevented the fronting of the preceding vowel: *

12520: 11677: 10235: 10206: 10104: 10072: 9332: 9320: 8967: 8227: 6722: 2804: 2744: 2651: 2593: 2538: 2525:, it may have been influenced by non-Indo-European cultures, such as the 1745: 1731: 1695: 1403: 415: 341: 19270: 17732:. Linguistic history of English, v. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 16625:

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition

10742:-). One example, without a laryngeal, includes the class II weak verbs ( 9968: 8059: 932: 20022: 19265: 19245: 18610: 18280: 17981: 16566:

Aikio, Ante (2006). "On Germanic-Saami contacts and Saami prehistory".

16454: 15796: 13082: 10287: 10211: 10169: 10077: 9549: 9454: 9328: 8466:. In other literature they are often denoted by a doubled macron, e.g. 7230: 3193: 2713: 2545:

suggest a common history of pre-Proto-Germanic speakers throughout the

1708: 1622: 1500: 1265: 16606: 16497: 16419: 15911: 15685: 12516:

of the dative plural ending and first person plural present of verbs.

11791:

still includes nasal vowels that directly derive from Old Norse, e.g.

11035:(probably ) in early North and West Germanic, with a later raising to 10527:

The following diphthongs are known to have existed in Proto-Germanic:

5747:

The process creates diphthongs from originally disyllabic sequences —

19807: 19451: 19199: 18762: 18543: 18498: 18470: 18296: 17850: 14629:-grade) of a strong verb (the reflex of PIE non-derived verbs), with 14579: 14496: 11788: 11681: 11040: 10135: 9414: 8577: 8378:; this does not imply any particular analysis as single sounds (e.g. 5282:

Some small words that were generally unaccented were also affected —

4870:

Aspirated plosives become voiced plosives or fricatives (see below):

3528: 3207: 2860:

Phonological stages from Proto-Indo-European to end of Proto-Germanic

2659: 1911: 1688: 1680: 1673: 1666: 1652: 1520: 19275: 17805: 16666: 16446: 14510:", according to the way the past tense is formed. Strong verbs use 11382: 11333: 11290: 11230: 11224: 10519:) was likely borrowed from Latin around or shortly after this time. 76: 20017: 19240: 18588: 17348: 17346: 17093: 16598: 16489: 16411: 15903: 14864: 14598: 14569: 14562: 14502:

Verbs in Proto-Germanic were divided into two main groups, called "

14449: 13240:

The past tense of weak verbs with no vowel infix in the past tense.

13153: 13141: 13121: 11420:

in the root syllable after a certain period (older loans also show

10731: 9450: 8971: 8424:

does not imply any actual change in the pronunciation of the sound.

8291: 8029: 7552:

Finnic loanwords demonstrating earlier *e are again known: Finnish

6270:

after unstressed syllables, and the preceding vowel is nasalised —

3596:

Laryngeals are lost after vowels but lengthen the preceding vowel:

3440: 2566: 1854: 1845: 1736: 1537: 1512: 1416: 907: 483: 16138:. Chicago, IL, United States: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1993. 11985:

It allowed the following clusters in initial and medial position:

2344:

that would become Proto-Germanic underwent through the millennia.

19281: 18877: 18779: 17099:. Presentation given at the 43rd Poznań Linguistic Meeting, 2012. 17064:

Germanische Lautgesetze in ihrem sprachgeschichtlichen Verhältnis

16433:

Bennett, William H. (May 1970). "The Stress Patterns of Gothic".

14814: 11063:

in North and West Germanic. The monophthongization of unstressed

8412:. Note that the normal convention for representing this sound in 8001: 2605: 2372: 1904: 1868: 1861: 1659: 1279: 912: 386: 17557:

Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics

17343: 16654: 15916:

A brief biography and presentation of his ideas can be found in

11941: 11904: 11879: 11673:) was more stable, and survived into the early dialects intact. 11376: 11339: 11327: 9929: 4467:

Since the second of two obstruents is unaffected, the sequences

18584: 17217:, 2nd edn. (Chichester/Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), 342. 16707: 15790: 14832: 14511: 13185: 13156:

were innovations that were not present in Proto-Indo-European.

11190: 9628:

Labiovelars were affected by the following additional changes:

9417:) depending on the sounds around them. With regard to original 8474: 7752: 7094:

That followed the earliest contact with the Romans since Latin

2670: 2632: 2589: 1627: 1581: 1100: 917: 418:

is shown in red; magenta areas towards the south represent the

16532: 9747:

These various changes often led to complex alternations, e.g.

9529:

A good deal of evidence, however, indicates that word-initial

7372: 4057:

This rule continued to operate into the Proto-Germanic period.

2298:

with the others over a considerable time, especially with the

18502: 16995: 15761: 14441: 13149: 13137: 13117: 11445:) in unstressed syllables, which at first gave rise to short 11186: 9304:

from the voiced consonant; that is, most of the instances of

2776: 2775:

agreed with Lehmann about the upper boundary but later found

2628: 2617: 2402: 1726: 1600: 1594: 1576: 947: 922: 367:

This article contains characters used to write reconstructed

17277:"Proto-Indo-European Circumflex Intonation or Bisyllabicity" 15846:

Described in this and the linked articles, but see Kleinman.

11803:(presumably nasalized, although not so written); cf. German 8427:

Long vowels are denoted with a macron over the letter, e.g.

7811:

is typical not of Germanic but Celtic languages. Another is

7761: 4163:

Single-syllable words were not affected, but clitics were —

17559:. Vol. 2. Berlin/Boston: de Gruyter. pp. 913–954. 17400: 17398: 17095:

The use and misuse of evidence in linguistic reconstruction

15712:

westrą. Awją-uh wullō ne isti. Þat hehluwaz awiz akrą buki.

14777:-grade ablaut used despite the differing past-tense ablaut) 14028:

Proto-Germanic originally had two demonstratives (proximal

13237:

The second-person singular past ending *-t of strong verbs.

12130:

It allowed the following clusters in medial position only:

11820:, which extended the loss of nasal consonants (only before 9559:

produced geminated plosives from earlier voiced fricatives.

8927:(which medially represents a voiced fricative) devoices to 2118: 17264:. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. p. 140. 15949:

while velars and labiovelars are sometimes combined under

14625:) to the past-tense ablaut (mostly with the reflex of PIE 14477:(not the inflectional system); the Sanskrit future uses a 11044: 11007:) and therefore greater length than ordinary long vowels. 10353:, and derived from their earlier respective short vowels ( 8312: 2529:, but the sound change in the Germanic languages known as 17171: 14831:'to become'). In Proto-Germanic, the preverb was still a 11694:, which documents nasal vowels. The PG nasal vowels from 11688:

1125, the earliest possible time for the creation of the

10655:

Proto-Germanic had two overlong or trimoraic long vowels

8028:). The words could have been transmitted directly by the 3631:

because of that change contract into an overlong vowel —

17395: 17370: 17358: 16983: 16918:

The Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics

16697:. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 303–7, 352. 16585:

Lane, George S (1933). "The Germano-Celtic Vocabulary".

16544: 16074:. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 15920:

Language Contacts in Prehistory: Studies in Stratigraphy

11684:. They were preserved in Old Icelandic down to at least 11148:, all the Germanic languages agree on some occasions of 9355:

are voiced when preceded by an unaccented syllable. The

7789: 7782: 7479:'white (of animal, or hair)', from early Proto-Germanic 2363:, dated to the 2nd century CE, as well as the non-runic 17183: 17049:

Intensiva und Iterativa und ihr Verhältniss zu einander

16870:. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 123. 16352:

Language — Journal of the Linguistic Society of America

16279: 16277: 14152: 14146: 14140: 13269:

Causatives derived from strong verbs with a -j- suffix.

11763: 11757: 11727: 11706: 9268:

did not undergo Grimm's law after a fricative (such as

8193: 7920: 2388: 16945:. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 58. 16641:(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 123. 16637:

Martin Schwartz, "Avestan Terms for the Sauma Plant",

16203: 16201: 16158: 16011:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 14139:

to the distal demonstrative (e.g. Runic Norse nom.sg.

11627:

are caused by the Northwest Germanic raising of final

10322:

could not occur in unstressed syllables except before

7968: 7942: 7929: 7117:

Finnic loanwords preceding the change are also known:

17538:

A Comparative Grammar of the Early Germanic Languages

17328:. Austin: Linguistics Research Center. Archived from 16238: 14654:'to bridle, yoke, restrain', i.e. 'to make bite down' 14633:

voicing applied (the reflex of the PIE accent on the

14104:

from the original proximal demonstrative) and German

8919:

was probably still realised as a bilabial fricative (

8023: 8010: 8004: 7981: 7955: 2747:'s "First Germanic Sound Shift", or Grimm's law, and 17159: 17147: 17135: 17123: 16959: 16768: 16756: 16274: 16250: 15922:, John Benjamin Publishing Company, pp. 19–21, 15722: 15708: 15428: 15415: 15402: 15389: 15381: 15368: 15360: 15347: 15339: 15325: 15316: 15303: 15294: 15281: 15273: 15260: 15252: 15235: 15228: 15217: 15201: 15193: 15185: 15172: 15164: 15156: 15140: 15132: 15119: 15110: 15101: 15085: 15077: 15069: 15060: 15047: 15039: 15031: 15023: 15015: 15002: 14994: 14986: 14978: 14970: 14951: 14943: 14937: 14929: 14881: 14872: 14854: 14848: 14842: 14836: 14825: 14818: 14803: 14796: 14787: 14780: 14767: 14760: 14753: 14744: 14737: 14728: 14721: 14712: 14705: 14696: 14689: 14680: 14673: 14664: 14657: 14648: 14641: 14561:'to want' forms its present indicative from the PIE 14555: 14523: 14406: 14398: 14390: 14375: 14367: 14359: 14344: 14336: 14328: 14313: 14305: 14297: 14282: 14274: 14266: 14258: 14250: 14242: 14064: 14057: 14050: 14043: 14036: 14029: 14012: 14004: 13996: 13988: 13980: 13972: 13964: 13949: 13941: 13933: 13925: 13917: 13909: 13901: 13886: 13878: 13870: 13862: 13854: 13846: 13838: 13823: 13815: 13807: 13799: 13791: 13783: 13768: 13757: 13749: 13738: 13730: 13722: 13714: 13706: 13698: 13690: 13541: 13533: 13525: 13510: 13502: 13494: 13486: 13471: 13463: 13455: 13447: 13432: 13424: 13416: 13408: 13393: 13385: 13370: 13362: 13354: 13346: 13228:

Between the singular and plural forms of some nouns.

12598: 12587: 12578:

Old English shows indirect evidence that word-final

12555:, which lost all final-syllable short vowels except 11960: 11769: 11740: 11733: 11719: 11712: 11403: 11395: 11388: 11366: 11358: 11351: 11311: 11296: 11257: 11249: 11242: 11177:-like phonemes is supported by the existence of two 11159: 11153: 11134: 11127: 10971: 10944: 10917: 10893: 10885: 10875: 10867: 10859: 10852: 10845: 10838: 10831: 10820: 10812: 10795: 10787: 10770: 10763: 10664: 10621: 10501: 10465: 10458: 10042: 10034: 10026: 10019: 10008: 10000: 9992: 9985: 9974: 9961: 9948: 9935: 9762: 9755: 9748: 9729: 9722: 9715: 9700: 9693: 9674: 9652: 9645: 9383: 9376: 9368: 9361: 8163: 8150: 8137: 8118: 8111: 8098: 8050: 8037: 8016: 7994: 7987: 7974: 7961: 7948: 7935: 7910: 7888: 7881: 7874: 7867: 7860: 7853: 7846: 7839: 7812: 7775: 7741: 7734: 7727: 7715: 7709: 7696: 7689: 7682: 7674: 7667: 7661: 7651: 7644: 7637: 7629: 7622: 7614: 7607: 7600: 7594: 7588: 7580: 7566: 7559: 7543: 7536: 7529: 7522: 7516: 7509: 7503: 7487: 7480: 7464: 7457: 7439: 7432: 7416: 7409: 7391: 7384: 7377: 7365: 7354: 7347: 7340: 7333: 7327: 7318: 7311: 7304: 7296: 7289: 7282: 7274: 7267: 7260: 7253: 7247: 7241: 7235: 7207: 7200: 7183: 7176: 7159: 7152: 7136: 7129: 7108: 7101: 7086: 7079: 7072: 7064: 7057: 7050: 7043: 7037: 7029: 7022: 7015: 7007: 7000: 6993: 6986: 6980: 6964: 6957: 6949: 6941: 6933: 6926: 6919: 6912: 6905: 6899: 6888: 6881: 6874: 6867: 6860: 6853: 6846: 6838: 6830: 6823: 6816: 6808: 6801: 6794: 6786: 6771: 6764: 6756: 6748: 6740: 6734: 6715: 6703: 6696: 6689: 6682: 6674: 6668: 6660: 6653: 6646: 6639: 6632: 6625: 6618: 6610: 6602: 6594: 6587: 6581: 6563: 6556: 6549: 6542: 6534: 6526: 6519: 6512: 6505: 6499: 6491: 6484: 6477: 6470: 6462: 6454: 6447: 6440: 6433: 6423: 6411: 6404: 6397: 6390: 6383: 6376: 6368: 6356: 6349: 6341: 6333: 6325: 6318: 6311: 6303: 6295: 6288: 6280: 6272: 6263: 6251: 6244: 6236: 6228: 6220: 6213: 6205: 6197: 6188: 6182: 6171: 6164: 6157: 6150: 6142: 6135: 6128: 6120: 6114: 6083: 6076: 6068: 6060: 6053: 6045: 6037: 6030: 6024: 6018: 6010: 6003: 5995: 5987: 5980: 5972: 5964: 5957: 5951: 5945: 5937: 5930: 5922: 5915: 5907: 5900: 5894: 5888: 5869: 5862: 5854: 5846: 5839: 5833: 5824: 5817: 5810: 5803: 5795: 5788: 5780: 5772: 5765: 5757: 5749: 5738: 5731: 5724: 5716: 5708: 5700: 5692: 5684: 5676: 5670: 5655: 5648: 5641: 5634: 5624: 5618: 5612: 5603: 5596: 5588: 5580: 5573: 5567: 5558: 5551: 5543: 5535: 5528: 5521: 5515: 5502: 5495: 5487: 5478: 5472: 5459: 5452: 5443: 5437: 5423: 5417: 5411: 5405: 5397: 5391: 5368: 5361: 5354: 5347: 5339: 5331: 5323: 5315: 5308: 5300: 5292: 5284: 5274: 5267: 5259: 5251: 5243: 5236: 5228: 5220: 5213: 5204: 5197: 5189: 5181: 5173: 5163: 5156: 5148: 5140: 5132: 5124: 5115: 5108: 5100: 5092: 5084: 5075: 5068: 5060: 5052: 5044: 5020: 5013: 5005: 4997: 4991: 4982: 4975: 4967: 4959: 4953: 4943: 4936: 4928: 4920: 4914: 4905: 4898: 4890: 4885: 4879: 4873: 4858: 4851: 4843: 4835: 4829: 4820: 4813: 4805: 4797: 4789: 4783: 4774: 4767: 4759: 4751: 4744: 4736: 4728: 4722: 4712: 4705: 4697: 4689: 4683: 4667: 4660: 4652: 4644: 4636: 4630: 4624: 4618: 4609: 4602: 4594: 4586: 4578: 4572: 4566: 4560: 4550: 4543: 4535: 4527: 4519: 4513: 4507: 4501: 4486: 4480: 4474: 4468: 4458: 4451: 4443: 4435: 4429: 4423: 4414: 4407: 4399: 4391: 4383: 4376: 4368: 4360: 4354: 4348: 4339: 4332: 4324: 4316: 4310: 4304: 4295: 4288: 4280: 4272: 4266: 4260: 4249: 4230: 4222: 4215: 4207: 4199: 4191: 4180: 4173: 4165: 4155: 4148: 4140: 4133: 4127: 4118: 4112: 4105: 4098: 4092: 4086: 4047: 4039: 4031: 4023: 4015: 4008: 4002: 3992: 3984: 3976: 3968: 3960: 3953: 3947: 3938: 3930: 3922: 3915: 3909: 3901: 3895: 3889: 3875: 3868: 3860: 3852: 3845: 3830: 3823: 3815: 3807: 3800: 3792: 3784: 3778: 3763: 3756: 3748: 3740: 3732: 3726: 3720: 3714: 3691: 3684: 3673: 3666: 3658: 3650: 3642: 3634: 3619: 3611: 3603: 3597: 3588: 3581: 3573: 3562: 3555: 3547: 3532: 3511: 3504: 3496: 3479: 3472: 3464: 3456: 3448: 3425: 3418: 3410: 3402: 3394: 3386: 3380: 3374: 3364: 3350: 3343: 3335: 3328: 3322: 3314: 3307: 3299: 3292: 3286: 3277: 3270: 3262: 3255: 3249: 3241: 3234: 3226: 3219: 3213: 3197: 3176: 3170: 3160: 3153: 3145: 3138: 3132: 3124: 3117: 3109: 3102: 3096: 3088: 3081: 3073: 3066: 3060: 3042: 3035: 3027: 3020: 3014: 3006: 2999: 2991: 2984: 2978: 2969: 2962: 2954: 2946: 2940: 2930: 2923: 2915: 2907: 2901: 2892: 2759: 2371:-era transcriptions of individual words (notably in 17450:. New York: Modern Language Association of America. 17215:

Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction

16262: 16198: 15686:

Schleicher's PIE fable rendered into Proto-Germanic

14473:construction that in PIE was part of the system of 14177:were dialectal variants of the masculine plural of 13195: 11873: 11756:The phonemicity is evident from minimal pairs like 9594:, with devoicing), but as a fricative in Old Norse 8943:was used to denote the bilabial realisation before 7474: 7451: 2367:inscription, dated to the 2nd century BCE), and in 101:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 17524:(1979). "Proto-Germanic */i/ and */e/ Revisited". 16920:. Chicago, London: Fitzroy Dearborn. p. 122. 16331: 16007:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language 15974:Hawkins, John A. (1987). "Germanic languages". In 11935: 11864: 9581:is conflicting: it appears as a plosive in Gothic 8966:Grimm's law as applied to pre-proto-Germanic is a 5629:but not until after the application of i-mutation. 2616:), Germanic speakers came into contact with early 2560:in the mid-3rd millennium BC, developing into the 17051:. Leipzig: Publisher not cited by Kroonen (2009). 16623:(2000). "Appendix I: Indo-European Roots: reg-". 16529:That presentation also summarizes Lehmann's view. 13247:An alternation not triggered by sound change was 13159: 11947: 11910: 11844:in Old English and Old Frisian whereas non-nasal 11666:). This allowed their reflexes to stay distinct. 9942: 8043:'horse', which was either borrowed directly from 5382:All words become stressed on their first syllable 4236:, showing that loss occurred before Verner's law) 3055:Merging of PIE "palatovelar" and "velar" plosives 406:showing cultures associated with Proto-Germanic, 220:for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate 20100: 17682: 17547:Language and history in the early Germanic world 15876:, which is arranged in alphabetic order by root. 15809:It is open to debate whether the bearers of the 14817:attached to it, modifying its meaning (cf. e.g. 14537:suffix that is a direct continuation of the PIE 13558:demonstratives and definite articles. The terms 13180:Verbs and pronouns had three numbers: singular, 10802: 10643:- in parallel with the other consonants (except 10597:in the same or following syllable. This removed 5360:(the stressed variants, which would have become 2878: 2604:. At about the same time, extending east of the 17806:Proto-Germanic nominal and pronominal paradigms 17540:. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2018. 16865: 16726:A Linguistic Map of Prehistoric Northern Europe 16660: 11798: 11792: 11173:, but the existence of two Proto-Germanic long 10994:had a "circumflex" (rise-fall-rise) tone while 10345:only occurred word-finally, and of these, only 9955: 9595: 9545:still preserves the sound of in this position. 8462:Overlong vowels appear with circumflexes, e.g. 4070:This stage began its evolution as a dialect of 2650:). The language of these sentences is known as 371:words (for an explanation of the notation, see 16672: 9669:knew at least three different outcomes: after 8290:. In other literature, they may be written as 8131: 7818:'foreigner; Celt' from the Celtic tribal name 7770:appear to have been made before or during the 6710:. This development postdated contact with the 19823: 17866: 17494:Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung 16219: 16103:, vol. I, London: Penguin, p. 108, 15736: 14802:(class 1, preterite-present) '(s)he knows' → 14127:, and underlies both the English determiners 13086: 13076: 12542: 12528: 11953: 11916: 11885: 11676:Phonemic nasal vowels definitely occurred in 11071:, while the monophthongization of unstressed 10830:contraction after loss of laryngeal: gen.pl. 10627:('new'); the second element of the diphthong 8170: 8157: 8144: 8125: 8105: 7553: 7426: 7403: 7214: 7193: 7169: 7146: 7123: 6725: 2230: 17079:Expressivität und Lautgesetz im Germanischen 17020:stems: a study in diachronic morphophonology 16678: 16132:"Languages of the World: Germanic languages" 14514:(i.e. a different vowel in the stem) and/or 14111: 14105: 14083: 14077: 14071: 12904:short ja-stem masculine nominative singular 11804: 11747: 11345: 11236: 10884:contraction of short vowels: a-stem nom.pl. 10777: 10472: 10419: 9688:in initial positions it was delabialized to 9588: 9582: 8488:, a distinction which was phonemic. Tildes ( 7753:Lexical evidence in other language varieties 2766: 17665:Recent Developments in Germanic Linguistics 17091: 16940: 16895:. Cambridge University Press. p. 227. 16732:. Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Toimituksia. 16695:Europe Between the Oceans 9000 BC – AD 1000 15982:. Oxford University Press. pp. 68–76. 13275:Nouns derived from verbs with a -j- suffix. 13272:Verbs derived from nouns with a -j- suffix. 12941:long ja-stem masculine nominative singular 12604:). Since the early Old English fronting of 12508:of some present tense verb endings, and in 11669:The nasality of word-internal vowels (from 10452: 10426: 10411: 8951: 8551:. This convention is based on the usage in 7095: 6106:, another characteristic Germanic feature. 64:Learn how and when to remove these messages 19830: 19816: 17873: 17859: 17811:A dictionary of Proto-Germanic (in German) 17749:From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic 17730:From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic 17520: 17504: 17488: 17419:From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic 17308: 17274: 17117: 17032:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 16853: 16561: 16559: 16159:Kinder, Hermann; Werner Hilgemann (1988). 16036: 15855:The etymologies are to be found mainly in 12551:). Somewhat greater reduction is found in 12479:) could appear in any position in a word. 7725:and nasalisation of the preceding vowel — 7515:when followed by a syllable-final nasal — 2726:proposed, none certain and all debatable. 2237: 2223: 2201:Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch 17604:Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic 17554: 17526:Journal of English and Germanic Philology 17404: 17392:, 26:4 (Oct–Dec, 1950), pp. 4–64 (p. 33). 17292: 17061: 16568:Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja 14766:'to lead, bring', i.e. 'to cause to go', 12881:short ja-stem neuter nominative singular 7762:Loans from adjoining Indo-European groups 2620:cultures, as reflected in early Germanic 2278:Proto-Germanic eventually developed from 256:Learn how and when to remove this message 161:Learn how and when to remove this message 19925: 17550:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 17508:(1973). "Indo-European eu in Germanic". 17477:, 271p., in German with English summary 17454: 17259: 16790:(Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2003), 251. 16692: 16538: 16510: 16475: 16063: 16061: 12952:long ja-stem neuter nominative singular 12593:) and the strong past participle ending 7803:. It is clearly not native because PIE * 7456:'thick meat', from early Proto-Germanic 6540:'to be silent' > (with added suffix) 6468:'to be silent' > (with added suffix) 4084:Loss of word-final non-high short vowels 2789: 2695: 2457: 2392: 397: 17847:stems compared across reference sources 17700:The Oxford Companion to World Mythology 17649: 17629: 17600: 17492:(1972). "Indo-European ē in Germanic". 17445: 17352: 17319: 17046: 17013: 17001: 16890: 16619: 16556: 16432: 16394: 16244: 16002: 15973: 15967: 15820:should also be considered Indo-European 14718:'to destroy', i.e. 'to cause to perish' 12844:3rd person singular past of weak verbs 10730:Trimoraic vowels generally occurred at 9776: 9735:'kidney'). Evidence for a sound change 8459:instead, but this is not followed here. 8093:The heaviest influence has been on the 4065: 410:500 BC. The area of the preceding 383:question marks, boxes, or other symbols 14: 20101: 19837: 17880: 17765: 17658: 17448:An Introduction to the Gothic Language 16830:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 16722: 16653:, *paido-. That word gave Old English 16256: 16098: 16067: 15834: 12537:), while the dative plural appears as 9771: 8473:Nasal vowels are written here with an 6096: 19924: 19811: 19544: 19158: 17902: 17854: 17746: 17727: 17609:Indo-European Etymological Dictionary 17543: 17416: 17376: 17364: 17201: 17195: 17189: 17177: 17165: 17153: 17141: 17129: 16989: 16977: 16965: 16915: 16774: 16762: 16565: 16550: 16517:. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 26–30. 16283: 16268: 16207: 16058: 15886: 15860: 15856: 15829: 15243: 14892: 14750:'to lay', i.e. 'to cause to lie down' 14734:'to save', i.e. 'to cause to survive' 12969:3rd person singular past subjunctive 12804:ō-stem adjective accusative singular 12784:1st person singular present of verbs 12778: 12727:a-stem masculine nominative singular 12705:i-stem masculine accusative singular 12679:a-stem masculine accusative singular 12482: 11144:and the other Germanic languages as * 10330:already in late Proto-Germanic times. 9604:hardened to in all positions in the 8931:and also Old Norse spellings such as 8552: 7128:'to seek', from early Proto-Germanic 5484:before a consonant or word-finally — 3701:Laryngeals remain between consonants. 3492:Word-final long vowels are lengthened 2872: 2521:of Northern Europe. According to the 2466:expansion (1st and 2nd centuries AD): 2338:Pre-Roman Iron Age in Northern Europe 2208:Indo-European Etymological Dictionary 2180:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture 404:pre-Roman Iron Age in Northern Europe 17816:Another dictionary of Proto-Germanic 17797:W.P. Lehmann & J. Slocum (eds.) 17638: 17582:, 2nd edn. London: Routledge, 2017. 17226: 17076: 16866:Van Kerckvoorde, Colette M. (1993). 16650: 16584: 16126: 16124: 16122: 16120: 15917: 15873: 15872:The preceding etymologies come from 14452:. Some of this difference is due to 11375:Certain pronominal forms, e.g. OEng 10750:- was lost between vowels, so that - 10663:, the latter mainly in adverbs (cf. 10484:was formed following the shift from 10326:, where it may have been lowered to 9706:'to grind'); in all other positions 8989:Grimm's law: Voiceless to fricative 8477:, following Don Ringe's usage, e.g. 8194:Non-Indo-European substrate elements 8054: 7838:. Other likely Celtic loans include 7680:'to stand' > (with suffix added) 7431:'goblin', from early Proto-Germanic 7408:'thwart', from early Proto-Germanic 7213:, as demonstrated by the later loan 3775:Vocalisation of remaining laryngeals 3571:Laryngeals are lost before vowels — 3445:after a consonant or a long vowel — 2389:Archaeology and early historiography 172: 99:adding citations to reliable sources 70: 29: 18435:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German 17662:(1992). Lippi-Green, Rosina (ed.). 17597:, 2 vols. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1969. 16224:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 117. 16220:Bell-Fialkoll, Andrew, ed. (2000). 15788:", mythological characters such as 15780:This includes common nouns such as 14841:'and then he seized', with clitics 14809:'to teach', i.e. 'to cause to know' 14670:'to raise', i.e. 'to cause to rise' 14545:suffix or infix that continues the 9783:for Proto-Germanic, under the name 9393:according to Verner's Law produced 8500:...) are also used in some sources. 8431:. When a distinction is necessary, 7151:'money', from early Proto-Germanic 4138:preceding the vowel is also lost — 2435: New settlements by 250 2424: New settlements by 500 2413: Settlements before 750 2165:Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European 24: 19794:Languages between parentheses are 19159: 17462:. London: Oxford University Press. 17322:"The Origin of PGmc. Long Close e" 16162:The Penguin atlas of world history 15752:Pre-Indo-European (disambiguation) 14469:ending, apparently derived from a 11809:, showing the original consonant. 11079:which did not merge with original 10650: 9501:Each of the three voiced phonemes 7558:'ring', from early Proto-Germanic 7198:'tether', from Pre-Proto-Germanic 2898:adjacent to laryngeal consonants: 2294:. The latter of these remained in 2187:The Horse, the Wheel, and Language 210:for transliterated languages, and 190:of its non-English content, using 27:Ancestor of the Germanic languages 25: 20130: 17790: 17785:Summarizing Germanic sound shifts 17698:. In Leeming, David Adams (ed.). 17593:Krahe, Hans & Wolfgang Meid. 16117: 14887:'to take' (class 4 strong verb). 14185:Inflection of the distal deictic 12523:which still preserved word-final 11019:in East and West Germanic but to 8995:Grimm's law: Aspirated to voiced 8992:Grimm's law: Voiced to voiceless 8912:in certain positions (see below). 8866: 8846: 8832: 8799: 8791: 8782: 8775: 8767: 8759: 8751: 8743: 8719: 8712: 8701: 8694: 8687: 8680: 8656: 8644: 8633: 8051:Loans into non-Germanic languages 7781:'ruler' was borrowed from Celtic 7758:absolute or calendar chronology. 7613:'thematic optative 1sg sg.' > 3627:Two vowels that come to stand in 45:This article has multiple issues. 17822:"Germanic and the Ruki Dialects" 17642:A Handbook of Germanic Etymology 17469:& Konrad Badenheuer (2021). 17446:Bennett, William Holmes (1980). 16788:A Handbook of Germanic Etymology 15445:Proto-Germanic personal pronouns 13225:Between verbs and derived nouns. 13196:Consonant and vowel alternations 10439:-like vowel (which later became 8245: 8058: 7174:'hoof', from Pre-Proto-Germanic 6822:'(s)he would carry, subj.' > 2577:Early Germanic expansion in the 2513:Proto-Germanic developed out of 2505: Eastward expansion of the 2194:Journal of Indo-European Studies 958:Bible translations into Armenian 449: 359: 177: 75: 34: 17632:In Search of the Indo-Europeans 17410: 17382: 17313: 17301: 17268: 17253: 17220: 17207: 17102: 17085: 17070: 17055: 17040: 17007: 16934: 16916:Trask, Robert Lawrence (2000). 16909: 16884: 16868:An Introduction to Middle Dutch 16859: 16838: 16793: 16780: 16716: 16701: 16686: 16644: 16631: 16613: 16578: 16504: 16469: 16426: 16388: 16325: 16316: 16307: 16298: 16289: 16213: 16136:The New Encyclopædia Britannica 15935: 15879: 15866: 15849: 15840: 15823: 15803: 12567:initially preserved unstressed 11976: 11967: 11923: 11892: 11619:The distinct reflexes of nasal 11428: 11140:) are distributed in Gothic as 7599:(but it is lost after syllabic 7258:in the same or next syllable — 5883:Merging of non-high back vowels 469:List of Indo-European languages 86:needs additional citations for 53:or discuss these issues on the 19798:of the language on their left. 17595:Germanische Sprachwissenschaft 17294:10.1080/00437956.1993.11435894 16514:Runes and Germanic Linguistics 16183: 16152: 16101:Penguin Atlas of World History 16092: 16029: 15996: 15859:, pp. 149–164. One is in 15774: 14023: 13160:General morphological features 12467:+ voiceless plosive clusters ( 9623: 9389:'mother'. The voicing of some 9308:came from either the original 8970:of the original Indo-European 8319:Unvoiced fricatives appear as 7326:This eliminates the remaining 6714:, as is shown by the loanword 4849:'(s)he will step, subj.' > 4680:Voiced plosives are devoiced: 3544:are lost before a consonant — 226:multilingual support templates 13: 1: 19689:Germanic substrate hypothesis 19545: 17770:. San Diego: Academic Press. 17668:. John Benjamins Publishing. 17544:Green, Dennis Howard (2000). 17473:, 2nd edn., Berlin – London: 17326:Proto-Indo-European phonology 16893:Understanding Language Change 16891:McMahon, April M. S. (1994). 16712:. Amsterdam; Atlanta: Rodopi. 16068:Comrie, Bernard, ed. (1987). 15960: 13552: 13170: 13098: 11493:, which later developed into 11023:in Old Norse, and word-final 10522: 9743:in initial positions is slim. 9408: 8897:before labiovelar obstruents. 8570: 8200:Germanic substrate hypothesis 8047:or through Celtic mediation. 7774:. For instance, one specimen 7219:'windfallen or decayed tree') 6792:after unstressed syllables — 6438:is lost between consonants — 5755:'thematic optative 3pl' > 3454:'act of calling' (pronounced 2879:Pre-Proto-Germanic (Pre-PGmc) 2779:that the -a was not dropped: 2534: 2523:Germanic substrate hypothesis 2382: 1795:Proto-Indo-European mythology 1064:Paleolithic continuity theory 407: 373:Proto-Indo-European phonology 304: 19719:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law 18410:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch 17320:Lehmann, Winfred P. (2007). 16941:Kraehenmann, Astrid (2003). 14873: 14855: 14849: 14843: 14837: 14759:(class 6) 'to travel, go' → 14518:(derived primarily from the 14153: 14147: 14141: 11818:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law 11764: 11758: 11728: 11707: 11208:. It probably continues PIE 11154: 11111: 11045: 9453:. This phenomenon is termed 8451:is sometimes transcribed as 8254:Voiced obstruents appear as 8233: 7921: 7206:'to lie, be at rest' (later 5541:'abstract noun suffix' > 3974:'step, act of walking' > 3886:Labiovelars are delabialised 2700: 2683: 1483:Northern Black Polished Ware 682:Proto-Indo-European language 7: 19699:High German consonant shift 17799:A Grammar of Proto-Germanic 17580:The Indo-European Languages 17510:Indogermanische Forschungen 17421:. Oxford University Press. 17275:Purczinsky, Julius (1993). 17092:Gąsiorowski, Piotr (2012), 16511:Antonsen, Elmer H. (2002). 16189:Andrew Villen Bell (2000), 16071:The World's Major Languages 15980:The World's Major Languages 15745: 15439: 14859:'he seized') rather than a 12764:u-stem nominative singular 12744:i-stem nominative singular 12716:u-stem accusative singular 11087:, as it was not lowered to 10417:later emerges in Gothic as 8982:Labiovelar reduction (near 8939:rather than the more usual 8900:, and were allophones of 8104:'warlord' (compare Finnish 8024: 8011: 8005: 7982: 7969: 7956: 7943: 7930: 7660:This process creates a new 6947:'wheels (collective)' > 5852:'strangers, nom. pl.' > 5698:'they are lying down' > 5654:(remaining beside stressed 5410:"(s)he is asking for" > 5187:'wheels (collective)' > 2678:Bergakker runic inscription 1800:Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism 331:Lower-order reconstructions 10: 20135: 18237:Westlauwers–Terschellings 17890:According to contemporary 17766:Voyles, Joseph B. (1992). 17439: 17260:Liberman, Anatoly (1982). 16734:Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura 14824:'to perish', derived from 14743:(class 5) 'to lie down' → 14541:suffix, and a few have an 14524: 14421: 13102: 12821: 11700:First Grammatical Treatise 11691:First Grammatical Treatise 11412:Words borrowed from Latin 11404: 11367: 11258: 11128: 10972: 10945: 10918: 10894: 10876: 10868: 10853: 10846: 10821: 10796: 10043: 10035: 10009: 10001: 9636:continues to operate as a 9445:in word-initial position." 9377: 9362: 9331:in the north ... and 9284:'eight', Middle Dutch has 8955: 8584:Proto-Germanic consonants 8237: 8197: 8124:) 'ring' (compare Finnish 7728: 7716: 7710: 7683: 7675: 7668: 7662: 7638: 7623: 7608: 7601: 7595: 7589: 7581: 7517: 7510: 7504: 7378: 7341: 7334: 7328: 7305: 7283: 7261: 7254: 7248: 7242: 7236: 7201: 7177: 7073: 7051: 7044: 7038: 7016: 6994: 6987: 6981: 6958: 6950: 6942: 6920: 6913: 6906: 6900: 6847: 6839: 6817: 6795: 6787: 6765: 6757: 6749: 6741: 6735: 6683: 6675: 6669: 6619: 6611: 6603: 6595: 6588: 6582: 6543: 6535: 6513: 6506: 6500: 6471: 6463: 6441: 6434: 6424: 6384: 6377: 6369: 6350: 6342: 6334: 6312: 6304: 6289: 6281: 6273: 6264: 6245: 6237: 6229: 6214: 6206: 6198: 6189: 6183: 6151: 6129: 6121: 6115: 6077: 6069: 6054: 6046: 6038: 6031: 6025: 6019: 6004: 5996: 5981: 5973: 5965: 5958: 5952: 5946: 5931: 5916: 5908: 5901: 5895: 5889: 5863: 5855: 5847: 5840: 5834: 5804: 5789: 5781: 5766: 5758: 5750: 5725: 5717: 5709: 5701: 5693: 5685: 5677: 5671: 5635: 5625: 5619: 5613: 5597: 5589: 5581: 5574: 5568: 5552: 5544: 5536: 5529: 5522: 5516: 5496: 5488: 5479: 5473: 5458:'thematic first du.' > 5453: 5444: 5438: 5424: 5418: 5412: 5406: 5398: 5392: 5348: 5340: 5332: 5324: 5309: 5301: 5293: 5285: 5268: 5260: 5252: 5237: 5229: 5221: 5214: 5198: 5190: 5182: 5174: 5157: 5149: 5141: 5133: 5125: 5109: 5101: 5093: 5085: 5069: 5061: 5053: 5045: 5014: 5006: 4998: 4992: 4976: 4968: 4960: 4954: 4937: 4929: 4921: 4915: 4899: 4891: 4886: 4880: 4874: 4852: 4844: 4836: 4830: 4814: 4806: 4798: 4790: 4784: 4768: 4760: 4745: 4737: 4729: 4723: 4706: 4698: 4690: 4684: 4661: 4653: 4645: 4637: 4631: 4625: 4619: 4603: 4595: 4587: 4579: 4573: 4567: 4561: 4544: 4536: 4528: 4520: 4514: 4508: 4502: 4487: 4481: 4475: 4469: 4452: 4444: 4436: 4430: 4424: 4408: 4400: 4392: 4377: 4369: 4361: 4355: 4349: 4333: 4325: 4317: 4311: 4305: 4289: 4281: 4273: 4267: 4261: 4250: 4216: 4208: 4200: 4192: 4174: 4166: 4149: 4141: 4134: 4128: 4113: 4106: 4099: 4093: 4087: 4040: 4032: 4024: 4016: 4009: 4003: 3985: 3977: 3969: 3961: 3954: 3948: 3931: 3923: 3916: 3910: 3902: 3896: 3890: 3869: 3861: 3853: 3846: 3824: 3816: 3801: 3793: 3785: 3779: 3757: 3749: 3741: 3733: 3727: 3721: 3715: 3685: 3667: 3659: 3651: 3643: 3635: 3612: 3604: 3598: 3582: 3574: 3556: 3548: 3533: 3505: 3497: 3473: 3465: 3457: 3449: 3419: 3411: 3403: 3395: 3387: 3381: 3375: 3373:This sequence now becomes 3365: 3344: 3336: 3329: 3323: 3308: 3300: 3293: 3287: 3271: 3263: 3256: 3250: 3235: 3227: 3220: 3214: 3198: 3183:centum and satem languages 3177: 3171: 3154: 3146: 3139: 3133: 3118: 3110: 3103: 3097: 3082: 3074: 3067: 3061: 3036: 3028: 3021: 3015: 3000: 2992: 2985: 2979: 2963: 2955: 2947: 2941: 2924: 2916: 2908: 2902: 2893: 2863: 2669:by moving from Scythia to 2446: New settlements by 2325:in the fourth century AD. 1096:Domestication of the horse 20003: 19937: 19933: 19920: 19845: 19781: 19732: 19656: 19625: 19557: 19553: 19540: 19489: 19462: 19416:Southern Schleswig Danish 19347: 19228: 19184: 19175: 19171: 19154: 18995: 18938: 18826: 18817: 18722: 18694: 18653: 18644: 18619: 18601: 18512: 18484: 18458: 18449: 18400: 18313: 18288: 18279: 18218: 18113: 18062: 18037: 18028: 17924: 17915: 17911: 17898: 17888: 17747:Ringe, Donald A. (2017). 17728:Ringe, Donald A. (2006). 17654:. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen. 17613:Brill Academic Publishers 17355:, pp. xxiii–iv, 225. 15794:and tribal names such as 15737: 15673: 15656: 15644: 15641: 15638: 15635: 15632: 15629: 15621: 15550: 15547: 15541: 15503: 15500: 15497: 15494: 15491: 15488: 15483: 15480: 15477: 15474: 15471: 15468: 15465: 15462: 15457: 15454: 15451: 15449: 15427: 15424: 15414: 15411: 15401: 15398: 15224: 15210: 15084: 15068: 14922: 14897: 14894: 14853:'then' interpolated into 14727:(class 5) 'to survive' → 14405: 14389: 14374: 14358: 14343: 14327: 14281: 14273: 14249: 14197: 14192: 14189: 14003: 13987: 13979: 13963: 13940: 13924: 13916: 13900: 13877: 13861: 13853: 13837: 13764: 13745: 13729: 13721: 13705: 13697: 13615: 13610: 13605: 13600: 13593: 13588: 13585: 13501: 13369: 13353: 13308: 13300: 13297: 13081:'three daughters' in the 13053: 13050: 13031:u-stem genitive singular 13025: 13022: 13014:ō-stem nominative plural 13000: 12997: 12994: 12991: 12988: 12985: 12963: 12957: 12935: 12932: 12926: 12921:i-stem nominative plural 12898: 12892: 12858: 12849: 12827:ō-stem accusative plural 12818: 12812: 12789: 12738: 12732: 12699: 12696: 12693: 12690: 12684: 12638:Anglo-Frisian brightening 11878:< Old English/Frisian 11592: 11584: 10720: 10709: 10210: 10205: 10202: 10076: 10071: 10068: 10051: 9795:languages, also known as 9761:'they saw' (indicative), 9673:, it was preserved (e.g. 8876: 8874: 8872: 8861: 8859: 8845: 8843: 8838: 8827: 8825: 8788: 8709: 8707: 8650: 8639: 8616: 8611: 8606: 8601: 8596: 8591: 8576:in parentheses represent 8547:when between a vowel and 8405:The yod sound appears as 7266:'(s)he is carrying' > 7078:'eh₂-stem nom. pl.' > 6576:Assimilation of sonorants 6074:'eh₂-stem nom. pl.' > 5428:"(s)he asks, (s)he prays" 4896:'(s)he is carrying' > 4494:The above also forms the 3664:'eh₂-stem nom. pl.' > 1805:Historical Vedic religion 1082:Chalcolithic (Copper Age) 389:combining characters and 330: 314: 300: 290: 280: 275: 270: 110:"Proto-Germanic language" 19962:Changes before historic 19954:Changes before historic 19694:West Germanic gemination 19648:Ancient Belgian language 19643:Germanic parent language 19587:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic) 18709:Austrian Standard German 17903: 17645:. Leiden; Boston: Brill. 17213:Benjamin W. Fortson IV, 17077:Lühr, Rosemarie (1988). 16693:Cunliffe, Barry (2008). 16099:Kinder, Hermann (1988), 15767: 14711:(class 3) 'to perish' → 14417: 13282: 11966:(the past participle of 10633:West Germanic gemination 10333:All nasal vowels except 9557:West Germanic gemination 9548:Plosives appeared after 9335:further south ...") 9300:merged with the shifted 8952:Grimm's and Verner's law 8890:before velar obstruents. 7980:'cottage' (compare Pers 7723:compensatory lengthening 6193:before dental consonants 6134:'that, acc. masc.' > 5690:'(s)he is lying down' ~ 4397:'axle' > (devoicing) 3690:'thematic 1st sg.' > 3443:consonants are shortened 2891:Allophonic colouring of 2866:Germanic Parent Language 2330:Germanic parent language 1810:Ancient Iranian religion 1173:Novotitarovskaya culture 1020:Indo-European migrations 19865:Anglo-Frisian languages 17704:Oxford University Press 17639:Orel, Vladimir (2003). 16679: 16673: 16667: 16661: 16655: 16003:Crystal, David (1995). 15724: 15710: 15430: 15417: 15404: 15391: 15383: 15370: 15362: 15349: 15341: 15327: 15318: 15305: 15296: 15283: 15275: 15262: 15254: 15237: 15230: 15219: 15203: 15195: 15187: 15174: 15166: 15158: 15142: 15134: 15121: 15112: 15103: 15087: 15079: 15071: 15062: 15049: 15041: 15033: 15025: 15017: 15004: 14996: 14988: 14980: 14972: 14953: 14945: 14939: 14931: 14883: 14827: 14820: 14805: 14798: 14789: 14782: 14769: 14762: 14755: 14746: 14739: 14730: 14723: 14714: 14707: 14698: 14691: 14682: 14675: 14666: 14659: 14650: 14643: 14557: 14552:preterite-present verbs 14475:derivational morphology 14408: 14400: 14392: 14377: 14369: 14361: 14346: 14338: 14330: 14315: 14307: 14299: 14284: 14276: 14268: 14260: 14252: 14244: 14084: 14078: 14072: 14066: 14059: 14052: 14045: 14038: 14031: 14014: 14006: 13998: 13990: 13982: 13974: 13966: 13951: 13943: 13935: 13927: 13919: 13911: 13903: 13888: 13880: 13872: 13864: 13856: 13848: 13840: 13825: 13817: 13809: 13801: 13793: 13785: 13770: 13759: 13751: 13740: 13732: 13724: 13716: 13708: 13700: 13692: 13543: 13535: 13527: 13512: 13504: 13496: 13488: 13473: 13465: 13457: 13449: 13434: 13426: 13418: 13410: 13395: 13387: 13372: 13364: 13356: 13348: 13259:Examples are numerous: 13087: 13077: 12864:a-stem dative singular 12600: 12589: 12543: 12529: 12291:Fricative + obstruent: 11962: 11955: 11948: 11942: 11918: 11911: 11905: 11887: 11880: 11874: 11799: 11797:'goose' < Old Norse 11793: 11775:, cognate with English 11771: 11748: 11742: 11735: 11721: 11714: 11638:, which did not affect 11397: 11390: 11383: 11377: 11360: 11353: 11346: 11340: 11334: 11328: 11313: 11298: 11291: 11251: 11244: 11237: 11231: 11225: 11161: 11136: 10887: 10861: 10840: 10833: 10814: 10789: 10778: 10772: 10765: 10666: 10623: 10503: 10473: 10467: 10460: 10420: 10028: 10021: 9994: 9987: 9976: 9969: 9967:vs. Middle High German 9963: 9950: 9943: 9937: 9930: 9764: 9757: 9750: 9731: 9724: 9717: 9702: 9695: 9676: 9665:(Early) Proto-Germanic 9654: 9647: 9606:West Germanic languages 9596: 9590: 9583: 9385: 9370: 9001:Labiovelar dissolution 8915:The phoneme written as 8165: 8152: 8139: 8120: 8113: 8100: 8039: 8018: 7996: 7989: 7976: 7963: 7950: 7937: 7912: 7890: 7883: 7876: 7869: 7862: 7855: 7848: 7841: 7814: 7791: 7784: 7777: 7743: 7736: 7698: 7691: 7653: 7646: 7631: 7616: 7568: 7561: 7545: 7538: 7531: 7524: 7489: 7482: 7466: 7459: 7441: 7434: 7418: 7411: 7393: 7386: 7367: 7356: 7349: 7320: 7313: 7298: 7291: 7276: 7269: 7209: 7185: 7161: 7158:'squirrel skin' (later 7154: 7138: 7131: 7110: 7103: 7088: 7081: 7066: 7059: 7031: 7024: 7009: 7002: 6966: 6935: 6928: 6890: 6883: 6876: 6869: 6862: 6855: 6832: 6825: 6810: 6803: 6773: 6727: 6717: 6705: 6698: 6691: 6662: 6655: 6648: 6641: 6634: 6627: 6565: 6558: 6551: 6548:'(s)he is silent' > 6528: 6521: 6493: 6486: 6479: 6476:'they are silent' > 6456: 6449: 6413: 6406: 6399: 6392: 6358: 6339:'genitive plural' > 6327: 6320: 6297: 6278:'a-stem acc. sg.' > 6253: 6222: 6173: 6166: 6159: 6156:'a-stem acc. sg.' > 6144: 6137: 6085: 6062: 6012: 5989: 5939: 5924: 5871: 5826: 5819: 5812: 5797: 5774: 5740: 5733: 5657: 5650: 5643: 5605: 5586:'i-stem gen. sg.' > 5560: 5504: 5493:'u-stem gen. sg.' > 5461: 5370: 5363: 5356: 5317: 5276: 5245: 5206: 5165: 5117: 5077: 5022: 4984: 4945: 4907: 4860: 4822: 4776: 4753: 4714: 4669: 4611: 4552: 4460: 4416: 4385: 4341: 4297: 4232: 4224: 4182: 4157: 4120: 4049: 3994: 3940: 3877: 3832: 3809: 3765: 3731:between a sonorant and 3693: 3675: 3640:'genitive plural' > 3621: 3590: 3564: 3513: 3494:to "overlong" vowels — 3481: 3427: 3352: 3316: 3279: 3243: 3162: 3126: 3090: 3044: 3008: 2971: 2932: 2767: 2761: 2401:into previously mostly 2273:Indo-European languages 1311:Northern/Eastern Steppe 19755:Preterite-present verb 19638:Proto-Germanic grammar 19592:North Sea (Ingvaeonic) 18704:German Standard German 18380:East Frisian Low Saxon 17768:Early Germanic Grammar 17650:Plotkin, Vulf (2008). 17630:Mallory, J.P. (1989), 17601:Kroonen, Guus (2013). 17417:Ringe, Donald (2006). 17062:Trautmann, R. (1906). 17014:Kroonen, Guus (2011). 17004:, pp. xxvii–xxix. 15786:Migration Period spear 14786:(class 7) 'to weep' → 14702:'to burn (transitive)' 14695:(class 3) 'to burn' → 14686:'to bend (transitive)' 14679:(class 2) 'to bend' → 14663:(class 1) 'to rise' → 14647:(class 1) 'to bite' → 14112: 14106: 13105:Proto-Germanic grammar 11936: 11865: 11840:, which was raised to 11805: 10803: 10453: 10427: 10412: 9956: 9954:and Norwegian (dial.) 9924:The reconstruction of 9463: 9447: 9337: 8366:Labiovelars appear as 8171: 8158: 8145: 8132: 8126: 8106: 7954:'sheep' (compare Pers 7941:'hops' (compare Osset 7643:'in the morning' > 7585:is lost between vowels 7554: 7475: 7452: 7427: 7404: 7215: 7194: 7170: 7147: 7124: 7096: 5786:'in the morning' > 5744:(with -þ- by analogy) 5430:(with -þ- by analogy) 2853: 2710:historical linguistics 2510: 2455: 2328:The alternative term " 1782:Religion and mythology 1741:Medieval Scandinavians 1032:Alternative and fringe 427: 281:Reconstruction of 19897:Anglo-Norman language 19760:Grammatischer Wechsel 18743:Namibian Black German 18714:Swiss Standard German 18683:Early New High German 18241:Mainland West Frisian 18102:Harlingerland Frisian 17684:Polomé, Edgar Charles 17066:. Zahn & Baendel. 17022:. Amsterdam/New York. 16541:, p. 28 table 9. 16364:10.1353/lan.2005.0078 13210:Grammatischer Wechsel 11285:plus a consonant, or 11241:'side, flank' ← PGmc 10786:template; e.g., PGmc 10435:was a Proto-Germanic 9459: 9427: 9403:grammatischer Wechsel 9325: 8503:Diphthongs appear as 8363:in some environments. 8355:, which later became 6389:'I was putting' > 3842:Velars are labialised 3725:) is strengthened to 2793: 2696:Theories of phylogeny 2622:loans in Proto-Slavic 2596:in the south and the 2461: 2399:early Germanic tribes 2396: 2132:Indo-European studies 1495:Peoples and societies 401: 276:PGmc, Common Germanic 19927:Phonological history 19907:Early Modern English 19765:Indo-European ablaut 19745:Germanic strong verb 19714:Germanic spirant law 18851:Southeast Limburgish 18347:Gelders-Overijssels 17976:Irish Middle English 17966:Early Modern English 17696:"Germanic mythology" 17692:Leeming, David Adams 17611:Series, 11. Leiden: 17563:Hartmann, Frederik: 17262:Germanic Accentology 17047:Gerland, G. (1869). 16195:, Palgrave Macmillan 15814:Funnelbeaker culture 15681:– Unstressed variant 14637:suffix). Examples: 14490:constructions, with 14428:Germanic strong verb 12549:Stentoften Runestone 12368:Liquid + obstruent: 11959:< Proto-Germanic 11922:< Proto-Germanic 11891:< Proto-Germanic 11848:appeared as fronted 11271:class 7 strong verbs 11204:) as identical with 11158:'here' ← late PGmc. 9779:posits a process of 9539:Ingvaeonic languages 9465:The voiced phonemes 8893:was an allophone of 8886:was an allophone of 8390:) or clusters (e.g. 7772:Germanic Sound Shift 7535:'(s)he chants' > 7107:and then shifted to 6754:'I am, unstr.' > 5609:(with -z by analogy) 5170:(with -z by analogy) 4719:(reformed as a-stem) 4496:Germanic spirant law 4066:Early Proto-Germanic 3527:, phonemicising the 3400:'known' (pronounced 2825:Weser–Rhine Germanic 2527:Funnelbeaker culture 2300:Ingvaeonic languages 1039:Anatolian hypothesis 991:Proto-Indo-Europeans 898:Hittite inscriptions 443:Indo-European topics 295:North-western Europe 188:specify the language 186:This article should 95:improve this article 19860:Proto-West-Germanic 19850:Proto-Indo-European 19733:Synchronic features 19704:Germanic a-mutation 19657:Diachronic features 19007:in the broad sense 18940:East Central German 18894:Lorraine Franconian 18868:Transylvanian Saxon 18828:West Central German 18603:East Low Franconian 18513:West Low Franconian 17688:Fee, Christopher R. 17634:, Thames and Hudson 17578:Kapović, Mate, ed. 17460:Old English Grammar 17180:, p. 152, 249. 17016:The Proto-Germanic 16992:, pp. 92, 215. 16639:Haoma and Harmaline 16038:Bloomfield, Leonard 15818:Pitted Ware culture 15446: 15412:Present Participle 14621:(the reflex of PIE 14520:Proto-Indo-European 14186: 13582: 12496:had been lost, and 12313:Nasal + obstruent: 12152:Liquid or labial + 11952:< Anglo-Frisian 11915:< Anglo-Frisian 11884:< Anglo-Frisian 11338:'reward' (vs. OEng 11269:: The preterite of 11052:in late Frankish). 11039:(the sixth century 10639:- is geminated to - 10447:was Proto-Germanic 10199: 10065: 9797:consonant gradation 9785:consonant gradation 9772:Consonant gradation 9457:. Kraehenmann says: 8935:, where the letter 8585: 8562:, which is written 8439:are transcribed as 8414:Proto-Indo-European 8240:Phonological stages 8219:has hypothesized a 8178:Loanwords into the 8022:'work' (compare Av 7967:'tunic' (cf. Osset 7733:'(s)he hangs' > 6785:Loss of word-final 6731:'hill(ock), mound'. 6097:Late Proto-Germanic 5226:'of darkness' > 4742:'tooth, acc.' > 4650:'night, acc.' > 4111:'(s)he knows' > 4072:Proto-Indo-European 3553:'tooth, acc.' > 3151:'to go, walk' > 3057:("centumization"): 2723:Proto-Indo-European 2690:Proto-Indo-European 2637:Germanic migrations 2558:Corded Ware culture 2543:Proto-Indo-European 2361:Vimose inscriptions 2342:Proto-Indo-European 2319:Proto-Indo-European 1295:Multi-cordoned ware 1166:Mikhaylovka culture 1054:Indigenous Aryanism 1044:Armenian hypothesis 903:Hieroglyphic Luwian 369:Proto-Indo-European 348:Proto-East Germanic 337:Proto-West Germanic 324:Proto-Indo-European 20114:Pre-Roman Iron Age 20109:Germanic languages 19995:Trisyllabic laxing 19975:Close front vowels 19839:History of English 19750:Germanic weak verb 19559:Language subgroups 18909:Pennsylvania Dutch 18858:Moselle Franconian 18836:Central Franconian 18669:Middle High German 18420:Central Pomeranian 18375:Northern Low Saxon 18088:Wangerooge Frisian 17882:Germanic languages 17827:2012-02-22 at the 17820:Charles Prescott. 17565:Germanic Phylogeny 17522:Cercignani, Fausto 17506:Cercignani, Fausto 17490:Cercignani, Fausto 17379:, p. 149-150. 17367:, p. 148-149. 17192:, pp. 243–44. 16665:, Old High German 16553:, p. 139-140. 15444: 14793:'to cause to weep' 14432:Germanic weak verb 14184: 13581: 12483:Later developments 12361:was simplified to 12103:Voiceless velar + 11537:in this article). 11525:(still written as 11223:: Old High German 11152:(e.g., Goth/OE/ON 11083:, but rather with 10858:; ō-stem gen.pl. * 10672:comparative method 10547:(from i-umlaut of 10492:when intervocalic 10197: 10063: 9781:consonant mutation 9374:'brother' but PIE 8583: 8537:ajj, aww, eww, iww 8169:'ransom' (Finnish 8070:. You can help by 7688:'they stand' > 2854: 2815:North Sea Germanic 2741:Winfred P. Lehmann 2735:Pre-Proto-Germanic 2719:Germanic languages 2665:, who had escaped 2644:runic inscriptions 2600:first entered the 2583:Continental Celtic 2579:Pre-Roman Iron Age 2519:Pre-Roman Iron Age 2515:pre-Proto-Germanic 2511: 2456: 2359:(specifically the 2357:runic inscriptions 2353:comparative method 2280:pre-Proto-Germanic 875:Proto-Indo-Iranian 861:Proto-Balto-Slavic 842:Proto-Italo-Celtic 428: 424:North German Plain 285:Germanic languages 20096: 20095: 20092: 20091: 20088: 20087: 19985:Great Vowel Shift 19970:Close back vowels 19805: 19804: 19790:extinct languages 19777: 19776: 19773: 19772: 19724:Great Vowel Shift 19536: 19535: 19532: 19531: 19485: 19484: 19331:Greenlandic Norse 19150: 19149: 19146: 19145: 19142: 19141: 19081:Southern Bavarian 19064:Northern Bavarian 19040:Highest Alemannic 18991: 18990: 18725:standard variants 18640: 18639: 18486:Standard variants 18445: 18444: 18304:Middle Low German 18275: 18274: 18271: 18270: 18075:Saterland Frisian 17836:: Germanic & 17758:978-0-19-955229-0 17675:978-90-272-3593-0 17622:978-90-04-18340-7 17588:978-0-415-73062-4 17573:978-0-198-87273-3 16743:978-952-5667-42-4 15691:August Schleicher 15682: 15678: 15677: 15437: 15436: 14880:An example verb: 14867:, different from 14415: 14414: 14021: 14020: 13590:Strong Declension 13550: 13549: 13126:Wackernagel's Law 13061: 13060: 12636:. Therefore, the 11940:< Old English 11903:< Old English 11623:versus non-nasal 11617: 11616: 11485:then merged into 11322:, after loss of - 11031:in Gothic but to 10746:-stems) where a - 10728: 10727: 10511:in words such as 10397:merged into PGmc 10385:merged into PGmc 10313: 10312: 10309: 10308: 10193: 10192: 9922: 9921: 9871: 9870: 9680:'song'); next to 9651:'to sing' versus 9526:were stops and . 9296:). This original 9255: 9254: 8880: 8879: 8088: 8087: 7960:'yearling kid'), 7750: 7749: 7332:, changing it to 7246:when followed by 6999:'thing put' > 6094: 6093: 5970:'thing put' > 4934:'thing put' > 4063: 4062: 3999:'coming, arrival' 2781:ékwakraz … wraita 2773:Elmer H. Antonsen 2663:Gothic Christians 2614:Przeworsk culture 2602:historical record 2562:Nordic Bronze Age 2547:Nordic Bronze Age 2537:500 BC, and 2496:Przeworsk culture 2334:Nordic Bronze Age 2247: 2246: 1508:Anatolian peoples 1478:Painted Grey Ware 1366:Nordic Bronze Age 1015:Kurgan hypothesis 968:Old Irish glosses 933:Gaulish epigraphy 412:Nordic Bronze Age 379:rendering support 355: 354: 266: 265: 258: 248: 247: 228:may also be used. 171: 170: 163: 145: 68: 16:(Redirected from 20126: 19990:Open back vowels 19965: 19957: 19935: 19934: 19922: 19921: 19832: 19825: 19818: 19809: 19808: 19582:Elbe (Irminonic) 19555: 19554: 19542: 19541: 19470:Mainland Gutnish 19360:Swedish dialects 19322:Middle Icelandic 19296:Middle Norwegian 19185:Historical forms 19182: 19181: 19173: 19172: 19156: 19155: 19115:South Franconian 19101:Hutterite German 19069:Central Bavarian 18889:Rhine Franconian 18824: 18823: 18654:Historical forms 18651: 18650: 18566:Surinamese Dutch 18459:Historical forms 18456: 18455: 18289:Historical forms 18286: 18285: 18038:Historical forms 18035: 18034: 17922: 17921: 17913: 17912: 17900: 17899: 17875: 17868: 17861: 17852: 17851: 17801:(Online version) 17781: 17762: 17743: 17724: 17722: 17720: 17679: 17660:Polomé, Edgar C. 17655: 17646: 17635: 17626: 17560: 17551: 17533: 17517: 17501: 17483:978-3-945127-278 17463: 17451: 17433: 17432: 17414: 17408: 17402: 17393: 17386: 17380: 17374: 17368: 17362: 17356: 17350: 17341: 17340: 17338: 17337: 17317: 17311: 17305: 17299: 17298: 17296: 17272: 17266: 17265: 17257: 17251: 17250: 17249: 17248: 17242: 17235: 17224: 17218: 17211: 17205: 17199: 17193: 17187: 17181: 17175: 17169: 17163: 17157: 17151: 17145: 17139: 17133: 17127: 17121: 17106: 17100: 17098: 17089: 17083: 17082: 17074: 17068: 17067: 17059: 17053: 17052: 17044: 17038: 17037: 17031: 17023: 17011: 17005: 16999: 16993: 16987: 16981: 16975: 16969: 16963: 16957: 16956: 16938: 16932: 16931: 16913: 16907: 16906: 16888: 16882: 16881: 16863: 16857: 16842: 16836: 16835: 16829: 16821: 16819: 16818: 16812: 16806:. Archived from 16805: 16797: 16791: 16784: 16778: 16772: 16766: 16760: 16754: 16753: 16751: 16750: 16731: 16720: 16714: 16713: 16705: 16699: 16698: 16690: 16684: 16682: 16676: 16670: 16664: 16658: 16648: 16642: 16635: 16629: 16628: 16621:Watkins, Calvert 16617: 16611: 16610: 16582: 16576: 16575: 16563: 16554: 16548: 16542: 16536: 16530: 16528: 16508: 16502: 16501: 16473: 16467: 16466: 16430: 16424: 16423: 16392: 16386: 16385: 16379: 16378: 16349: 16329: 16323: 16320: 16314: 16311: 16305: 16302: 16296: 16293: 16287: 16281: 16272: 16266: 16260: 16254: 16248: 16242: 16236: 16235: 16217: 16211: 16205: 16196: 16187: 16181: 16180: 16156: 16150: 16149: 16128: 16115: 16113: 16096: 16090: 16089: 16065: 16056: 16055: 16033: 16027: 16026: 16010: 16000: 15994: 15993: 15971: 15954: 15939: 15933: 15932: 15915: 15883: 15877: 15870: 15864: 15853: 15847: 15844: 15838: 15827: 15821: 15807: 15801: 15778: 15741: 15740: 15728: 15714: 15680: 15447: 15443: 15433: 15425:Past Participle 15420: 15407: 15394: 15386: 15373: 15365: 15352: 15344: 15330: 15321: 15308: 15299: 15286: 15278: 15265: 15257: 15240: 15233: 15222: 15206: 15198: 15190: 15177: 15169: 15161: 15145: 15137: 15124: 15115: 15106: 15090: 15082: 15074: 15065: 15052: 15044: 15036: 15028: 15020: 15007: 14999: 14991: 14983: 14975: 14956: 14948: 14942: 14934: 14890: 14889: 14886: 14877:'to reconcile'. 14876: 14858: 14852: 14846: 14840: 14830: 14823: 14808: 14801: 14792: 14785: 14772: 14765: 14758: 14749: 14742: 14733: 14726: 14717: 14710: 14701: 14694: 14685: 14678: 14669: 14662: 14653: 14646: 14560: 14531: 14530: 14485: 14411: 14403: 14395: 14380: 14372: 14364: 14349: 14341: 14333: 14318: 14310: 14302: 14287: 14279: 14271: 14263: 14255: 14247: 14187: 14183: 14156: 14150: 14144: 14125:definite article 14115: 14109: 14087: 14081: 14075: 14069: 14062: 14055: 14048: 14041: 14034: 14017: 14009: 14001: 13993: 13985: 13977: 13969: 13954: 13946: 13938: 13930: 13922: 13914: 13906: 13891: 13883: 13875: 13867: 13859: 13851: 13843: 13828: 13820: 13812: 13804: 13796: 13788: 13773: 13762: 13754: 13743: 13735: 13727: 13719: 13711: 13703: 13695: 13583: 13580: 13546: 13538: 13530: 13515: 13507: 13499: 13491: 13476: 13468: 13460: 13452: 13437: 13429: 13421: 13413: 13398: 13390: 13375: 13367: 13359: 13351: 13295: 13294: 13190:Italic languages 13172: 13090: 13080: 13006:genitive plural 12650: 12649: 12611: 12607: 12603: 12592: 12546: 12532: 12503: 12500:had merged with 12499: 12495: 12491: 11965: 11958: 11951: 11945: 11939: 11921: 11914: 11908: 11890: 11883: 11877: 11868: 11815: 11808: 11802: 11796: 11774: 11767: 11761: 11751: 11745: 11738: 11731: 11724: 11717: 11710: 11687: 11665: 11661: 11653: 11649: 11637: 11633: 11568:Old High German 11556: 11555: 11407: 11406: 11401:- 'this' ← PIE * 11400: 11394:, derivative of 11393: 11386: 11380: 11370: 11369: 11363: 11356: 11349: 11343: 11337: 11331: 11316: 11301: 11294: 11261: 11260: 11254: 11247: 11240: 11234: 11228: 11164: 11157: 11139: 11131: 11130: 11051: 10975: 10974: 10953:ō-stem acc.pl. * 10948: 10947: 10926:ō-stem acc.sg. * 10921: 10920: 10907:ō-stem nom.sg. * 10897: 10896: 10891:'wolves' ← PIE * 10890: 10879: 10878: 10871: 10870: 10864: 10856: 10855: 10849: 10848: 10843: 10836: 10824: 10823: 10817: 10806: 10799: 10798: 10792: 10781: 10775: 10768: 10696:Old High German 10681: 10680: 10669: 10646: 10626: 10620:was not lost in 10619: 10612: 10608: 10604: 10600: 10596: 10592: 10588: 10584: 10581:Note the change 10576: 10572: 10568: 10564: 10558: 10554: 10550: 10546: 10542: 10538: 10534: 10507:(Modern English 10506: 10495: 10476: 10470: 10463: 10456: 10430: 10423: 10415: 10368: 10364: 10360: 10356: 10352: 10348: 10344: 10340: 10336: 10329: 10325: 10321: 10303: 10298: 10282: 10277: 10257: 10252: 10247: 10242: 10200: 10196: 10187: 10182: 10164: 10159: 10152: 10147: 10142: 10128: 10123: 10116: 10111: 10066: 10062: 10059: 10058: 10046: 10045: 10038: 10037: 10031: 10024: 10012: 10011: 10004: 10003: 9997: 9990: 9979: 9972: 9966: 9960:'to swing' < 9959: 9953: 9946: 9941:vs. Old Frisian 9940: 9933: 9873: 9872: 9833: 9832: 9767: 9760: 9753: 9742: 9738: 9734: 9727: 9720: 9713: 9709: 9705: 9698: 9691: 9687: 9683: 9679: 9672: 9668: 9661: 9657: 9650: 9643: 9618: 9614: 9603: 9599: 9593: 9586: 9580: 9576: 9572: 9568: 9564: 9532: 9525: 9521: 9512: 9508: 9504: 9497: 9493: 9489: 9485: 9480: 9476: 9472: 9468: 9444: 9440: 9437:were reduced to 9436: 9432: 9424: 9420: 9396: 9392: 9388: 9380: 9379: 9373: 9365: 9364: 9354: 9350: 9346: 9342: 9315: 9311: 9307: 9292:(with unshifted 9251: 9247: 9243: 9239: 9234: 9230: 9226: 9221: 9217: 9213: 9208: 9204: 9199: 9195: 9190: 9186: 9182: 9178: 9174: 9170: 9158: 9154: 9150: 9145: 9141: 9137: 9132: 9128: 9123: 9119: 9105: 9101: 9097: 9092: 9088: 9084: 9079: 9075: 9070: 9066: 9052: 9048: 9044: 9039: 9035: 9031: 9026: 9022: 9017: 9013: 8977: 8976: 8946: 8922: 8911: 8907: 8903: 8896: 8889: 8870: 8850: 8836: 8815: 8809: 8803: 8795: 8786: 8779: 8771: 8763: 8755: 8747: 8733: 8728: 8723: 8716: 8705: 8698: 8691: 8684: 8669: 8660: 8648: 8637: 8586: 8582: 8487: 8483: 8438: 8434: 8411: 8401: 8397: 8393: 8389: 8385: 8381: 8362: 8358: 8354: 8350: 8347:may have become 8346: 8342: 8338: 8334: 8289: 8285: 8281: 8277: 8273: 8269: 8223:substrate and a 8190:are also known. 8188:Slavic languages 8184:Baltic languages 8174: 8168: 8161: 8156:'lamb' (Finnish 8155: 8148: 8143:'king' (Finnish 8142: 8135: 8129: 8123: 8116: 8109: 8103: 8095:Finnic languages 8083: 8080: 8062: 8055: 8045:Scytho-Sarmatian 8042: 8034:Vekerzug Culture 8027: 8021: 8014: 8008: 8000:'path' (compare 7999: 7992: 7985: 7979: 7972: 7966: 7959: 7953: 7946: 7940: 7933: 7924: 7916:'hemp' (compare 7915: 7893: 7886: 7879: 7872: 7865: 7858: 7851: 7844: 7817: 7794: 7787: 7780: 7766:Most loans from 7745: 7739: 7731: 7730: 7719: 7718: 7713: 7712: 7701: 7694: 7686: 7685: 7678: 7677: 7671: 7670: 7665: 7664: 7656: 7649: 7641: 7640: 7634: 7626: 7625: 7619: 7611: 7610: 7604: 7603: 7598: 7597: 7592: 7591: 7584: 7583: 7571: 7564: 7557: 7548: 7541: 7534: 7527: 7520: 7519: 7513: 7512: 7507: 7506: 7492: 7485: 7478: 7469: 7462: 7455: 7444: 7437: 7430: 7421: 7414: 7407: 7396: 7389: 7381: 7380: 7370: 7359: 7352: 7344: 7343: 7337: 7336: 7331: 7330: 7323: 7316: 7308: 7307: 7301: 7294: 7286: 7285: 7279: 7272: 7264: 7263: 7257: 7256: 7251: 7250: 7245: 7244: 7239: 7238: 7218: 7212: 7204: 7203: 7197: 7188: 7180: 7179: 7173: 7164: 7157: 7150: 7141: 7134: 7127: 7113: 7106: 7100:was borrowed as 7099: 7091: 7084: 7076: 7075: 7069: 7062: 7054: 7053: 7047: 7046: 7041: 7040: 7034: 7027: 7019: 7018: 7012: 7005: 6997: 6996: 6990: 6989: 6984: 6983: 6975:Long a is raised 6969: 6961: 6960: 6953: 6952: 6945: 6944: 6938: 6931: 6923: 6922: 6916: 6915: 6909: 6908: 6903: 6902: 6893: 6886: 6879: 6872: 6865: 6858: 6850: 6849: 6842: 6841: 6835: 6828: 6820: 6819: 6813: 6806: 6798: 6797: 6790: 6789: 6777: 6776: 6768: 6767: 6760: 6759: 6752: 6751: 6744: 6743: 6738: 6737: 6730: 6720: 6709: 6708: 6701: 6694: 6686: 6685: 6678: 6677: 6672: 6671: 6665: 6658: 6651: 6644: 6637: 6630: 6622: 6621: 6614: 6613: 6606: 6605: 6598: 6597: 6591: 6590: 6585: 6584: 6568: 6561: 6554: 6546: 6545: 6538: 6537: 6531: 6524: 6516: 6515: 6509: 6508: 6503: 6502: 6496: 6489: 6482: 6474: 6473: 6466: 6465: 6459: 6452: 6444: 6443: 6437: 6436: 6427: 6426: 6416: 6409: 6402: 6395: 6387: 6386: 6380: 6379: 6372: 6371: 6361: 6353: 6352: 6345: 6344: 6337: 6336: 6330: 6323: 6315: 6314: 6307: 6306: 6300: 6292: 6291: 6284: 6283: 6276: 6275: 6267: 6266: 6256: 6248: 6247: 6240: 6239: 6232: 6231: 6225: 6217: 6216: 6209: 6208: 6201: 6200: 6192: 6191: 6186: 6185: 6176: 6169: 6162: 6154: 6153: 6147: 6140: 6132: 6131: 6124: 6123: 6118: 6117: 6109: 6108: 6088: 6080: 6079: 6072: 6071: 6065: 6057: 6056: 6049: 6048: 6041: 6040: 6034: 6033: 6028: 6027: 6022: 6021: 6015: 6007: 6006: 5999: 5998: 5992: 5984: 5983: 5976: 5975: 5968: 5967: 5961: 5960: 5955: 5954: 5949: 5948: 5942: 5934: 5933: 5927: 5919: 5918: 5913:'stranger' > 5911: 5910: 5904: 5903: 5898: 5897: 5892: 5891: 5874: 5866: 5865: 5858: 5857: 5850: 5849: 5843: 5842: 5837: 5836: 5829: 5822: 5815: 5807: 5806: 5800: 5792: 5791: 5784: 5783: 5777: 5769: 5768: 5761: 5760: 5753: 5752: 5743: 5736: 5728: 5727: 5720: 5719: 5712: 5711: 5704: 5703: 5696: 5695: 5688: 5687: 5680: 5679: 5674: 5673: 5660: 5653: 5647:> unstressed 5646: 5638: 5637: 5628: 5627: 5622: 5621: 5616: 5615: 5608: 5600: 5599: 5592: 5591: 5584: 5583: 5577: 5576: 5571: 5570: 5563: 5555: 5554: 5547: 5546: 5539: 5538: 5532: 5531: 5525: 5524: 5519: 5518: 5508: 5507: 5499: 5498: 5491: 5490: 5482: 5481: 5476: 5475: 5465: 5464: 5456: 5455: 5447: 5446: 5441: 5440: 5429: 5427: 5426: 5421: 5420: 5415: 5414: 5409: 5408: 5401: 5400: 5395: 5394: 5373: 5366: 5359: 5351: 5350: 5343: 5342: 5337:'they are' > 5335: 5334: 5327: 5326: 5320: 5312: 5311: 5304: 5303: 5296: 5295: 5288: 5287: 5279: 5271: 5270: 5263: 5262: 5255: 5254: 5248: 5240: 5239: 5232: 5231: 5224: 5223: 5217: 5216: 5210: 5209: 5201: 5200: 5193: 5192: 5185: 5184: 5177: 5176: 5169: 5168: 5160: 5159: 5152: 5151: 5144: 5143: 5136: 5135: 5128: 5127: 5121: 5120: 5112: 5111: 5104: 5103: 5096: 5095: 5088: 5087: 5081: 5080: 5072: 5071: 5064: 5063: 5056: 5055: 5048: 5047: 5027: 5025: 5017: 5016: 5009: 5008: 5001: 5000: 4995: 4994: 4988: 4987: 4979: 4978: 4971: 4970: 4963: 4962: 4957: 4956: 4950: 4948: 4940: 4939: 4932: 4931: 4924: 4923: 4918: 4917: 4911: 4910: 4902: 4901: 4894: 4893: 4883: 4882: 4877: 4876: 4865: 4863: 4855: 4854: 4847: 4846: 4839: 4838: 4833: 4832: 4826: 4825: 4817: 4816: 4809: 4808: 4801: 4800: 4793: 4792: 4787: 4786: 4780: 4779: 4771: 4770: 4763: 4762: 4756: 4748: 4747: 4740: 4739: 4732: 4731: 4726: 4725: 4718: 4717: 4709: 4708: 4701: 4700: 4693: 4692: 4687: 4686: 4673: 4672: 4664: 4663: 4656: 4655: 4648: 4647: 4640: 4639: 4634: 4633: 4628: 4627: 4622: 4621: 4615: 4614: 4606: 4605: 4598: 4597: 4590: 4589: 4582: 4581: 4576: 4575: 4570: 4569: 4564: 4563: 4556: 4555: 4547: 4546: 4539: 4538: 4531: 4530: 4523: 4522: 4517: 4516: 4511: 4510: 4505: 4504: 4490: 4489: 4484: 4483: 4478: 4477: 4472: 4471: 4464: 4463: 4455: 4454: 4447: 4446: 4439: 4438: 4433: 4432: 4427: 4426: 4420: 4419: 4411: 4410: 4403: 4402: 4395: 4394: 4388: 4380: 4379: 4372: 4371: 4364: 4363: 4358: 4357: 4352: 4351: 4345: 4344: 4336: 4335: 4328: 4327: 4320: 4319: 4314: 4313: 4308: 4307: 4301: 4300: 4292: 4291: 4284: 4283: 4276: 4275: 4270: 4269: 4264: 4263: 4253: 4252: 4235: 4228: 4227: 4219: 4218: 4211: 4210: 4203: 4202: 4195: 4194: 4185: 4177: 4176: 4169: 4168: 4160: 4152: 4151: 4144: 4143: 4137: 4136: 4131: 4130: 4123: 4116: 4115: 4109: 4108: 4102: 4101: 4096: 4095: 4090: 4089: 4080: 4079: 4052: 4043: 4042: 4035: 4034: 4027: 4026: 4019: 4018: 4012: 4011: 4006: 4005: 3997: 3988: 3987: 3980: 3979: 3972: 3971: 3964: 3963: 3957: 3956: 3951: 3950: 3943: 3934: 3933: 3926: 3925: 3919: 3918: 3913: 3912: 3905: 3904: 3899: 3898: 3893: 3892: 3880: 3872: 3871: 3864: 3863: 3856: 3855: 3849: 3848: 3836: 3835: 3827: 3826: 3819: 3818: 3812: 3804: 3803: 3796: 3795: 3788: 3787: 3782: 3781: 3769: 3768: 3760: 3759: 3752: 3751: 3744: 3743: 3736: 3735: 3730: 3729: 3724: 3723: 3718: 3717: 3696: 3688: 3687: 3679: 3678: 3670: 3669: 3662: 3661: 3654: 3653: 3646: 3645: 3638: 3637: 3624: 3617: 3615: 3614: 3607: 3606: 3601: 3600: 3593: 3585: 3584: 3577: 3576: 3568: 3567: 3559: 3558: 3551: 3550: 3536: 3535: 3516: 3508: 3507: 3500: 3499: 3486: 3484: 3476: 3475: 3468: 3467: 3460: 3459: 3452: 3451: 3432: 3430: 3422: 3421: 3414: 3413: 3406: 3405: 3398: 3397: 3390: 3389: 3384: 3383: 3378: 3377: 3368: 3367: 3355: 3347: 3346: 3339: 3338: 3332: 3331: 3326: 3325: 3319: 3311: 3310: 3303: 3302: 3296: 3295: 3290: 3289: 3282: 3274: 3273: 3266: 3265: 3259: 3258: 3253: 3252: 3246: 3238: 3237: 3230: 3229: 3223: 3222: 3217: 3216: 3201: 3200: 3180: 3179: 3174: 3173: 3165: 3157: 3156: 3149: 3148: 3142: 3141: 3136: 3135: 3129: 3121: 3120: 3113: 3112: 3106: 3105: 3100: 3099: 3093: 3085: 3084: 3077: 3076: 3070: 3069: 3064: 3063: 3047: 3039: 3038: 3031: 3030: 3024: 3023: 3018: 3017: 3011: 3003: 3002: 2995: 2994: 2988: 2987: 2982: 2981: 2975: 2974: 2966: 2965: 2958: 2957: 2950: 2949: 2944: 2943: 2937: 2935: 2927: 2926: 2921:'in front' > 2919: 2918: 2911: 2910: 2905: 2904: 2896: 2895: 2887: 2886: 2842: 2832: 2822: 2812: 2798: 2770: 2764: 2598:Germanic peoples 2536: 2507:Wielbark culture 2504: 2503: 2493: 2492: 2482: 2473: 2472: 2451: 2450: 2445: 2440: 2439: 2434: 2429: 2428: 2423: 2418: 2417: 2412: 2384: 2323:Migration Period 2239: 2232: 2225: 2080: 2073: 2059: 2052: 2045: 2031: 2024: 2017: 2010: 2003: 1928: 1914: 1907: 1893: 1871: 1864: 1857: 1848: 1683: 1676: 1669: 1662: 1655: 1638:Germanic peoples 1628:Hellenic peoples 1617: 1610: 1603: 1526:Mycenaean Greeks 1515: 1443:Thraco-Cimmerian 1341:Globular Amphora 1318:Abashevo culture 1257: 1250: 1220: 1175: 1168: 1161: 1154: 1147: 1140: 1133: 1126: 963:Tocharian script 666: 659: 652: 645: 638: 631: 624: 617: 584: 570: 563: 556: 542: 518: 511: 492: 453: 430: 429: 409: 385: instead of 363: 362: 309: 306: 268: 267: 261: 254: 243: 240: 234: 219: 213: 209: 203: 199: 193: 181: 180: 173: 166: 159: 155: 152: 146: 144: 103: 79: 71: 60: 38: 37: 30: 21: 20134: 20133: 20129: 20128: 20127: 20125: 20124: 20123: 20119:Proto-languages 20099: 20098: 20097: 20084: 20054:-glottalization 19999: 19929: 19916: 19841: 19836: 19806: 19801: 19769: 19728: 19709:Germanic umlaut 19674:Holtzmann's law 19652: 19621: 19549: 19528: 19481: 19458: 19392:South Jutlandic 19377:Danish dialects 19343: 19224: 19167: 19138: 19120:East Franconian 19074:Viennese German 18987: 18968:Silesian German 18934: 18923:Central Hessian 18813: 18738:Namibian German 18727: 18718: 18696:Standard German 18690: 18676:New High German 18662:Old High German 18636: 18615: 18597: 18508: 18480: 18441: 18425:East Pomeranian 18415:Brandenburgisch 18402:East Low German 18396: 18323:Dutch Low Saxon 18315:West Low German 18309: 18267: 18233:Schiermonnikoog 18214: 18109: 18095:Wursten Frisian 18058: 18024: 17907: 17894: 17884: 17879: 17829:Wayback Machine 17793: 17778: 17759: 17740: 17718: 17716: 17714: 17676: 17623: 17442: 17437: 17436: 17429: 17415: 17411: 17403: 17396: 17387: 17383: 17375: 17371: 17363: 17359: 17351: 17344: 17335: 17333: 17318: 17314: 17309:Cercignani 1972 17306: 17302: 17273: 17269: 17258: 17254: 17246: 17244: 17240: 17233: 17225: 17221: 17212: 17208: 17200: 17196: 17188: 17184: 17176: 17172: 17164: 17160: 17152: 17148: 17140: 17136: 17128: 17124: 17118:Cercignani 1979 17107: 17103: 17090: 17086: 17075: 17071: 17060: 17056: 17045: 17041: 17025: 17024: 17012: 17008: 17000: 16996: 16988: 16984: 16976: 16972: 16964: 16960: 16953: 16939: 16935: 16928: 16914: 16910: 16903: 16889: 16885: 16878: 16864: 16860: 16854:Cercignani 1973 16843: 16839: 16823: 16822: 16816: 16814: 16810: 16803: 16801:"Archived copy" 16799: 16798: 16794: 16786:Vladimir Orel, 16785: 16781: 16773: 16769: 16761: 16757: 16748: 16746: 16744: 16729: 16721: 16717: 16706: 16702: 16691: 16687: 16649: 16645: 16636: 16632: 16618: 16614: 16583: 16579: 16564: 16557: 16549: 16545: 16537: 16533: 16525: 16509: 16505: 16474: 16470: 16447:10.2307/1261448 16431: 16427: 16393: 16389: 16376: 16374: 16347: 16330: 16326: 16321: 16317: 16312: 16308: 16303: 16299: 16294: 16290: 16282: 16275: 16267: 16263: 16255: 16251: 16243: 16239: 16232: 16218: 16214: 16206: 16199: 16188: 16184: 16177: 16157: 16153: 16146: 16130: 16129: 16118: 16111: 16097: 16093: 16086: 16066: 16059: 16052: 16034: 16030: 16023: 16001: 15997: 15990: 15972: 15968: 15963: 15958: 15957: 15940: 15936: 15930: 15884: 15880: 15871: 15867: 15854: 15850: 15845: 15841: 15833: 15828: 15824: 15808: 15804: 15779: 15775: 15770: 15757:Holtzmann's law 15748: 15688: 15571: 15560: 15523: 15518: 15513: 15442: 14607:causative verbs 14528: 14434: 14420: 14169:. (Originally, 14049:'this', distal 14026: 13595:Weak Declension 13555: 13285: 13203:surface filters 13198: 13162: 13107: 13101: 12561:Old High German 12485: 12027:Non-alveolar + 11979: 11813: 11732:'younger' < 11702:. For example: 11685: 11559:Proto-Germanic 11469:, and overlong 11431: 11120: 11075:produced a new 10793:'eagle' ← PIE * 10684:Proto-Germanic 10653: 10651:Overlong vowels 10525: 10054: 10044:*gʱubʱ-nh₂-énti 9914: 9899: 9880: 9804:-stems and the 9774: 9710:usually became 9626: 9573:. Evidence for 9429:"The resulting 9411: 9323:. McMahon says: 9312:or the shifted 9183: 9175: 8964: 8956:Main articles: 8954: 8619: 8573: 8248: 8243: 8236: 8202: 8196: 8180:Samic languages 8084: 8078: 8075: 8068:needs expansion 8053: 7938:humalaz, humalǭ 7764: 7755: 7714:is lost before 7463:'thick' (later 6746: 6712:Samic languages 6680: 6422:Elimination of 6203:'hundred' > 6099: 5936:'he-goat' > 5485: 5450: 5404: 5179: 5130: 5090: 5050: 5003: 4965: 4926: 4888: 4841: 4795: 4734: 4695: 4642: 4584: 4533:'grabbed' > 4525: 4441: 4366: 4322: 4278: 4189: 4146:'of that' > 4068: 4029:'killing' > 3790: 3738: 3632: 3609: 3545: 3446: 3392: 3232:'hundred' > 3079:'hundred' > 2952: 2913: 2881: 2868: 2862: 2852: 2851:by 300 CE) 2840: 2838: 2830: 2828: 2820: 2818: 2810: 2808: 2807:by 300 CE) 2796: 2703: 2698: 2686: 2610:Oksywie culture 2586:La Tène horizon 2572:Jastorf culture 2509: 2501: 2500: 2498: 2490: 2489: 2487: 2485:Oksywie culture 2480: 2478: 2476:Jastorf culture 2470: 2469: 2467: 2453: 2448: 2447: 2443: 2441: 2437: 2436: 2432: 2430: 2426: 2425: 2421: 2419: 2415: 2414: 2410: 2391: 2269:Germanic branch 2258:Common Germanic 2243: 2214: 2213: 2146:Marija Gimbutas 2134: 2124: 2123: 2115:Winter solstice 2105:Horse sacrifice 2076: 2069: 2055: 2048: 2041: 2027: 2020: 2013: 2006: 1999: 1952: 1937: 1924: 1910: 1903: 1889: 1880: 1867: 1860: 1853: 1844: 1835: 1814: 1783: 1775: 1774: 1717: 1704: 1679: 1672: 1665: 1658: 1651: 1613: 1606: 1599: 1590: 1572: 1559: 1546: 1517: 1511: 1496: 1488: 1487: 1461: 1438: 1425: 1413: 1394: 1336: 1313: 1275: 1268: 1262: 1253: 1246: 1237: 1235:Northern Europe 1216: 1212: 1199: 1186: 1171: 1164: 1157: 1150: 1143: 1136: 1129: 1122: 1118:Steppe cultures 1091: 1084: 1077: 1069: 1068: 1059:Baltic homeland 1033: 1029: 1025:Eurasian nomads 1009: 1005: 981: 973: 972: 943:Runic epigraphy 938:Latin epigraphy 893: 885: 884: 822:Proto-Anatolian 806: 761: 757:Thraco-Illyrian 742:Graeco-Phrygian 732:Graeco-Armenian 727:Graeco-Albanian 706: 684: 671: 662: 655: 648: 641: 634: 627: 620: 613: 580: 566: 559: 552: 538: 514: 507: 488: 473: 465: 463: 420:Jastorf culture 396: 395: 394: 377:Without proper 364: 360: 326: 319: 317: 307: 262: 251: 250: 249: 244: 238: 235: 229: 217: 211: 207: 205:transliteration 201: 197: 191: 182: 178: 167: 156: 150: 147: 104: 102: 92: 80: 39: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 20132: 20122: 20121: 20116: 20111: 20094: 20093: 20090: 20089: 20086: 20085: 20083: 20082: 20075: 20074: 20073: 20068: 20056: 20048: 20043: 20036: 20028: 20020: 20015: 20009: 20007: 20001: 20000: 19998: 19997: 19992: 19987: 19982: 19977: 19972: 19967: 19959: 19951: 19943: 19941: 19931: 19930: 19918: 19917: 19915: 19914: 19912:Modern English 19909: 19904: 19902:Middle English 19899: 19894: 19893: 19892: 19887: 19882: 19877: 19867: 19862: 19857: 19855:Proto-Germanic 19852: 19846: 19843: 19842: 19835: 19834: 19827: 19820: 19812: 19803: 19802: 19800: 19799: 19792: 19782: 19779: 19778: 19775: 19774: 19771: 19770: 19768: 19767: 19762: 19757: 19752: 19747: 19742: 19736: 19734: 19730: 19729: 19727: 19726: 19721: 19716: 19711: 19706: 19701: 19696: 19691: 19686: 19681: 19676: 19671: 19666: 19660: 19658: 19654: 19653: 19651: 19650: 19645: 19640: 19635: 19633:Proto-Germanic 19629: 19627: 19623: 19622: 19620: 19619: 19612: 19605: 19597: 19596: 19595: 19594: 19589: 19584: 19574: 19569: 19563: 19561: 19551: 19550: 19538: 19537: 19534: 19533: 19530: 19529: 19527: 19526: 19519: 19512: 19508:Crimean Gothic 19497: 19495: 19487: 19486: 19483: 19482: 19480: 19479: 19478: 19477: 19472: 19463: 19460: 19459: 19457: 19456: 19455: 19454: 19444: 19443: 19442: 19435: 19428: 19423: 19418: 19413: 19412: 19411: 19406: 19396: 19395: 19394: 19384: 19382:Insular Danish 19379: 19369: 19368: 19367: 19365:Rinkebysvenska 19362: 19351: 19349: 19345: 19344: 19342: 19341: 19334: 19327: 19326: 19325: 19318: 19306: 19301: 19300: 19299: 19292: 19285: 19279: 19273: 19268: 19263: 19258: 19253: 19248: 19243: 19232: 19230: 19226: 19225: 19223: 19222: 19221: 19220: 19213: 19211:Old East Norse 19208: 19206:Old West Norse 19196: 19188: 19186: 19179: 19169: 19168: 19152: 19151: 19148: 19147: 19144: 19143: 19140: 19139: 19137: 19136: 19129: 19128: 19127: 19117: 19112: 19111: 19110: 19109: 19108: 19103: 19098: 19093: 19088: 19086:South Tyrolean 19078: 19077: 19076: 19066: 19056: 19055: 19054: 19049: 19048: 19047: 19037: 19036: 19035: 19028:High Alemannic 19025: 19024: 19023: 19018: 19001: 18999: 18993: 18992: 18989: 18988: 18986: 18985: 18980: 18975: 18970: 18965: 18960: 18955: 18950: 18944: 18942: 18936: 18935: 18933: 18932: 18927: 18926: 18925: 18915: 18914: 18913: 18912: 18911: 18906: 18896: 18886: 18885: 18884: 18883: 18882: 18881: 18880: 18870: 18865: 18855: 18854: 18853: 18848: 18832: 18830: 18821: 18819:Central German 18815: 18814: 18812: 18811: 18810: 18809: 18804: 18797: 18792: 18787: 18777: 18772: 18771: 18770: 18760: 18758:Barossa German 18755: 18750: 18745: 18740: 18734: 18732: 18720: 18719: 18717: 18716: 18711: 18706: 18700: 18698: 18692: 18691: 18689: 18688: 18687: 18686: 18672: 18665: 18657: 18655: 18648: 18642: 18641: 18638: 18637: 18635: 18634: 18629: 18623: 18621: 18617: 18616: 18614: 18613: 18607: 18605: 18599: 18598: 18596: 18595: 18578: 18573: 18568: 18562: 18561: 18556: 18551: 18546: 18541: 18540: 18539: 18537:French Flemish 18529: 18528: 18527: 18516: 18514: 18510: 18509: 18507: 18506: 18496: 18490: 18488: 18482: 18481: 18479: 18478: 18473: 18468: 18462: 18460: 18453: 18451:Low Franconian 18447: 18446: 18443: 18442: 18440: 18439: 18438: 18437: 18427: 18422: 18417: 18412: 18406: 18404: 18398: 18397: 18395: 18394: 18389: 18384: 18383: 18382: 18372: 18371: 18370: 18365: 18360: 18359: 18358: 18353: 18345: 18340: 18335: 18330: 18319: 18317: 18311: 18310: 18308: 18307: 18300: 18292: 18290: 18283: 18277: 18276: 18273: 18272: 18269: 18268: 18266: 18265: 18264: 18263: 18258: 18257: 18256: 18255: 18254: 18252:Westereendersk 18246: 18235: 18230: 18224: 18222: 18216: 18215: 18213: 18212: 18211: 18210: 18205: 18198: 18193: 18192: 18191: 18186: 18183: 18175: 18170: 18169: 18168: 18157: 18156: 18155: 18150: 18145: 18144: 18143: 18138: 18130: 18119: 18117: 18111: 18110: 18108: 18107: 18106: 18105: 18098: 18091: 18079: 18078: 18077: 18068: 18066: 18060: 18059: 18057: 18056: 18053:Middle Frisian 18049: 18041: 18039: 18032: 18026: 18025: 18023: 18022: 18021: 18020: 18013: 18001: 18000: 17999: 17992: 17985: 17973: 17972: 17971: 17970: 17969: 17959:Modern English 17955: 17952:Middle English 17948: 17941: 17930: 17928: 17919: 17909: 17908: 17896: 17895: 17889: 17886: 17885: 17878: 17877: 17870: 17863: 17855: 17849: 17848: 17831: 17818: 17813: 17808: 17803: 17792: 17791:External links 17789: 17788: 17787: 17782: 17776: 17763: 17757: 17744: 17738: 17725: 17712: 17680: 17674: 17656: 17647: 17636: 17627: 17621: 17598: 17591: 17576: 17561: 17552: 17541: 17534: 17518: 17502: 17486: 17475:Inspiration Un 17467:Euler, Wolfram 17464: 17452: 17441: 17438: 17435: 17434: 17427: 17409: 17407:, p. 927. 17405:Harðarson 2018 17394: 17381: 17369: 17357: 17342: 17312: 17300: 17267: 17252: 17219: 17206: 17194: 17182: 17170: 17168:, p. 244. 17158: 17156:, p. 243. 17146: 17144:, p. 135. 17134: 17132:, p. 146. 17122: 17101: 17084: 17069: 17054: 17039: 17006: 16994: 16982: 16970: 16968:, p. 100. 16958: 16951: 16933: 16926: 16908: 16901: 16883: 16876: 16858: 16837: 16792: 16779: 16777:, p. 278. 16767: 16765:, p. 149. 16755: 16742: 16715: 16700: 16685: 16643: 16630: 16612: 16599:10.2307/409353 16593:(3): 244–264. 16577: 16555: 16543: 16531: 16523: 16503: 16490:10.2307/411849 16468: 16441:(3): 463–472. 16425: 16412:10.2307/411250 16396:Lehmann, W. P. 16387: 16358:(2): 382–420. 16324: 16315: 16306: 16297: 16288: 16286:, p. 296. 16273: 16261: 16249: 16237: 16230: 16212: 16197: 16182: 16175: 16151: 16144: 16116: 16109: 16091: 16084: 16057: 16050: 16028: 16021: 15995: 15988: 15976:Bernard Comrie 15965: 15964: 15962: 15959: 15956: 15955: 15934: 15928: 15904:10.2307/408831 15888:Feist, Sigmund 15878: 15865: 15863:, p. 296. 15848: 15839: 15822: 15802: 15772: 15771: 15769: 15766: 15765: 15764: 15759: 15754: 15747: 15744: 15743: 15742: 15730: 15729: 15716: 15715: 15687: 15684: 15676: 15675: 15672: 15669: 15666: 15663: 15659: 15658: 15655: 15652: 15649: 15646: 15643: 15640: 15637: 15634: 15631: 15628: 15624: 15623: 15620: 15617: 15614: 15611: 15608: 15605: 15602: 15599: 15596: 15593: 15589: 15588: 15585: 15582: 15579: 15576: 15573: 15568: 15565: 15562: 15557: 15553: 15552: 15549: 15546: 15543: 15540: 15537: 15534: 15531: 15528: 15525: 15520: 15515: 15510: 15506: 15505: 15502: 15499: 15496: 15493: 15490: 15486: 15485: 15482: 15479: 15476: 15473: 15470: 15467: 15464: 15460: 15459: 15456: 15453: 15450: 15441: 15438: 15435: 15434: 15426: 15422: 15421: 15413: 15409: 15408: 15400: 15396: 15395: 15387: 15379: 15375: 15374: 15366: 15358: 15354: 15353: 15345: 15337: 15333: 15332: 15323: 15314: 15310: 15309: 15301: 15292: 15288: 15287: 15279: 15271: 15267: 15266: 15258: 15250: 15246: 15245: 15242: 15226: 15223: 15215: 15212: 15208: 15207: 15199: 15191: 15183: 15179: 15178: 15170: 15162: 15154: 15150: 15149: 15146: 15138: 15130: 15126: 15125: 15117: 15108: 15099: 15095: 15094: 15091: 15083: 15075: 15067: 15058: 15054: 15053: 15045: 15037: 15029: 15021: 15013: 15009: 15008: 15000: 14992: 14984: 14976: 14968: 14964: 14963: 14960: 14957: 14949: 14935: 14927: 14924: 14920: 14919: 14916: 14913: 14910: 14907: 14903: 14902: 14899: 14896: 14893: 14874:ga-ga-waírþjan 14861:bound morpheme 14838:diz-uh-þan-sat 14811: 14810: 14794: 14778: 14751: 14735: 14719: 14703: 14687: 14671: 14655: 14526: 14492:Modern English 14419: 14416: 14413: 14412: 14404: 14396: 14388: 14382: 14381: 14373: 14365: 14357: 14351: 14350: 14342: 14334: 14326: 14320: 14319: 14311: 14303: 14295: 14289: 14288: 14280: 14272: 14264: 14256: 14248: 14240: 14234: 14233: 14228: 14223: 14218: 14213: 14208: 14202: 14201: 14196: 14191: 14025: 14022: 14019: 14018: 14010: 14002: 13994: 13986: 13978: 13970: 13962: 13956: 13955: 13947: 13939: 13931: 13923: 13915: 13907: 13899: 13893: 13892: 13884: 13876: 13868: 13860: 13852: 13844: 13836: 13830: 13829: 13821: 13813: 13805: 13797: 13789: 13781: 13775: 13774: 13766: 13763: 13755: 13747: 13744: 13736: 13728: 13720: 13712: 13704: 13696: 13688: 13682: 13681: 13676: 13671: 13666: 13661: 13656: 13651: 13646: 13641: 13636: 13631: 13626: 13620: 13619: 13614: 13609: 13604: 13598: 13597: 13592: 13587: 13554: 13551: 13548: 13547: 13539: 13531: 13523: 13517: 13516: 13508: 13500: 13492: 13484: 13478: 13477: 13469: 13461: 13453: 13445: 13439: 13438: 13430: 13422: 13414: 13406: 13400: 13399: 13391: 13383: 13377: 13376: 13368: 13360: 13352: 13344: 13338: 13337: 13332: 13327: 13322: 13316: 13315: 13307: 13299: 13284: 13281: 13280: 13279: 13276: 13273: 13270: 13267: 13264: 13245: 13244: 13241: 13238: 13230: 13229: 13226: 13223: 13220: 13217: 13197: 13194: 13161: 13158: 13103:Main article: 13100: 13097: 13093:Gallehus horns 13078:þrijōz dohtrīz 13059: 13058: 13055: 13052: 13049: 13046: 13043: 13042:adverb suffix 13039: 13038: 13035: 13032: 13028: 13027: 13024: 13021: 13018: 13015: 13011: 13010: 13007: 13003: 13002: 12999: 12996: 12993: 12990: 12987: 12984: 12981: 12980:adverb suffix 12977: 12976: 12973: 12970: 12966: 12965: 12962: 12959: 12956: 12953: 12949: 12948: 12945: 12942: 12938: 12937: 12934: 12931: 12928: 12925: 12922: 12918: 12917: 12914: 12911: 12908: 12905: 12901: 12900: 12897: 12894: 12891: 12888: 12885: 12882: 12878: 12877: 12874: 12871: 12868: 12865: 12861: 12860: 12857: 12854: 12851: 12848: 12845: 12841: 12840: 12837: 12834: 12831: 12828: 12824: 12823: 12820: 12817: 12814: 12811: 12808: 12805: 12801: 12800: 12797: 12794: 12791: 12788: 12785: 12781: 12780: 12777: 12774: 12771: 12768: 12765: 12761: 12760: 12757: 12754: 12751: 12748: 12745: 12741: 12740: 12737: 12734: 12731: 12728: 12724: 12723: 12720: 12717: 12713: 12712: 12709: 12706: 12702: 12701: 12698: 12695: 12692: 12689: 12686: 12683: 12680: 12676: 12675: 12672: 12669: 12666: 12663: 12660: 12657: 12654: 12535:Gallehus horns 12484: 12481: 12461: 12460: 12366: 12311: 12285: 12284: 12218: 12164: 12150: 12128: 12127: 12101: 12071: 12025: 11978: 11975: 11974: 11973: 11946:, Old Frisian 11928: 11909:, Old Frisian 11897: 11762:'younger' vs. 11754: 11753: 11725: 11615: 11614: 11611: 11608: 11605: 11602: 11598: 11597: 11594: 11591: 11587: 11586: 11583: 11580: 11577: 11573: 11572: 11569: 11566: 11563: 11560: 11430: 11427: 11426: 11425: 11410: 11387:'here' ← PGmc 11373: 11317: 11302:vs. preterite 11264: 11119: 11110: 10979: 10978: 10951: 10924: 10901: 10900: 10882: 10726: 10725: 10722: 10719: 10716: 10712: 10711: 10708: 10705: 10702: 10698: 10697: 10694: 10691: 10688: 10685: 10652: 10649: 10605:) but created 10601:(which became 10579: 10578: 10559: 10524: 10521: 10371: 10370: 10365:) followed by 10331: 10311: 10310: 10307: 10306: 10304: 10299: 10294: 10292: 10290: 10284: 10283: 10278: 10273: 10271: 10269: 10267: 10261: 10260: 10258: 10253: 10248: 10243: 10238: 10232: 10231: 10228: 10225: 10222: 10219: 10215: 10214: 10209: 10204: 10194: 10191: 10190: 10188: 10183: 10178: 10176: 10174: 10172: 10166: 10165: 10160: 10155: 10153: 10148: 10143: 10138: 10132: 10131: 10129: 10124: 10119: 10117: 10112: 10107: 10101: 10100: 10097: 10094: 10091: 10088: 10085: 10081: 10080: 10075: 10070: 10053: 10050: 10036:*gʱubʱ-néh₂-ti 9920: 9919: 9916: 9912: 9909: 9905: 9904: 9901: 9897: 9894: 9890: 9889: 9886: 9883: 9878: 9869: 9868: 9865: 9862: 9858: 9857: 9854: 9851: 9847: 9846: 9843: 9840: 9777:Kroonen (2011) 9773: 9770: 9745: 9744: 9663: 9638:surface filter 9625: 9622: 9621: 9620: 9609: 9560: 9553: 9546: 9527: 9410: 9407: 9253: 9252: 9235: 9222: 9209: 9200: 9191: 9166: 9162: 9161: 9159: 9146: 9133: 9124: 9115: 9113: 9109: 9108: 9106: 9093: 9080: 9071: 9062: 9060: 9056: 9055: 9053: 9040: 9027: 9018: 9009: 9007: 9003: 9002: 8999: 8996: 8993: 8990: 8987: 8980: 8953: 8950: 8949: 8948: 8913: 8898: 8891: 8878: 8877: 8875: 8873: 8871: 8864: 8862: 8860: 8858: 8852: 8851: 8844: 8842: 8837: 8830: 8828: 8826: 8824: 8818: 8817: 8810: 8805: 8796: 8789: 8787: 8780: 8773: 8764: 8757: 8748: 8741: 8735: 8734: 8729: 8724: 8717: 8710: 8708: 8706: 8699: 8692: 8685: 8678: 8672: 8671: 8664: 8662: 8653: 8651: 8649: 8642: 8640: 8638: 8631: 8629: 8623: 8622: 8615: 8610: 8605: 8600: 8595: 8590: 8572: 8569: 8568: 8567: 8556: 8543:is written as 8501: 8471: 8460: 8447:respectively. 8425: 8403: 8364: 8317: 8278:or fricatives 8247: 8244: 8242:section above. 8235: 8232: 8217:Theo Vennemann 8198:Main article: 8195: 8192: 8086: 8085: 8065: 8063: 8052: 8049: 7763: 7760: 7754: 7751: 7748: 7747: 7740:(phonetically 7705: 7704: 7703: 7702: 7576: 7575: 7574: 7573: 7549:'(s)he sings' 7499: 7498: 7497: 7496: 7495: 7494: 7473:Northern Sami 7471: 7446: 7423: 7397: 7288:'middle' > 7225: 7224: 7223: 7222: 7221: 7220: 7190: 7182:'hoof' (later 7166: 7143: 7115: 7092: 7035: 6971: 6970: 6895: 6894: 6781: 6780: 6779: 6778: 6732: 6666: 6600:'thin' ~ fem. 6572: 6571: 6570: 6569: 6518:'father' > 6497: 6418: 6417: 6363: 6362: 6258: 6257: 6178: 6177: 6098: 6095: 6092: 6091: 6090: 6089: 6016: 5943: 5879: 5878: 5877: 5876: 5830: 5665: 5664: 5663: 5662: 5630: 5623:later becomes 5610: 5527:except before 5510: 5509: 5467: 5466: 5432: 5431: 5386: 5385: 5378: 5377: 5376: 5375: 5280: 5211: 5171: 5122: 5082: 5033: 5032: 5031: 5030: 5029: 5028: 4989: 4951: 4912: 4868: 4867: 4866: 4827: 4781: 4720: 4678: 4677: 4676: 4675: 4674: 4616: 4558: 4492: 4465: 4421: 4346: 4302: 4286:'father' > 4240: 4239: 4238: 4237: 4186: 4161: 4067: 4064: 4061: 4060: 4059: 4058: 4055: 4000: 3945: 3882: 3881: 3838: 3837: 3798:'father' > 3771: 3770: 3746:'us two' > 3719:(and possibly 3705: 3704: 3703: 3702: 3699: 3698: 3697: 3680: 3594: 3569: 3518: 3517: 3488: 3487: 3436: 3435: 3434: 3433: 3363:An epenthetic 3359: 3358: 3357: 3356: 3320: 3284: 3268:'inside' > 3247: 3189: 3188: 3187: 3186: 3166: 3130: 3094: 3051: 3050: 3049: 3048: 3033:'flower' > 3012: 2976: 2960:'mother' > 2938: 2880: 2877: 2861: 2858: 2839: 2829: 2819: 2809: 2801:North Germanic 2795: 2777:runic evidence 2708:as applied to 2702: 2699: 2697: 2694: 2685: 2682: 2648:Tune Runestone 2499: 2488: 2479: 2468: 2442: 2431: 2420: 2409: 2406:Central Europe 2390: 2387: 2292:North Germanic 2265:proto-language 2256:; also called 2250:Proto-Germanic 2245: 2244: 2242: 2241: 2234: 2227: 2219: 2216: 2215: 2212: 2211: 2204: 2197: 2190: 2183: 2175: 2174: 2168: 2167: 2161: 2160: 2154: 2153: 2148: 2142: 2141: 2135: 2130: 2129: 2126: 2125: 2122: 2121: 2112: 2107: 2102: 2100:Fire sacrifice 2096: 2095: 2089: 2088: 2083: 2082: 2081: 2074: 2062: 2061: 2060: 2053: 2046: 2034: 2033: 2032: 2025: 2018: 2011: 2004: 1992: 1987: 1982: 1945: 1944: 1932: 1931: 1930: 1929: 1917: 1916: 1915: 1908: 1896: 1895: 1894: 1891:Zoroastrianism 1873: 1872: 1865: 1858: 1851: 1850: 1849: 1828: 1827: 1821: 1820: 1813: 1812: 1807: 1802: 1797: 1791: 1790: 1784: 1781: 1780: 1777: 1776: 1773: 1772: 1761: 1760: 1758:Medieval India 1749: 1748: 1743: 1734: 1729: 1724: 1712: 1711: 1699: 1698: 1692: 1691: 1686: 1685: 1684: 1677: 1670: 1663: 1656: 1640: 1635: 1633:Italic peoples 1630: 1625: 1620: 1619: 1618: 1611: 1604: 1585: 1584: 1579: 1567: 1566: 1554: 1553: 1541: 1540: 1534: 1533: 1528: 1523: 1518: 1504: 1503: 1497: 1494: 1493: 1490: 1489: 1486: 1485: 1480: 1469: 1468: 1456: 1455: 1450: 1445: 1433: 1432: 1420: 1419: 1412: 1411: 1409:Gandhara grave 1406: 1401: 1389: 1388: 1383: 1378: 1373: 1368: 1363: 1358: 1353: 1348: 1343: 1331: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1308: 1307: 1302: 1297: 1292: 1287: 1282: 1270: 1269: 1261: 1260: 1259: 1258: 1255:Middle Dnieper 1251: 1232: 1231: 1226: 1221: 1210:Eastern Europe 1207: 1206: 1194: 1193: 1181: 1180: 1179: 1178: 1177: 1176: 1169: 1155: 1148: 1141: 1138:Dnieper–Donets 1134: 1127: 1115: 1113:Kurgan culture 1110: 1109: 1108: 1098: 1086: 1085: 1078: 1075: 1074: 1071: 1070: 1067: 1066: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1049:Beech argument 1046: 1041: 1035: 1034: 1028: 1027: 1022: 1017: 1011: 1010: 1004: 1003: 998: 993: 988: 982: 979: 978: 975: 974: 971: 970: 965: 960: 955: 950: 945: 940: 935: 930: 925: 920: 915: 910: 905: 900: 894: 891: 890: 887: 886: 883: 882: 872: 858: 853: 839: 832:Proto-Germanic 829: 827:Proto-Armenian 824: 819: 817:Proto-Albanian 813: 812: 805: 804: 799: 794: 789: 784: 779: 774: 768: 767: 760: 759: 754: 749: 744: 739: 734: 729: 724: 719: 713: 712: 705: 704: 703: 702: 678: 677: 670: 669: 668: 667: 660: 653: 646: 639: 632: 625: 618: 606: 601: 595: 594: 588: 587: 586: 585: 573: 572: 571: 564: 557: 545: 544: 543: 531: 526: 521: 520: 519: 512: 500: 495: 494: 493: 480: 479: 472: 471: 464: 459: 458: 455: 454: 446: 445: 439: 438: 381:, you may see 365: 358: 357: 356: 353: 352: 351: 350: 345: 339: 332: 328: 327: 322: 320: 315: 312: 311: 302: 298: 297: 292: 288: 287: 282: 278: 277: 273: 272: 271:Proto-Germanic 264: 263: 246: 245: 224:. Knowledge's 185: 183: 176: 169: 168: 83: 81: 74: 69: 43: 42: 40: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 20131: 20120: 20117: 20115: 20112: 20110: 20107: 20106: 20104: 20081: 20080: 20076: 20072: 20069: 20067: 20064: 20063: 20062: 20061: 20057: 20055: 20053: 20049: 20047: 20044: 20042: 20041: 20037: 20035: 20034:-vocalization 20033: 20029: 20027: 20025: 20021: 20019: 20016: 20014: 20011: 20010: 20008: 20006: 20002: 19996: 19993: 19991: 19988: 19986: 19983: 19981: 19978: 19976: 19973: 19971: 19968: 19966: 19960: 19958: 19952: 19950: 19949: 19945: 19944: 19942: 19940: 19936: 19932: 19928: 19923: 19919: 19913: 19910: 19908: 19905: 19903: 19900: 19898: 19895: 19891: 19888: 19886: 19883: 19881: 19878: 19876: 19873: 19872: 19871: 19868: 19866: 19863: 19861: 19858: 19856: 19853: 19851: 19848: 19847: 19844: 19840: 19833: 19828: 19826: 19821: 19819: 19814: 19813: 19810: 19797: 19793: 19791: 19787: 19784: 19783: 19780: 19766: 19763: 19761: 19758: 19756: 19753: 19751: 19748: 19746: 19743: 19741: 19740:Germanic verb 19738: 19737: 19735: 19731: 19725: 19722: 19720: 19717: 19715: 19712: 19710: 19707: 19705: 19702: 19700: 19697: 19695: 19692: 19690: 19687: 19685: 19682: 19680: 19679:Sievers's law 19677: 19675: 19672: 19670: 19667: 19665: 19662: 19661: 19659: 19655: 19649: 19646: 19644: 19641: 19639: 19636: 19634: 19631: 19630: 19628: 19626:Reconstructed 19624: 19618: 19617: 19613: 19611: 19610: 19606: 19604: 19603: 19599: 19598: 19593: 19590: 19588: 19585: 19583: 19580: 19579: 19578: 19575: 19573: 19570: 19568: 19565: 19564: 19562: 19560: 19556: 19552: 19548: 19543: 19539: 19525: 19524: 19520: 19518: 19517: 19513: 19510: 19509: 19504: 19503: 19499: 19498: 19496: 19494: 19493: 19488: 19476: 19473: 19471: 19468: 19467: 19465: 19464: 19461: 19453: 19450: 19449: 19448: 19445: 19441: 19440: 19439:Middle Danish 19436: 19434: 19433: 19429: 19427: 19424: 19422: 19419: 19417: 19414: 19410: 19407: 19405: 19402: 19401: 19400: 19397: 19393: 19390: 19389: 19388: 19385: 19383: 19380: 19378: 19375: 19374: 19373: 19370: 19366: 19363: 19361: 19358: 19357: 19356: 19353: 19352: 19350: 19346: 19340: 19339: 19335: 19333: 19332: 19328: 19324: 19323: 19319: 19317: 19316: 19315:Old Icelandic 19312: 19311: 19310: 19307: 19305: 19302: 19298: 19297: 19293: 19291: 19290: 19289:Old Norwegian 19286: 19283: 19280: 19277: 19274: 19272: 19269: 19267: 19264: 19262: 19259: 19257: 19254: 19252: 19249: 19247: 19244: 19242: 19239: 19238: 19237: 19234: 19233: 19231: 19227: 19219: 19218: 19214: 19212: 19209: 19207: 19204: 19203: 19202: 19201: 19197: 19195: 19194: 19190: 19189: 19187: 19183: 19180: 19178: 19174: 19170: 19166: 19162: 19157: 19153: 19135: 19134: 19130: 19126: 19123: 19122: 19121: 19118: 19116: 19113: 19107: 19106:Gottscheerish 19104: 19102: 19099: 19097: 19094: 19092: 19089: 19087: 19084: 19083: 19082: 19079: 19075: 19072: 19071: 19070: 19067: 19065: 19062: 19061: 19060: 19057: 19053: 19050: 19046: 19045:Walser German 19043: 19042: 19041: 19038: 19034: 19031: 19030: 19029: 19026: 19022: 19019: 19017: 19014: 19013: 19012: 19011:Low Alemannic 19009: 19008: 19006: 19003: 19002: 19000: 18998: 18994: 18984: 18981: 18979: 18976: 18974: 18973:High Prussian 18971: 18969: 18966: 18964: 18961: 18959: 18958:Erzgebirgisch 18956: 18954: 18951: 18949: 18946: 18945: 18943: 18941: 18937: 18931: 18928: 18924: 18921: 18920: 18919: 18916: 18910: 18907: 18905: 18902: 18901: 18900: 18897: 18895: 18892: 18891: 18890: 18887: 18879: 18876: 18875: 18874: 18871: 18869: 18866: 18864: 18863:Luxembourgish 18861: 18860: 18859: 18856: 18852: 18849: 18847: 18844: 18843: 18842: 18839: 18838: 18837: 18834: 18833: 18831: 18829: 18825: 18822: 18820: 18816: 18808: 18805: 18803: 18802: 18801:Klezmer-loshn 18798: 18796: 18795:Scots Yiddish 18793: 18791: 18788: 18786: 18783: 18782: 18781: 18778: 18776: 18773: 18769: 18766: 18765: 18764: 18761: 18759: 18756: 18754: 18751: 18749: 18746: 18744: 18741: 18739: 18736: 18735: 18733: 18731: 18726: 18721: 18715: 18712: 18710: 18707: 18705: 18702: 18701: 18699: 18697: 18693: 18685: 18684: 18680: 18679: 18678: 18677: 18673: 18671: 18670: 18666: 18664: 18663: 18659: 18658: 18656: 18652: 18649: 18647: 18643: 18633: 18632:Meuse-Rhenish 18630: 18628: 18625: 18624: 18622: 18618: 18612: 18609: 18608: 18606: 18604: 18600: 18594: 18590: 18586: 18582: 18579: 18577: 18574: 18572: 18569: 18567: 18564: 18563: 18560: 18559:Kleverlandish 18557: 18555: 18552: 18550: 18547: 18545: 18542: 18538: 18535: 18534: 18533: 18530: 18526: 18523: 18522: 18521: 18520:Central Dutch 18518: 18517: 18515: 18511: 18504: 18500: 18497: 18495: 18492: 18491: 18489: 18487: 18483: 18477: 18474: 18472: 18469: 18467: 18464: 18463: 18461: 18457: 18454: 18452: 18448: 18436: 18433: 18432: 18431: 18428: 18426: 18423: 18421: 18418: 18416: 18413: 18411: 18408: 18407: 18405: 18403: 18399: 18393: 18390: 18388: 18385: 18381: 18378: 18377: 18376: 18373: 18369: 18366: 18364: 18361: 18357: 18354: 18352: 18349: 18348: 18346: 18344: 18341: 18339: 18336: 18334: 18331: 18329: 18328:Stellingwarfs 18326: 18325: 18324: 18321: 18320: 18318: 18316: 18312: 18306: 18305: 18301: 18299: 18298: 18294: 18293: 18291: 18287: 18284: 18282: 18278: 18262: 18259: 18253: 18250: 18249: 18248:Wood Frisian 18247: 18244: 18243: 18242: 18239: 18238: 18236: 18234: 18231: 18229: 18226: 18225: 18223: 18221: 18217: 18209: 18206: 18204: 18203: 18199: 18197: 18194: 18190: 18187: 18184: 18181: 18180: 18179: 18176: 18174: 18171: 18166: 18165: 18164: 18161: 18160: 18158: 18154: 18151: 18149: 18146: 18142: 18139: 18137: 18134: 18133: 18131: 18129: 18128: 18124: 18123: 18121: 18120: 18118: 18116: 18115:North Frisian 18112: 18104: 18103: 18099: 18097: 18096: 18092: 18090: 18089: 18085: 18084: 18083: 18080: 18076: 18073: 18072: 18070: 18069: 18067: 18065: 18061: 18055: 18054: 18050: 18048: 18047: 18043: 18042: 18040: 18036: 18033: 18031: 18027: 18019: 18018: 18014: 18012: 18011: 18007: 18006: 18005: 18002: 17998: 17997: 17993: 17991: 17990: 17986: 17984: 17983: 17979: 17978: 17977: 17974: 17968: 17967: 17963: 17962: 17961: 17960: 17956: 17954: 17953: 17949: 17947: 17946: 17942: 17940: 17937: 17936: 17935: 17932: 17931: 17929: 17927: 17923: 17920: 17918: 17917:Anglo-Frisian 17914: 17910: 17906: 17901: 17897: 17893: 17887: 17883: 17876: 17871: 17869: 17864: 17862: 17857: 17856: 17853: 17846: 17842: 17839: 17835: 17832: 17830: 17826: 17823: 17819: 17817: 17814: 17812: 17809: 17807: 17804: 17802: 17800: 17795: 17794: 17786: 17783: 17779: 17777:0-12-728270-X 17773: 17769: 17764: 17760: 17754: 17750: 17745: 17741: 17739:0-19-955229-0 17735: 17731: 17726: 17715: 17713:9780199916481 17709: 17705: 17701: 17697: 17693: 17689: 17685: 17681: 17677: 17671: 17667: 17666: 17661: 17657: 17653: 17648: 17644: 17643: 17637: 17633: 17628: 17624: 17618: 17614: 17610: 17606: 17605: 17599: 17596: 17592: 17589: 17585: 17581: 17577: 17574: 17570: 17566: 17562: 17558: 17553: 17549: 17548: 17542: 17539: 17535: 17531: 17527: 17523: 17519: 17515: 17511: 17507: 17503: 17500:(1): 104–110. 17499: 17495: 17491: 17487: 17484: 17480: 17476: 17472: 17468: 17465: 17461: 17457: 17453: 17449: 17444: 17443: 17430: 17428:0-19-928413-X 17424: 17420: 17413: 17406: 17401: 17399: 17391: 17385: 17378: 17373: 17366: 17361: 17354: 17349: 17347: 17332:on 2012-08-05 17331: 17327: 17323: 17316: 17310: 17304: 17295: 17290: 17286: 17282: 17278: 17271: 17263: 17256: 17243:on 2017-10-20 17239: 17232: 17231: 17223: 17216: 17210: 17204:, p. 295 17203: 17198: 17191: 17186: 17179: 17174: 17167: 17162: 17155: 17150: 17143: 17138: 17131: 17126: 17119: 17115: 17111: 17105: 17097: 17096: 17088: 17080: 17073: 17065: 17058: 17050: 17043: 17035: 17029: 17021: 17017: 17010: 17003: 16998: 16991: 16986: 16979: 16974: 16967: 16962: 16954: 16952:3-11-017680-7 16948: 16944: 16937: 16929: 16927:1-57958-218-4 16923: 16919: 16912: 16904: 16902:0-521-44665-1 16898: 16894: 16887: 16879: 16877:3-11-013535-3 16873: 16869: 16862: 16855: 16851: 16847: 16841: 16833: 16827: 16813:on 2014-04-11 16809: 16802: 16796: 16789: 16783: 16776: 16771: 16764: 16759: 16745: 16739: 16735: 16728: 16727: 16719: 16711: 16704: 16696: 16689: 16681: 16675: 16669: 16663: 16657: 16652: 16647: 16640: 16634: 16626: 16622: 16616: 16608: 16604: 16600: 16596: 16592: 16588: 16581: 16573: 16569: 16562: 16560: 16552: 16547: 16540: 16539:Antonsen 2002 16535: 16526: 16524:3-11-017462-6 16520: 16516: 16515: 16507: 16499: 16495: 16491: 16487: 16483: 16479: 16472: 16464: 16460: 16456: 16452: 16448: 16444: 16440: 16436: 16429: 16421: 16417: 16413: 16409: 16405: 16401: 16397: 16391: 16384: 16373: 16369: 16365: 16361: 16357: 16353: 16346: 16343:(June 2005). 16342: 16341:Warnow, Tandy 16338: 16334: 16333:Nakhleh, Luay 16328: 16319: 16310: 16301: 16292: 16285: 16280: 16278: 16271:, p. 85. 16270: 16265: 16259:, p. 51. 16258: 16253: 16247:, p. 89. 16246: 16241: 16233: 16231:0-312-21207-0 16227: 16223: 16216: 16210:, p. 67. 16209: 16204: 16202: 16194: 16193: 16186: 16178: 16176:0-14-051054-0 16172: 16168: 16164: 16163: 16155: 16147: 16145:0-85229-571-5 16141: 16137: 16133: 16127: 16125: 16123: 16121: 16112: 16110:0-14-051054-0 16106: 16102: 16095: 16087: 16085:0-19-506511-5 16081: 16077: 16073: 16072: 16064: 16062: 16053: 16051:0-226-06067-5 16047: 16043: 16039: 16032: 16024: 16022:9780521401791 16018: 16014: 16009: 16008: 15999: 15991: 15989:0-19-520521-9 15985: 15981: 15977: 15970: 15966: 15952: 15948: 15944: 15938: 15931: 15929:1-58811-379-5 15925: 15921: 15913: 15909: 15905: 15901: 15897: 15893: 15889: 15882: 15875: 15869: 15862: 15858: 15852: 15843: 15836: 15835:Polomé (1992) 15831: 15826: 15819: 15815: 15812: 15806: 15799: 15798: 15793: 15792: 15787: 15783: 15777: 15773: 15763: 15760: 15758: 15755: 15753: 15750: 15749: 15735: 15734: 15733: 15727: 15721: 15720: 15719: 15713: 15707: 15706: 15705: 15702: 15698: 15696: 15692: 15683: 15670: 15667: 15664: 15662:Instrumental 15661: 15660: 15653: 15650: 15647: 15626: 15625: 15618: 15615: 15612: 15609: 15606: 15603: 15600: 15597: 15594: 15591: 15590: 15586: 15583: 15580: 15577: 15574: 15569: 15566: 15563: 15558: 15555: 15554: 15544: 15538: 15535: 15532: 15529: 15526: 15521: 15516: 15511: 15508: 15507: 15487: 15461: 15458:Third person 15455:Second person 15448: 15432: 15423: 15419: 15410: 15406: 15397: 15393: 15388: 15385: 15380: 15377: 15376: 15372: 15367: 15364: 15359: 15356: 15355: 15351: 15346: 15343: 15338: 15335: 15334: 15329: 15324: 15320: 15315: 15312: 15311: 15307: 15302: 15298: 15293: 15290: 15289: 15285: 15280: 15277: 15272: 15269: 15268: 15264: 15259: 15256: 15251: 15248: 15247: 15239: 15232: 15227: 15221: 15216: 15213: 15209: 15205: 15200: 15197: 15192: 15189: 15184: 15181: 15180: 15176: 15171: 15168: 15163: 15160: 15155: 15152: 15151: 15147: 15144: 15139: 15136: 15131: 15128: 15127: 15123: 15118: 15114: 15109: 15105: 15100: 15097: 15096: 15092: 15089: 15081: 15076: 15073: 15064: 15059: 15056: 15055: 15051: 15046: 15043: 15038: 15035: 15030: 15027: 15022: 15019: 15014: 15011: 15010: 15006: 15001: 14998: 14993: 14990: 14985: 14982: 14977: 14974: 14969: 14966: 14965: 14961: 14958: 14955: 14950: 14947: 14941: 14936: 14933: 14928: 14925: 14921: 14917: 14914: 14911: 14908: 14905: 14904: 14900: 14891: 14888: 14885: 14878: 14875: 14870: 14866: 14862: 14857: 14851: 14845: 14839: 14834: 14829: 14822: 14816: 14807: 14800: 14795: 14791: 14784: 14779: 14776: 14771: 14764: 14757: 14752: 14748: 14741: 14736: 14732: 14725: 14720: 14716: 14709: 14704: 14700: 14693: 14688: 14684: 14677: 14672: 14668: 14661: 14656: 14652: 14645: 14640: 14639: 14638: 14636: 14632: 14628: 14624: 14620: 14616: 14612: 14608: 14604: 14600: 14596: 14591: 14589: 14585: 14582:(like modern 14581: 14576: 14571: 14566: 14564: 14559: 14553: 14548: 14544: 14540: 14536: 14521: 14517: 14516:reduplication 14513: 14509: 14505: 14500: 14498: 14493: 14489: 14480: 14476: 14472: 14468: 14462: 14459: 14455: 14451: 14447: 14443: 14439: 14433: 14429: 14425: 14424:Germanic verb 14410: 14402: 14397: 14394: 14387: 14384: 14383: 14379: 14371: 14366: 14363: 14356: 14353: 14352: 14348: 14340: 14335: 14332: 14325: 14322: 14321: 14317: 14312: 14309: 14304: 14301: 14296: 14294: 14291: 14290: 14286: 14278: 14270: 14265: 14262: 14257: 14254: 14246: 14241: 14239: 14236: 14235: 14232: 14229: 14227: 14224: 14222: 14219: 14217: 14214: 14212: 14209: 14207: 14204: 14203: 14200: 14195: 14188: 14182: 14180: 14176: 14172: 14168: 14164: 14160: 14155: 14149: 14143: 14138: 14134: 14130: 14126: 14121: 14119: 14114: 14108: 14103: 14099: 14095: 14091: 14086: 14080: 14074: 14068: 14061: 14054: 14047: 14040: 14033: 14016: 14011: 14008: 14000: 13995: 13992: 13984: 13976: 13971: 13968: 13961: 13958: 13957: 13953: 13948: 13945: 13937: 13932: 13929: 13921: 13913: 13908: 13905: 13898: 13895: 13894: 13890: 13885: 13882: 13874: 13869: 13866: 13858: 13850: 13845: 13842: 13835: 13832: 13831: 13827: 13822: 13819: 13814: 13811: 13806: 13803: 13798: 13795: 13790: 13787: 13782: 13780: 13777: 13776: 13772: 13767: 13761: 13756: 13753: 13748: 13742: 13737: 13734: 13726: 13718: 13713: 13710: 13702: 13694: 13689: 13687: 13684: 13683: 13680: 13677: 13675: 13672: 13670: 13667: 13665: 13662: 13660: 13657: 13655: 13652: 13650: 13647: 13645: 13642: 13640: 13637: 13635: 13632: 13630: 13627: 13625: 13622: 13621: 13618: 13613: 13608: 13603: 13599: 13596: 13591: 13584: 13579: 13577: 13573: 13569: 13565: 13561: 13545: 13540: 13537: 13532: 13529: 13524: 13522: 13519: 13518: 13514: 13509: 13506: 13498: 13493: 13490: 13485: 13483: 13480: 13479: 13475: 13470: 13467: 13462: 13459: 13454: 13451: 13446: 13444: 13441: 13440: 13436: 13431: 13428: 13423: 13420: 13415: 13412: 13407: 13405: 13402: 13401: 13397: 13392: 13389: 13384: 13382: 13379: 13378: 13374: 13366: 13361: 13358: 13350: 13345: 13343: 13340: 13339: 13336: 13333: 13331: 13328: 13326: 13323: 13321: 13318: 13317: 13314: 13313: 13306: 13305: 13296: 13293: 13291: 13277: 13274: 13271: 13268: 13265: 13262: 13261: 13260: 13256: 13252: 13250: 13242: 13239: 13236: 13235: 13234: 13227: 13224: 13221: 13218: 13215: 13214: 13213: 13211: 13206: 13204: 13193: 13191: 13187: 13183: 13178: 13174: 13173:AD 200. 13168: 13157: 13155: 13151: 13147: 13143: 13139: 13135: 13131: 13130:Proto-Romance 13127: 13123: 13119: 13115: 13110: 13106: 13096: 13094: 13089: 13085:vs. the name 13084: 13079: 13074: 13070: 13066: 13056: 13047: 13044: 13041: 13040: 13036: 13033: 13030: 13029: 13019: 13016: 13013: 13012: 13008: 13005: 13004: 12982: 12979: 12978: 12974: 12971: 12968: 12967: 12960: 12954: 12951: 12950: 12946: 12943: 12940: 12939: 12929: 12923: 12920: 12919: 12915: 12912: 12909: 12906: 12903: 12902: 12895: 12889: 12886: 12883: 12880: 12879: 12875: 12872: 12869: 12866: 12863: 12862: 12855: 12852: 12846: 12843: 12842: 12838: 12835: 12832: 12829: 12826: 12825: 12815: 12809: 12806: 12803: 12802: 12798: 12795: 12792: 12786: 12783: 12782: 12775: 12772: 12769: 12766: 12763: 12762: 12758: 12755: 12752: 12749: 12746: 12743: 12742: 12735: 12729: 12726: 12725: 12721: 12718: 12715: 12714: 12710: 12707: 12704: 12703: 12687: 12681: 12678: 12677: 12673: 12670: 12667: 12664: 12661: 12658: 12655: 12652: 12651: 12648: 12645: 12643: 12639: 12635: 12631: 12627: 12623: 12619: 12615: 12602: 12596: 12591: 12585: 12581: 12576: 12574: 12570: 12566: 12562: 12558: 12554: 12550: 12545: 12540: 12536: 12531: 12526: 12522: 12517: 12515: 12511: 12507: 12480: 12478: 12474: 12470: 12466: 12459: 12455: 12451: 12447: 12443: 12439: 12435: 12431: 12427: 12423: 12419: 12415: 12411: 12407: 12403: 12399: 12395: 12391: 12387: 12383: 12379: 12375: 12371: 12367: 12364: 12360: 12356: 12352: 12348: 12344: 12340: 12336: 12332: 12328: 12324: 12320: 12316: 12312: 12310: 12306: 12302: 12298: 12294: 12290: 12289: 12288: 12283: 12279: 12275: 12271: 12267: 12263: 12259: 12255: 12251: 12247: 12243: 12239: 12235: 12231: 12227: 12223: 12219: 12217: 12213: 12209: 12205: 12201: 12197: 12193: 12189: 12185: 12181: 12177: 12173: 12169: 12165: 12163: 12159: 12155: 12151: 12149: 12145: 12141: 12137: 12133: 12132: 12131: 12126: 12122: 12118: 12114: 12110: 12106: 12102: 12100: 12096: 12092: 12088: 12084: 12080: 12076: 12073:Non-labial + 12072: 12070: 12066: 12062: 12058: 12054: 12050: 12046: 12042: 12038: 12034: 12030: 12026: 12024: 12020: 12016: 12012: 12008: 12004: 12000: 11996: 11992: 11989:Non-dental + 11988: 11987: 11986: 11983: 11971: 11970: 11964: 11957: 11950: 11944: 11938: 11933: 11929: 11927: 11926: 11920: 11913: 11907: 11902: 11898: 11896: 11895: 11889: 11882: 11876: 11872: 11871:North Frisian 11867: 11863: 11859: 11855: 11854: 11853: 11851: 11847: 11843: 11839: 11835: 11831: 11827: 11823: 11819: 11810: 11807: 11801: 11795: 11790: 11786: 11782: 11778: 11773: 11766: 11760: 11750: 11744: 11737: 11730: 11726: 11723: 11716: 11711:'shark' < 11709: 11705: 11704: 11703: 11701: 11697: 11693: 11692: 11683: 11679: 11674: 11672: 11667: 11657: 11645: 11641: 11630: 11626: 11622: 11612: 11609: 11606: 11603: 11600: 11599: 11595: 11589: 11588: 11581: 11578: 11575: 11574: 11570: 11567: 11564: 11561: 11558: 11557: 11554: 11552: 11548: 11544: 11538: 11536: 11532: 11528: 11524: 11520: 11516: 11512: 11508: 11504: 11500: 11496: 11492: 11488: 11484: 11480: 11476: 11472: 11468: 11464: 11460: 11456: 11452: 11448: 11444: 11440: 11436: 11423: 11419: 11415: 11411: 11408: 11399: 11392: 11385: 11379: 11374: 11371: 11362: 11355: 11348: 11342: 11336: 11330: 11325: 11321: 11318: 11315: 11309: 11305: 11300: 11293: 11288: 11284: 11280: 11276: 11272: 11268: 11265: 11262: 11253: 11246: 11239: 11233: 11227: 11222: 11219: 11218: 11217: 11215: 11211: 11207: 11203: 11199: 11196:Krahe treats 11194: 11192: 11188: 11184: 11183:Elder Futhark 11180: 11176: 11172: 11168: 11163: 11156: 11151: 11147: 11143: 11138: 11132: 11124: 11118: 11114: 11109: 11106: 11102: 11098: 11095:lowering but 11094: 11090: 11086: 11082: 11078: 11074: 11070: 11066: 11062: 11058: 11053: 11050: 11049: 11042: 11038: 11034: 11030: 11027:shortened to 11026: 11022: 11018: 11015:shortened to 11014: 11008: 11006: 11001: 10997: 10993: 10989: 10985: 10976: 10968: 10964: 10960: 10956: 10952: 10949: 10941: 10937: 10933: 10929: 10925: 10922: 10914: 10910: 10906: 10905: 10904: 10898: 10889: 10883: 10880: 10872: 10863: 10857: 10842: 10835: 10829: 10828: 10827: 10825: 10816: 10810: 10807:'stone', OSl 10805: 10801:just as Lith 10800: 10791: 10785: 10780: 10774: 10767: 10761: 10757: 10753: 10749: 10745: 10741: 10737: 10733: 10723: 10717: 10714: 10713: 10706: 10703: 10700: 10699: 10695: 10692: 10689: 10686: 10683: 10682: 10679: 10677: 10673: 10668: 10662: 10658: 10648: 10642: 10638: 10634: 10630: 10625: 10614: 10609:from earlier 10560: 10530: 10529: 10528: 10520: 10518: 10514: 10510: 10505: 10499: 10491: 10487: 10483: 10478: 10475: 10469: 10462: 10455: 10450: 10446: 10442: 10438: 10434: 10429: 10424: 10422: 10416: 10414: 10408: 10404: 10400: 10396: 10392: 10388: 10384: 10380: 10376: 10332: 10318: 10317: 10316: 10305: 10300: 10295: 10293: 10291: 10289: 10286: 10285: 10279: 10274: 10272: 10270: 10268: 10266: 10263: 10262: 10259: 10254: 10249: 10244: 10239: 10237: 10234: 10233: 10229: 10226: 10223: 10220: 10217: 10216: 10213: 10208: 10201: 10198:Nasal vowels 10195: 10189: 10184: 10179: 10177: 10175: 10173: 10171: 10168: 10167: 10161: 10156: 10154: 10149: 10144: 10139: 10137: 10134: 10133: 10130: 10125: 10120: 10118: 10113: 10108: 10106: 10103: 10102: 10098: 10095: 10092: 10089: 10086: 10083: 10082: 10079: 10074: 10067: 10061: 10060: 10057: 10049: 10047: 10039: 10030: 10023: 10017: 10013: 10005: 9996: 9989: 9983: 9978: 9971: 9965: 9958: 9952: 9945: 9939: 9932: 9927: 9917: 9910: 9907: 9906: 9902: 9895: 9892: 9891: 9887: 9884: 9881: 9875: 9874: 9866: 9863: 9860: 9859: 9855: 9852: 9849: 9848: 9844: 9841: 9838: 9835: 9834: 9831: 9828: 9824: 9822: 9818: 9814: 9809: 9807: 9803: 9798: 9794: 9790: 9786: 9782: 9778: 9769: 9766: 9759: 9752: 9733: 9726: 9719: 9704: 9697: 9678: 9664: 9656: 9649: 9639: 9635: 9634:boukólos rule 9631: 9630: 9629: 9610: 9607: 9598: 9592: 9585: 9561: 9558: 9554: 9551: 9547: 9544: 9540: 9536: 9535:Anglo-Frisian 9528: 9518:Word-initial 9517: 9516: 9515: 9499: 9462: 9458: 9456: 9452: 9446: 9426: 9416: 9406: 9404: 9398: 9387: 9381: 9372: 9366: 9358: 9336: 9334: 9330: 9324: 9322: 9317: 9303: 9299: 9295: 9291: 9287: 9283: 9279: 9275: 9271: 9267: 9263: 9259: 9236: 9223: 9210: 9201: 9192: 9167: 9164: 9163: 9160: 9147: 9134: 9125: 9116: 9114: 9111: 9110: 9107: 9094: 9081: 9072: 9063: 9061: 9058: 9057: 9054: 9041: 9028: 9019: 9010: 9008: 9005: 9004: 9000: 8998:Verner's law 8997: 8994: 8991: 8988: 8985: 8981: 8979: 8978: 8975: 8973: 8969: 8963: 8959: 8942: 8938: 8934: 8930: 8926: 8918: 8914: 8899: 8892: 8885: 8884: 8883: 8869: 8865: 8863: 8857: 8854: 8853: 8849: 8841: 8835: 8831: 8829: 8823: 8820: 8819: 8811: 8806: 8802: 8797: 8794: 8790: 8785: 8781: 8778: 8774: 8770: 8765: 8762: 8758: 8754: 8749: 8746: 8742: 8740: 8737: 8736: 8730: 8725: 8722: 8718: 8715: 8711: 8704: 8700: 8697: 8693: 8690: 8686: 8683: 8679: 8677: 8674: 8673: 8665: 8663: 8659: 8654: 8652: 8647: 8643: 8641: 8636: 8632: 8630: 8628: 8625: 8624: 8621: 8614: 8609: 8604: 8599: 8594: 8588: 8587: 8581: 8579: 8566:in that case. 8565: 8561: 8557: 8554: 8550: 8546: 8542: 8538: 8534: 8530: 8526: 8522: 8518: 8514: 8510: 8506: 8502: 8499: 8495: 8491: 8480: 8476: 8472: 8469: 8465: 8461: 8458: 8454: 8450: 8446: 8442: 8430: 8426: 8423: 8420:; the use of 8419: 8415: 8408: 8404: 8377: 8373: 8369: 8365: 8330: 8326: 8322: 8318: 8315: 8314: 8309: 8308: 8303: 8302: 8297: 8293: 8265: 8261: 8257: 8253: 8252: 8251: 8246:Transcription 8241: 8238:See also the 8231: 8229: 8226: 8222: 8218: 8214: 8212: 8211:Sigmund Feist 8207: 8201: 8191: 8189: 8185: 8181: 8176: 8173: 8167: 8160: 8154: 8147: 8141: 8134: 8128: 8122: 8115: 8108: 8102: 8096: 8091: 8082: 8073: 8069: 8066:This section 8064: 8061: 8057: 8056: 8048: 8046: 8041: 8035: 8031: 8026: 8020: 8013: 8007: 8003: 7998: 7991: 7984: 7978: 7971: 7965: 7958: 7952: 7951:keppǭ ~ skēpą 7945: 7939: 7932: 7928: 7923: 7919: 7914: 7908: 7903: 7901: 7897: 7892: 7887:'Rhine', and 7885: 7878: 7871: 7864: 7857: 7852:'mailshirt', 7850: 7843: 7837: 7833: 7829: 7825: 7821: 7816: 7810: 7806: 7802: 7798: 7793: 7788:'king' (stem 7786: 7779: 7773: 7769: 7759: 7744: 7738: 7732: 7724: 7720: 7707: 7706: 7700: 7693: 7687: 7679: 7666:from earlier 7659: 7658: 7655: 7648: 7642: 7633: 7627: 7618: 7612: 7587:except after 7586: 7578: 7577: 7570: 7563: 7556: 7551: 7550: 7547: 7540: 7533: 7526: 7514: 7501: 7500: 7491: 7484: 7477: 7472: 7468: 7461: 7454: 7450: 7449:Northern Sami 7447: 7443: 7436: 7429: 7424: 7420: 7413: 7406: 7401: 7400: 7398: 7395: 7388: 7383:'three' > 7382: 7374: 7369: 7363: 7358: 7353:(attested as 7351: 7345: 7325: 7324: 7322: 7315: 7309: 7300: 7293: 7287: 7278: 7271: 7265: 7233: 7232: 7227: 7226: 7217: 7211: 7205: 7196: 7191: 7187: 7181: 7172: 7167: 7163: 7156: 7149: 7144: 7140: 7133: 7126: 7122: 7119: 7118: 7116: 7112: 7105: 7098: 7093: 7090: 7083: 7077: 7068: 7061: 7056:'seeds' > 7055: 7036: 7033: 7026: 7021:'sweet' > 7020: 7013:'judgement'; 7011: 7004: 6998: 6979: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6972: 6968: 6962: 6954: 6946: 6937: 6930: 6924: 6910: 6897: 6896: 6892: 6885: 6878: 6871: 6864: 6857: 6852:'honey' > 6851: 6843: 6834: 6827: 6821: 6812: 6805: 6799: 6791: 6783: 6782: 6775: 6769: 6761: 6753: 6733: 6729: 6724: 6719: 6713: 6707: 6700: 6693: 6687: 6667: 6664: 6657: 6650: 6643: 6636: 6629: 6623: 6615: 6607: 6599: 6580: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6573: 6567: 6560: 6553: 6547: 6539: 6530: 6523: 6517: 6498: 6495: 6488: 6481: 6475: 6467: 6458: 6451: 6445: 6431: 6430: 6428: 6420: 6419: 6415: 6408: 6401: 6394: 6388: 6374: 6365: 6364: 6360: 6354: 6346: 6338: 6329: 6322: 6316: 6308: 6299: 6293: 6285: 6277: 6269: 6260: 6259: 6255: 6249: 6241: 6233: 6224: 6218: 6210: 6202: 6194: 6180: 6179: 6175: 6168: 6161: 6155: 6146: 6139: 6133: 6125: 6111: 6110: 6107: 6105: 6087: 6081: 6073: 6064: 6058: 6050: 6043:'seeds' > 6042: 6017: 6014: 6008: 6001:'sweet' > 6000: 5993:'judgement'; 5991: 5985: 5977: 5969: 5944: 5941: 5935: 5926: 5920: 5912: 5887: 5886: 5884: 5881: 5880: 5873: 5867: 5859: 5851: 5832:The sequence 5831: 5828: 5821: 5814: 5809:'three' > 5808: 5799: 5793: 5785: 5776: 5770: 5762: 5754: 5746: 5745: 5742: 5735: 5729: 5721: 5713: 5705: 5697: 5689: 5681: 5667: 5666: 5659: 5652: 5645: 5639: 5631: 5611: 5607: 5601: 5593: 5585: 5572:contracts to 5565: 5564: 5562: 5556: 5548: 5540: 5526: 5512: 5511: 5506: 5500: 5492: 5483: 5469: 5468: 5463: 5457: 5448: 5434: 5433: 5402: 5390:Word-initial 5388: 5387: 5383: 5380: 5379: 5372: 5365: 5358: 5352: 5344: 5336: 5329:, unstressed 5328: 5319: 5313: 5305: 5297: 5290:, unstressed 5289: 5281: 5278: 5272: 5264: 5257:'wheel' > 5256: 5247: 5241: 5233: 5225: 5212: 5208: 5202: 5194: 5186: 5172: 5167: 5161: 5153: 5145: 5138:'young' > 5137: 5123: 5119: 5113: 5105: 5098:'tribe' > 5097: 5083: 5079: 5073: 5065: 5057: 5043: 5042: 5040: 5039: 5035: 5034: 5024: 5018: 5011:'chant' > 5010: 4990: 4986: 4980: 4973:'goose' > 4972: 4952: 4947: 4941: 4933: 4913: 4909: 4903: 4895: 4872: 4871: 4869: 4864:'(s)he comes' 4862: 4856: 4848: 4828: 4824: 4818: 4810: 4802: 4782: 4778: 4772: 4764: 4755: 4749: 4741: 4721: 4716: 4710: 4703:'apple' > 4702: 4682: 4681: 4679: 4671: 4665: 4657: 4649: 4617: 4613: 4607: 4599: 4592:'eight' > 4591: 4559: 4554: 4548: 4540: 4532: 4500: 4499: 4497: 4493: 4466: 4462: 4456: 4448: 4422: 4418: 4412: 4404: 4396: 4387: 4381: 4374:'fight' > 4373: 4347: 4343: 4337: 4329: 4303: 4299: 4293: 4285: 4259: 4258: 4256: 4255: 4247: 4246: 4242: 4241: 4234: 4226: 4220: 4212: 4204: 4196: 4187: 4184: 4178: 4170: 4162: 4159: 4153: 4145: 4125: 4124: 4122: 4110: 4085: 4082: 4081: 4078: 4076: 4073: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4044: 4036: 4028: 4020: 4001: 3998: 3996: 3989: 3981: 3973: 3965: 3946: 3944: 3942: 3935: 3928:'night' > 3927: 3908: 3907: 3887: 3884: 3883: 3879: 3873: 3865: 3858:'horse' > 3857: 3844:by following 3843: 3840: 3839: 3834: 3828: 3820: 3811: 3805: 3797: 3776: 3773: 3772: 3767: 3761: 3753: 3745: 3712: 3711: 3710:Cowgill's law 3707: 3706: 3700: 3695: 3689: 3681: 3677: 3671: 3663: 3655: 3647: 3639: 3630: 3626: 3625: 3623: 3618:'seeds' > 3616: 3595: 3592: 3586: 3578: 3570: 3566: 3560: 3552: 3543: 3540:Word-initial 3539: 3538: 3530: 3526: 3525: 3524:of laryngeals 3520: 3519: 3515: 3509: 3502:'seeds' > 3501: 3493: 3490: 3489: 3483: 3477: 3469: 3461: 3453: 3444: 3442: 3438: 3437: 3429: 3423: 3415: 3407: 3399: 3372: 3371: 3369: 3361: 3360: 3354: 3348: 3340: 3321: 3318: 3312: 3304: 3285: 3281: 3275: 3267: 3248: 3245: 3239: 3231: 3212: 3211: 3209: 3206: 3202: 3195: 3191: 3190: 3184: 3167: 3164: 3158: 3150: 3131: 3128: 3122: 3114: 3095: 3092: 3086: 3078: 3059: 3058: 3056: 3053: 3052: 3046: 3040: 3032: 3013: 3010: 3004: 2997:'eagle' > 2996: 2977: 2973: 2967: 2959: 2939: 2936:'in addition' 2934: 2928: 2920: 2900: 2899: 2897: 2889: 2888: 2885: 2876: 2874: 2867: 2857: 2850: 2846: 2845:East Germanic 2836: 2835:Elbe Germanic 2826: 2816: 2806: 2802: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2769: 2763: 2756: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2736: 2731: 2727: 2724: 2720: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2693: 2691: 2681: 2679: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2646:(such as the 2645: 2640: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2625: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2584: 2580: 2575: 2573: 2569: 2568: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2550: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2508: 2497: 2486: 2477: 2465: 2464:East Germanic 2460: 2407: 2404: 2400: 2397:Expansion of 2395: 2386: 2380: 2379: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2349:reconstructed 2345: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2326: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2311: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2288:East Germanic 2285: 2284:West Germanic 2281: 2276: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2263: 2262:reconstructed 2259: 2255: 2252:(abbreviated 2251: 2240: 2235: 2233: 2228: 2226: 2221: 2220: 2218: 2217: 2210: 2209: 2205: 2203: 2202: 2198: 2196: 2195: 2191: 2189: 2188: 2184: 2182: 2181: 2177: 2176: 2173: 2170: 2169: 2166: 2163: 2162: 2159: 2156: 2155: 2152: 2151:J. P. Mallory 2149: 2147: 2144: 2143: 2140: 2137: 2136: 2133: 2128: 2127: 2120: 2116: 2113: 2111: 2108: 2106: 2103: 2101: 2098: 2097: 2094: 2091: 2090: 2087: 2084: 2079: 2075: 2072: 2068: 2067: 2066: 2063: 2058: 2054: 2051: 2047: 2044: 2040: 2039: 2038: 2035: 2030: 2026: 2023: 2019: 2016: 2012: 2009: 2005: 2002: 1998: 1997: 1996: 1993: 1991: 1988: 1986: 1983: 1980: 1977: 1974: 1971: 1968: 1965: 1962: 1958: 1955: 1954: 1953: 1951: 1950: 1943: 1940: 1939: 1938: 1936: 1927: 1923: 1922: 1921: 1918: 1913: 1909: 1906: 1902: 1901: 1900: 1897: 1892: 1888: 1887: 1886: 1883: 1882: 1881: 1879: 1878: 1870: 1866: 1863: 1859: 1856: 1852: 1847: 1843: 1842: 1841: 1838: 1837: 1836: 1834: 1833: 1826: 1823: 1822: 1819: 1816: 1815: 1811: 1808: 1806: 1803: 1801: 1798: 1796: 1793: 1792: 1789: 1788:Reconstructed 1786: 1785: 1779: 1778: 1771: 1768: 1767: 1766: 1765: 1759: 1756: 1755: 1754: 1753: 1747: 1744: 1742: 1738: 1735: 1733: 1730: 1728: 1725: 1723: 1720: 1719: 1718: 1716: 1710: 1707: 1706: 1705: 1703: 1697: 1694: 1693: 1690: 1687: 1682: 1678: 1675: 1671: 1668: 1664: 1661: 1657: 1654: 1650: 1649: 1648: 1644: 1641: 1639: 1636: 1634: 1631: 1629: 1626: 1624: 1621: 1616: 1615:Insular Celts 1612: 1609: 1605: 1602: 1598: 1597: 1596: 1593: 1592: 1591: 1589: 1583: 1580: 1578: 1575: 1574: 1573: 1571: 1565: 1562: 1561: 1560: 1558: 1552: 1549: 1548: 1547: 1545: 1539: 1536: 1535: 1532: 1531:Indo-Iranians 1529: 1527: 1524: 1522: 1519: 1514: 1509: 1506: 1505: 1502: 1499: 1498: 1492: 1491: 1484: 1481: 1479: 1476: 1475: 1474: 1473: 1467: 1464: 1463: 1462: 1460: 1454: 1451: 1449: 1446: 1444: 1441: 1440: 1439: 1437: 1431: 1428: 1427: 1426: 1424: 1418: 1415: 1414: 1410: 1407: 1405: 1402: 1400: 1397: 1396: 1395: 1393: 1387: 1384: 1382: 1379: 1377: 1374: 1372: 1369: 1367: 1364: 1362: 1359: 1357: 1354: 1352: 1349: 1347: 1344: 1342: 1339: 1338: 1337: 1335: 1329: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1315: 1314: 1312: 1306: 1303: 1301: 1298: 1296: 1293: 1291: 1288: 1286: 1283: 1281: 1278: 1277: 1276: 1274: 1273:Pontic Steppe 1267: 1264: 1263: 1256: 1252: 1249: 1245: 1244: 1243: 1240: 1239: 1238: 1236: 1230: 1227: 1225: 1222: 1219: 1215: 1214: 1213: 1211: 1205: 1202: 1201: 1200: 1198: 1192: 1189: 1188: 1187: 1185: 1174: 1170: 1167: 1163: 1162: 1160: 1156: 1153: 1149: 1146: 1142: 1139: 1135: 1132: 1128: 1125: 1121: 1120: 1119: 1116: 1114: 1111: 1107: 1106:Kurgan stelae 1104: 1103: 1102: 1099: 1097: 1094: 1093: 1092: 1090: 1089:Pontic Steppe 1083: 1080: 1079: 1073: 1072: 1065: 1062: 1060: 1057: 1055: 1052: 1050: 1047: 1045: 1042: 1040: 1037: 1036: 1031: 1030: 1026: 1023: 1021: 1018: 1016: 1013: 1012: 1007: 1006: 1002: 999: 997: 994: 992: 989: 987: 984: 983: 977: 976: 969: 966: 964: 961: 959: 956: 954: 951: 949: 946: 944: 941: 939: 936: 934: 931: 929: 926: 924: 921: 919: 916: 914: 911: 909: 906: 904: 901: 899: 896: 895: 889: 888: 880: 879:Proto-Iranian 876: 873: 870: 866: 862: 859: 857: 854: 851: 847: 843: 840: 837: 833: 830: 828: 825: 823: 820: 818: 815: 814: 811: 808: 807: 803: 800: 798: 795: 793: 790: 788: 785: 783: 780: 778: 775: 773: 770: 769: 766: 763: 762: 758: 755: 753: 750: 748: 745: 743: 740: 738: 735: 733: 730: 728: 725: 723: 722:Daco-Thracian 720: 718: 715: 714: 711: 708: 707: 701: 697: 693: 689: 686: 685: 683: 680: 679: 676: 675:Reconstructed 673: 672: 665: 661: 658: 654: 651: 647: 644: 640: 637: 633: 630: 626: 623: 619: 616: 612: 611: 610: 607: 605: 602: 600: 597: 596: 593: 590: 589: 583: 579: 578: 577: 574: 569: 565: 562: 558: 555: 551: 550: 549: 546: 541: 537: 536: 535: 532: 530: 527: 525: 522: 517: 513: 510: 506: 505: 504: 501: 499: 496: 491: 487: 486: 485: 482: 481: 478: 475: 474: 470: 467: 466: 462: 457: 456: 452: 448: 447: 444: 441: 440: 436: 432: 431: 425: 421: 417: 413: 405: 400: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 374: 370: 349: 346: 343: 340: 338: 335: 334: 333: 329: 325: 321: 316:Reconstructed 313: 308: 500 BC 303: 299: 296: 293: 289: 286: 283: 279: 274: 269: 260: 257: 242: 232: 227: 223: 216: 206: 196: 189: 184: 175: 174: 165: 162: 154: 143: 140: 136: 133: 129: 126: 122: 119: 115: 112: – 111: 107: 106:Find sources: 100: 96: 90: 89: 84:This article 82: 78: 73: 72: 67: 65: 58: 57: 52: 51: 46: 41: 32: 31: 19: 20078: 20059: 20051: 20039: 20031: 20023: 19947: 19885:Northumbrian 19854: 19785: 19669:Verner's law 19632: 19614: 19609:Gotho-Nordic 19607: 19600: 19521: 19514: 19506: 19500: 19490: 19475:Fårö Gutnish 19437: 19430: 19336: 19329: 19320: 19313: 19294: 19287: 19215: 19210: 19205: 19198: 19191: 19131: 19033:Swiss German 18997:Upper German 18930:Amana German 18904:Volga German 18873:Hunsrückisch 18799: 18753:Unserdeutsch 18748:Berlinerisch 18681: 18674: 18667: 18660: 18620:Cover groups 18576:Mohawk Dutch 18571:Jersey Dutch 18549:East Flemish 18532:West Flemish 18476:Middle Dutch 18430:Low Prussian 18302: 18295: 18261:Terschelling 18245:Clay Frisian 18220:West Frisian 18208:Wiedingharde 18200: 18188: 18148:Heligolandic 18125: 18100: 18093: 18086: 18081: 18064:East Frisian 18051: 18044: 18017:Middle Scots 18015: 18008: 17994: 17987: 17980: 17975: 17964: 17957: 17950: 17943: 17844: 17840: 17798: 17767: 17748: 17729: 17717:. Retrieved 17699: 17664: 17651: 17641: 17631: 17603: 17594: 17579: 17564: 17556: 17545: 17537: 17536:Fulk, R. D. 17529: 17525: 17513: 17509: 17497: 17493: 17470: 17459: 17456:Campbell, A. 17447: 17418: 17412: 17389: 17384: 17372: 17360: 17353:Kroonen 2013 17334:. Retrieved 17330:the original 17325: 17315: 17303: 17284: 17280: 17270: 17261: 17255: 17245:, retrieved 17238:the original 17229: 17222: 17214: 17209: 17197: 17185: 17173: 17161: 17149: 17137: 17125: 17113: 17109: 17104: 17094: 17087: 17078: 17072: 17063: 17057: 17048: 17042: 17019: 17015: 17009: 17002:Kroonen 2013 16997: 16985: 16973: 16961: 16942: 16936: 16917: 16911: 16892: 16886: 16867: 16861: 16849: 16845: 16840: 16815:. Retrieved 16808:the original 16795: 16787: 16782: 16770: 16758: 16747:. Retrieved 16725: 16718: 16709: 16703: 16694: 16688: 16659:, Old Saxon 16646: 16638: 16633: 16624: 16615: 16590: 16586: 16580: 16571: 16567: 16546: 16534: 16513: 16506: 16484:(1): 19–36. 16481: 16477: 16471: 16438: 16434: 16428: 16406:(1): 67–74. 16403: 16399: 16390: 16381: 16375:. Retrieved 16355: 16351: 16327: 16318: 16309: 16300: 16291: 16264: 16252: 16245:Mallory 1989 16240: 16221: 16215: 16191: 16185: 16161: 16154: 16135: 16100: 16094: 16070: 16041: 16031: 16006: 15998: 15979: 15969: 15937: 15919: 15895: 15891: 15881: 15868: 15861:Ringe (2006) 15857:Green (2000) 15851: 15842: 15830:Ringe (2017) 15825: 15805: 15795: 15789: 15781: 15776: 15731: 15717: 15703: 15699: 15689: 15679: 15452:First person 14898:Subjunctive 14879: 14812: 14774: 14715:frawardijaną 14634: 14631:Verner's Law 14626: 14622: 14618: 14614: 14610: 14603:deadjectival 14592: 14575:mediopassive 14567: 14546: 14542: 14538: 14534: 14501: 14488:periphrastic 14478: 14471:desiderative 14466: 14463: 14458:Donald Ringe 14446:Proto-Slavic 14435: 14386:Instrumental 14385: 14354: 14323: 14292: 14237: 14230: 14225: 14220: 14215: 14210: 14205: 14198: 14193: 14178: 14174: 14170: 14166: 14162: 14158: 14136: 14132: 14128: 14122: 14117: 14101: 14097: 14093: 14089: 14027: 13960:Instrumental 13959: 13896: 13841:blindas, -is 13833: 13778: 13685: 13678: 13673: 13668: 13663: 13658: 13653: 13648: 13643: 13638: 13633: 13628: 13623: 13616: 13611: 13606: 13601: 13594: 13589: 13563: 13559: 13556: 13521:Instrumental 13520: 13481: 13442: 13403: 13380: 13341: 13334: 13329: 13324: 13319: 13311: 13309: 13303: 13301: 13286: 13257: 13253: 13249:Sievers' law 13246: 13231: 13207: 13199: 13179: 13175: 13167:Middle Indic 13163: 13134:Middle Indic 13111: 13108: 13072: 13068: 13062: 12910:is > jis 12646: 12641: 12633: 12629: 12625: 12621: 12617: 12613: 12594: 12583: 12579: 12577: 12572: 12568: 12556: 12538: 12524: 12518: 12513: 12509: 12505: 12486: 12476: 12472: 12468: 12464: 12462: 12457: 12453: 12449: 12445: 12441: 12437: 12433: 12429: 12425: 12421: 12417: 12413: 12409: 12405: 12401: 12397: 12393: 12389: 12385: 12381: 12377: 12373: 12369: 12362: 12358: 12354: 12350: 12346: 12342: 12338: 12334: 12330: 12326: 12322: 12318: 12314: 12308: 12304: 12300: 12296: 12292: 12286: 12281: 12277: 12273: 12269: 12265: 12261: 12257: 12253: 12249: 12245: 12241: 12237: 12233: 12229: 12225: 12221: 12220:Consonant + 12215: 12211: 12207: 12203: 12199: 12195: 12191: 12187: 12183: 12179: 12175: 12171: 12167: 12161: 12157: 12153: 12147: 12143: 12139: 12135: 12129: 12124: 12120: 12116: 12112: 12108: 12104: 12098: 12094: 12090: 12086: 12082: 12078: 12074: 12068: 12064: 12060: 12056: 12052: 12048: 12044: 12040: 12036: 12032: 12028: 12022: 12018: 12014: 12010: 12006: 12002: 11998: 11994: 11990: 11984: 11980: 11977:Phonotactics 11931: 11900: 11862:West Frisian 11857: 11849: 11845: 11841: 11837: 11833: 11829: 11825: 11821: 11811: 11784: 11780: 11776: 11755: 11746:(cf. Gothic 11699: 11695: 11689: 11675: 11670: 11668: 11655: 11643: 11639: 11628: 11624: 11620: 11618: 11571:Old English 11550: 11546: 11542: 11539: 11534: 11530: 11526: 11522: 11518: 11514: 11510: 11506: 11502: 11498: 11494: 11490: 11486: 11482: 11478: 11474: 11470: 11466: 11462: 11458: 11454: 11450: 11446: 11442: 11438: 11434: 11432: 11429:Nasal vowels 11421: 11417: 11413: 11402: 11365: 11323: 11319: 11307: 11303: 11295:'to plow' ← 11286: 11282: 11278: 11274: 11266: 11256: 11235:'ham', Goth 11220: 11213: 11209: 11205: 11201: 11197: 11195: 11178: 11174: 11170: 11166: 11149: 11145: 11141: 11126: 11122: 11121: 11116: 11112: 11104: 11100: 11096: 11092: 11088: 11084: 11080: 11076: 11072: 11068: 11064: 11060: 11056: 11054: 11047: 11036: 11032: 11028: 11024: 11020: 11016: 11012: 11009: 10999: 10995: 10991: 10987: 10982:differed in 10980: 10970: 10962: 10958: 10954: 10943: 10935: 10931: 10927: 10916: 10912: 10908: 10902: 10892: 10874: 10866: 10851: 10826:. Contrast: 10819: 10808: 10794: 10759: 10755: 10751: 10747: 10743: 10739: 10729: 10693:Old English 10675: 10660: 10656: 10654: 10640: 10636: 10628: 10615: 10580: 10569:, (possibly 10526: 10516: 10512: 10508: 10497: 10496:was lost in 10489: 10485: 10481: 10479: 10471:> Gothic 10448: 10444: 10440: 10436: 10432: 10418: 10410: 10406: 10402: 10398: 10394: 10390: 10386: 10382: 10378: 10374: 10372: 10314: 10064:Oral vowels 10055: 10041: 10033: 10015: 10010:*h₂ster-n-ós 10007: 9999: 9981: 9947:'id.' < * 9934:'star' < 9925: 9923: 9893:3p. singular 9876: 9836: 9829: 9825: 9820: 9816: 9810: 9805: 9801: 9784: 9775: 9746: 9627: 9587:'word' (not 9543:Modern Dutch 9500: 9464: 9460: 9448: 9428: 9412: 9399: 9375: 9360: 9338: 9326: 9318: 9301: 9297: 9293: 9289: 9285: 9281: 9277: 9273: 9269: 9265: 9261: 9257: 9256: 9165:labiovelars 8983: 8965: 8962:Verner's law 8940: 8936: 8932: 8928: 8924: 8916: 8881: 8574: 8563: 8559: 8548: 8544: 8540: 8536: 8532: 8528: 8527:and perhaps 8524: 8520: 8516: 8512: 8508: 8504: 8497: 8493: 8489: 8478: 8467: 8463: 8456: 8452: 8448: 8444: 8440: 8428: 8421: 8417: 8406: 8375: 8371: 8367: 8328: 8324: 8320: 8311: 8305: 8299: 8263: 8259: 8255: 8249: 8215: 8203: 8177: 8092: 8089: 8079:October 2017 8076: 8072:adding to it 8067: 7907:East Iranian 7904: 7835: 7831: 7827: 7823: 7819: 7808: 7804: 7800: 7796: 7765: 7756: 7726: 7708: 7681: 7673: 7636: 7621: 7606: 7579: 7502: 7428:menninkäinen 7376: 7362:Negau helmet 7339: 7303: 7281: 7259: 7228: 7199: 7175: 7071: 7049: 7014: 6992: 6974: 6956: 6948: 6940: 6925:'snow' > 6918: 6911:, sometimes 6898: 6845: 6837: 6815: 6793: 6784: 6763: 6755: 6747: 6688:'full' > 6681: 6617: 6609: 6601: 6593: 6575: 6541: 6533: 6511: 6510:elsewhere — 6469: 6461: 6446:'sand' > 6439: 6421: 6382: 6366: 6348: 6340: 6332: 6310: 6302: 6287: 6279: 6271: 6261: 6243: 6235: 6227: 6212: 6204: 6196: 6181: 6149: 6127: 6112: 6100: 6075: 6067: 6052: 6044: 6036: 6002: 5994: 5979: 5971: 5963: 5929: 5914: 5906: 5882: 5861: 5853: 5845: 5802: 5787: 5779: 5764: 5756: 5748: 5723: 5715: 5707: 5699: 5691: 5683: 5668: 5633: 5595: 5587: 5579: 5550: 5542: 5534: 5513: 5494: 5486: 5470: 5451: 5435: 5389: 5381: 5374:, were lost) 5346: 5338: 5330: 5322: 5307: 5299: 5298:'I am' > 5291: 5283: 5266: 5258: 5250: 5235: 5227: 5219: 5196: 5188: 5180: 5155: 5147: 5139: 5131: 5107: 5099: 5091: 5067: 5059: 5058:'over' > 5051: 5038:Verner's law 5036: 5012: 5004: 4974: 4966: 4935: 4927: 4897: 4889: 4850: 4842: 4812: 4804: 4803:'work' > 4796: 4766: 4765:'what' > 4758: 4743: 4735: 4704: 4696: 4659: 4651: 4643: 4601: 4593: 4585: 4542: 4534: 4526: 4450: 4449:'what' > 4442: 4406: 4398: 4390: 4375: 4367: 4331: 4330:'that' > 4323: 4287: 4279: 4243: 4214: 4206: 4198: 4190: 4172: 4164: 4147: 4139: 4104: 4083: 4077: 4069: 4046: 4038: 4030: 4022: 4014: 3991: 3983: 3975: 3967: 3959: 3937: 3929: 3921: 3900:) or before 3885: 3867: 3859: 3851: 3841: 3822: 3821:'sand' > 3814: 3799: 3791: 3774: 3755: 3747: 3739: 3708: 3683: 3665: 3657: 3649: 3641: 3633: 3610: 3580: 3572: 3554: 3546: 3521: 3503: 3495: 3491: 3471: 3463: 3455: 3447: 3439: 3417: 3409: 3401: 3393: 3362: 3342: 3341:'worm' > 3334: 3306: 3305:'wolf' > 3298: 3269: 3261: 3233: 3225: 3192: 3152: 3144: 3116: 3115:'work' > 3108: 3080: 3072: 3054: 3034: 3026: 2998: 2990: 2961: 2953: 2922: 2914: 2890: 2882: 2869: 2855: 2827:(Istvaeonic) 2817:(Ingvaeonic) 2785: 2780: 2771:, 'knows'. 2765:> Gothic 2757: 2753:pitch-accent 2749:Verner's law 2739: 2732: 2728: 2704: 2687: 2656:Gothic Bible 2641: 2626: 2576: 2565: 2553: 2551: 2512: 2376: 2369:Roman Empire 2365:Negau helmet 2346: 2327: 2312: 2277: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2248: 2206: 2199: 2192: 2185: 2178: 2172:Publications 2171: 2157: 2138: 2092: 1975: 1969: 1963: 1957:Paleo-Balkan 1947: 1946: 1934: 1933: 1875: 1874: 1830: 1829: 1817: 1787: 1770:Greater Iran 1763: 1762: 1751: 1750: 1714: 1713: 1701: 1700: 1643:Paleo-Balkan 1608:Celtiberians 1587: 1586: 1569: 1568: 1556: 1555: 1543: 1542: 1471: 1470: 1458: 1457: 1435: 1434: 1422: 1421: 1391: 1390: 1333: 1332: 1310: 1309: 1272: 1271: 1234: 1233: 1209: 1208: 1196: 1195: 1183: 1182: 1124:Bug–Dniester 1088: 1087: 953:Gothic Bible 869:Proto-Baltic 865:Proto-Slavic 850:Proto-Italic 846:Proto-Celtic 831: 809: 764: 752:Italo-Celtic 747:Indo-Hittite 737:Graeco-Aryan 710:Hypothetical 709: 674: 609:Paleo-Balkan 591: 548:Indo-Iranian 503:Balto-Slavic 476: 366: 252: 236: 222:ISO 639 code 218:}} 212:{{ 208:}} 202:{{ 198:}} 192:{{ 187: 157: 148: 138: 131: 124: 117: 105: 93:Please help 88:verification 85: 61: 54: 48: 47:Please help 44: 18:Old Germanic 19870:Old English 19684:Kluge's law 19664:Grimm's law 19447:Dalecarlian 19426:Perkerdansk 19399:East Danish 19217:Old Gutnish 19193:Proto-Norse 19133:Langobardic 19125:Vogtlandian 18953:Upper Saxon 18807:Lachoudisch 18768:Lotegorisch 18646:High German 18392:Westphalian 18387:Eastphalian 18351:Achterhooks 18228:Hindeloopen 18163:Bökingharde 18132:Föhr–Amrum 18046:Old Frisian 18010:Early Scots 17945:Old English 17532:(1): 72–82. 16980:, p. . 16671:, Bavarian 16257:Polomé 1992 15898:: 245–254. 15874:Orel (2003) 15556:Accusative 15509:Nominative 15399:Infinitive 14901:Imperative 14895:Indicative 14821:fra-werþaną 14024:Determiners 13572:Old English 13450:wulfas, -is 13357:wulfōz, -ōs 13065:Proto-Norse 13037:aus (=ɔ̄s) 12565:Old English 12521:Proto-Norse 12166:Geminates: 11768:'vex' < 11678:Proto-Norse 11289:; e.g. OHG 11200:(secondary 10967:Stang's law 10940:Stang's law 10865:← pre-Gmc * 10844:← pre-Gmc * 10837:'wolves' ← 10018:-verb 3sg. 9984:-stem nom. 9973:'id.' < 9918:C_G-unanþi 9819:-stems and 9813:Kluge's law 9684:and before 9624:Labiovelars 9565:was after 9425:Trask says: 9382:> PGmc. 9367:> PGmc. 9333:High German 9321:High German 9280:'star' and 8968:chain shift 8958:Grimm's law 8822:Approximant 8298:to produce 8228:superstrate 8130:, Estonian 7891:tūnaz, tūną 7859:'hostage', 7845:'servant', 7346:'god' > 7310:'new' > 6800:'ten' > 6723:Proto-Samic 6604:*tn̥h₂éwih₂ 6432:Unstressed 6262:Word-final 6234:'ten' > 6113:Word-final 5669:Unstressed 5566:Unstressed 5514:Unstressed 5471:Unstressed 5436:Unstressed 5407:*gʷʰédʰyeti 5222:*h₁régʷeses 5134:*h₂yuHn̥ḱós 4949:'judgement' 4245:Grimm's law 4171:'and' > 3203:before the 2837:(Irminonic) 2805:Proto-Norse 2745:Jacob Grimm 2667:persecution 2652:Proto-Norse 2594:Upper Rhine 2539:Proto-Norse 2531:Grimm's law 2517:during the 2315:Grimm's law 2302:(including 2050:Continental 2043:Anglo-Saxon 1746:Middle Ages 1696:Middle Ages 1551:Indo-Aryans 1544:Indo-Aryans 1351:Bell Beaker 1346:Corded ware 1242:Corded ware 1131:Sredny Stog 1076:Archaeology 856:Proto-Greek 836:Proto-Norse 416:Scandinavia 402:Map of the 393:characters. 342:Proto-Norse 20103:Categories 20005:Consonants 19980:Diphthongs 19890:West Saxon 19516:Burgundian 19432:Old Danish 19421:Gøtudanskt 19404:Bornholmsk 19266:Vestlandsk 19246:Kebabnorsk 18983:Halcnovian 18948:Thuringian 18611:Limburgish 18581:Stadsfries 18554:Brabantian 18281:Low German 18127:Eiderstedt 17982:Fingallian 17516:: 106–112. 17377:Ringe 2006 17365:Ringe 2006 17336:2010-12-04 17247:2011-01-22 17202:Ringe 2006 17190:Ringe 2017 17178:Ringe 2017 17166:Ringe 2017 17154:Ringe 2017 17142:Ringe 2006 17130:Ringe 2006 16990:Ringe 2006 16978:Ringe 2006 16966:Ringe 2006 16817:2014-05-28 16775:Ringe 2006 16763:Ringe 2006 16749:2017-04-04 16551:Ringe 2006 16377:2016-10-13 16337:Ringe, Don 16284:Ringe 2006 16269:Ringe 2006 16208:Ringe 2006 15961:References 15797:Ingaevones 15088:nemaindau? 14847:'and' and 14708:frawerþaną 14699:brannijaną 14635:-éi̯e/éi̯o 14623:-éi̯e/éi̯o 14611:-éi̯e/éi̯o 14422:See also: 14293:Accusative 14238:Nominative 14007:blindammiz 13983:blindaimiz 13944:blindammaz 13920:blindaimaz 13912:blindaizōi 13904:blindammai 13857:blindaizǫ̂ 13849:blindaizōz 13826:blindōnunz 13818:blindanunz 13779:Accusative 13765:*blindōnō 13686:Nominative 13553:Adjectives 13404:Accusative 13342:Nominative 13099:Morphology 13083:Tune stone 12927:eis (=īs) 12653:Ending(s) 11582:-u > — 11565:Old Norse 11437:(from PIE 11043:still has 10707:-u > Ø 10690:Old Norse 10523:Diphthongs 10425:(that is, 10002:*h₂stér-ōn 9908:3p. plural 9882:-presents 9850:nominative 9754:'to see', 9550:homorganic 9537:and other 9455:gemination 9415:allophones 9409:Allophones 9363:*bʰréh₂tēr 9329:Low German 8578:allophones 8571:Consonants 8553:Ringe 2006 7986:'house'), 7973:'shirt'), 7898:and early 7873:'healer', 7721:, causing 7684:*sth₂yónti 7521:'in' > 7231:i-mutation 6943:*kʷekʷléh₂ 6921:*snóygʷʰos 6620:*tn̥h₂wíh₂ 6472:*takəyónti 6442:*sámh₂dʰos 6385:*dʰédʰeh₁m 6373:is lowered 5848:*gʰósteyes 5694:*légʰyonti 5183:*kʷekʷléh₂ 4197:'us' > 3817:*sámh₂dʰos 3579:'is' > 3542:laryngeals 3529:allophones 3194:Epenthesis 2873:Ringe 2006 2864:See also: 2714:tree model 2462:The early 2351:using the 2158:Institutes 2078:Lithuanian 1832:Indo-Aryan 1818:Historical 1752:Indo-Aryan 1709:Tocharians 1623:Cimmerians 1501:Bronze Age 1392:South Asia 1266:Bronze Age 1204:Afanasievo 1008:Mainstream 772:Vocabulary 692:Sound laws 554:Indo-Aryan 344:(attested) 239:April 2020 151:March 2021 121:newspapers 50:improve it 20046:Rhoticity 20026:-dropping 19796:varieties 19788:indicate 19602:Northwest 19547:Philology 19452:Elfdalian 19387:Jutlandic 19309:Icelandic 19284:(written) 19278:(written) 19256:Trøndersk 19236:Norwegian 19200:Old Norse 19021:Coloniero 19005:Alemannic 18978:Wymysorys 18846:Colognian 18841:Ripuarian 18763:Rotwelsch 18593:Midslands 18544:Zeelandic 18525:Hollandic 18499:Afrikaans 18471:Old Dutch 18297:Old Saxon 18196:Karrharde 18178:Goesharde 18159:Mainland 17892:philology 17719:3 January 17607:. Leiden 17287:(1): 53. 17081:. Winter. 17028:cite book 16677:, Gothic 16651:Orel 2003 16463:163783497 16035:See e.g. 15947:alveolars 15811:Neolithic 15607:*inkweraz 15592:Genitive 15498:Masculine 15489:Masculine 15378:3rd plur 15357:2nd plur 15336:1st plur 15313:2nd dual 15291:1st dual 15270:3rd sing 15249:2nd sing 15214:1st sing 15182:3rd plur 15153:2nd plur 15129:1st plur 15098:2nd dual 15057:1st dual 15042:nemaidau? 15012:3rd sing 14997:nemaizau? 14967:2nd sing 14926:1st sing 14806:laizijaną 14790:grōtijaną 14683:baugijaną 14667:raizijaną 14651:baitijaną 14595:denominal 14588:Icelandic 14580:Old Norse 14497:Afrikaans 14454:deflexion 14221:Masculine 14206:Masculine 14116:(lacking 14015:blindōmiz 13975:blindaizō 13952:blindōmaz 13889:blindōnǫ̂ 13881:blindanǫ̂ 13873:blindōniz 13865:blindiniz 13771:blindōniz 13760:blindaniz 13701:blinda-tō 13669:Masculine 13654:Masculine 13639:Masculine 13624:Masculine 13310:Nouns in 13302:Nouns in 12893:i > ī 12853:e > i 12796:o > u 12793:o > u 12357:(however 12134:Dental + 12111:+ nasal: 11969:*bringaną 11852:. Hence: 11789:Elfdalian 11787:. Modern 11682:Old Norse 11368:misdʰ-eh₂ 11350:) ← PGmc 11252:pēi-s-eh₂ 11041:Salic law 10969:) ← PIE * 10942:) ← PIE * 10854:wĺ̥kʷoHom 10776:→ Gothic 10766:salbōjaną 10736:laryngeal 10551:) before 10029:gubunanþi 9998:< PIE 9903:C_CC-ōþi 8739:Fricative 8331:(perhaps 8292:graphemes 8234:Phonology 8206:substrate 8204:The term 8101:druhtinaz 8030:Scythians 8025:vərəštuua 7993:'cloak', 7934:'flax'), 7918:Khotanese 7896:Hallstatt 7532:séngʷʰeti 7017:*swéh₂dus 6995:*dʰóh₁mos 6684:*pl̥h₁nós 6544:*takəyéti 6480:þagəyanþi 5997:*swéh₂dus 5966:*dʰóh₁mos 5928:'guest'; 5856:*gostiyiz 5801:'early'; 5726:*legyondi 5710:*legyondi 5686:*légʰyeti 5640:'I' > 5413:*gʷédyedi 5269:*hʷéhʷloz 5261:*hʷéhʷlos 5253:*kʷékʷlos 5238:*rékʷezez 5230:*rékʷeses 5199:*hʷegʷlā́ 5191:*hʷehʷlā́ 5007:*sóngʷʰos 4930:*dʰóh₁mos 4738:*h₁dóntm̥ 4557:'captive' 4033:*gʷʰuntís 4025:*gʷʰn̥tís 4017:*gʷʰéntis 3970:*gʷm̥téys 3825:*sámədʰos 3549:*h₁dóntm̥ 3485:'command' 3458:*káydstis 3450:*káyd-tis 3431:'certain' 3208:sonorants 3155:*gʰh₁yéti 3147:*ǵʰh₁yéti 3037:*bʰlóh₃mō 3029:*bʰléh₃mō 2743:regarded 2706:Phylogeny 2701:Solutions 2684:Evolution 2660:Thervingi 2260:) is the 2093:Practices 1912:Yarsanism 1722:Albanians 1702:East Asia 1689:Scythians 1681:Phrygians 1674:Paeonians 1667:Illyrians 1653:Thracians 1570:East Asia 1521:Armenians 1448:Hallstatt 1430:Chernoles 1371:Terramare 1361:Trzciniec 1328:Sintashta 1323:Andronovo 1224:Cernavodă 1197:East Asia 1152:Khvalynsk 892:Philology 802:Particles 688:Phonology 629:Liburnian 604:Tocharian 599:Anatolian 568:Nuristani 461:Languages 56:talk page 20071:stopping 20066:fronting 20018:Flapping 20013:Clusters 19523:Vandalic 19466:Gutnish 19271:Vikværsk 19251:Sognamål 19241:Bergensk 19091:Cimbrian 19059:Bavarian 19016:Alsatian 18963:Lusatian 18899:Palatine 18589:Amelands 18466:Frankish 18356:Sallaans 18338:Gronings 18189:Southern 18182:Northern 18173:Halligen 18122:Insular 17939:dialects 17825:Archived 17694:(2006). 17458:(1959). 17390:Language 17307:But see 16826:cite web 16587:Language 16478:Language 16400:Language 16042:Language 16040:(1984). 15892:Language 15746:See also 15732:English 15610:*izweraz 15601:*unseraz 15598:*unkeraz 15501:Feminine 15492:Feminine 15481:Singular 15472:Singular 15463:Singular 15440:Pronouns 15418:nemandaz 15204:nemandau 15122:nemadiz? 15113:nemaidiz 15072:nemandai 14923:Present 14915:Passive 14909:Passive 14871:), e.g. 14865:Sanskrit 14763:fōrijaną 14692:brinnaną 14599:deverbal 14570:optative 14563:optative 14450:Sanskrit 14324:Genitive 14231:Feminine 14216:Feminine 14194:Singular 14082:, neut. 13999:blindōnē 13991:blindinē 13967:blindanō 13936:blindōni 13928:blindini 13834:Genitive 13810:blindōnų 13802:blindanų 13794:blindanz 13786:blindanǭ 13746:*blindô 13679:Feminine 13664:Feminine 13649:Feminine 13634:Feminine 13612:Singular 13602:Singular 13544:gastimiz 13536:wulfamiz 13513:gastimaz 13497:wulfamaz 13474:gastijǫ̂ 13443:Genitive 13381:Vocative 13330:Singular 13320:Singular 13154:Sanskrit 13142:Sanskrit 13122:Sanskrit 13088:Holtijaz 11963:branhtaz 11934:, WFris 11856:English 11739:< PG 11718:< PG 11654:) while 11259:(s)peh₁i 10986:, i.e., 10895:wĺ̥kʷoes 10784:prosodic 10732:morpheme 10474:Rumoneis 10421:Rumoneis 10265:Open-mid 9938:sterran- 9867:C_CC-az 9864:C_C-n-ós 9861:genitive 9808:-verbs. 9728:'snow', 9721:'warm', 9703:grindaną 9648:singwaną 9632:The PIE 9378:*meh₂tḗr 9059:dentals 9006:labials 8972:plosives 8603:Alveolar 8593:Bilabial 8146:kuningas 8140:kuningaz 8107:ruhtinas 7964:kurtilaz 7944:xumællæg 7927:Ossetian 7880:'lead', 7866:'iron', 7842:ambahtaz 7795:), with 7729:*ḱónketi 7692:stayanþi 7657:'early' 7639:*h₂eyeri 7609:*-oyh₁m̥ 7546:singwidi 7539:sengʷidi 7442:minþingō 7435:menþingō 7425:Finnish 7402:Finnish 7284:*médʰyos 7262:*bʰéreti 7192:Finnish 7168:Finnish 7145:Finnish 6951:*hʷegʷlā 6929:snaygʷaz 6818:*bʰéroyd 6612:*tn̥h₂ús 6596:*ténh₂us 6552:þagəyiþi 6536:*takéh₁- 6494:þagjanþi 6487:þagyanþi 6464:*takéh₁- 6148:'then'; 5909:*gʰóstis 5875:'guests' 5838:becomes 5741:ligjanþi 5702:*legyidi 5419:*bédyedi 5333:*h₁senti 5325:*h₁sénti 5277:hwehwlaz 5246:rikwiziz 5218:> — 5178:> — 5129:> — 5094:*tewtéh₂ 5089:> — 5049:> — 5015:*sóngʷos 4892:*bʰéreti 4853:*kʷémeþi 4845:*gʷémeti 4646:*nokʷtm̥ 4529:*kh₂ptós 4054:'battle' 4041:*gʰuntís 3978:*gʷumtís 3962:*gʷémtis 3888:next to 3466:*káyssis 3441:Geminate 3412:*witstós 3404:*widstos 3396:*wid-tós 3309:*wúlkʷos 3301:*wĺ̥kʷos 3205:syllabic 2964:*mah₂tḗr 2956:*meh₂tḗr 2675:Frankish 2592:and the 2567:Urheimat 2554:Urheimat 2385:AD 90). 2378:Germania 2139:Scholars 2037:Germanic 2008:Scottish 1973:Thracian 1967:Illyrian 1961:Albanian 1949:European 1942:Armenian 1926:Ossetian 1920:Scythian 1905:Yazidism 1855:Buddhism 1846:Hinduism 1737:Norsemen 1647:Anatolia 1564:Iranians 1557:Iranians 1538:Iron Age 1513:Hittites 1466:Colchian 1459:Caucasus 1417:Iron Age 1386:Lusatian 1381:Urnfield 1305:Srubnaya 1300:Poltavka 1290:Catacomb 1229:Cucuteni 1184:Caucasus 1001:Religion 986:Homeland 928:Behistun 908:Linear B 797:Numerals 792:Pronouns 717:Balkanic 664:Thracian 657:Phrygian 650:Paeonian 636:Messapic 622:Illyrian 534:Hellenic 529:Germanic 498:Armenian 490:Albanian 484:Albanoid 435:a series 433:Part of 318:ancestor 19880:Mercian 19875:Kentish 19786:Italics 19409:Scanian 19355:Swedish 19304:Faroese 19282:Nynorsk 19261:Valdris 19096:Mòcheno 19052:Swabian 18918:Hessian 18878:Hunsrik 18790:Western 18785:Eastern 18780:Yiddish 18730:creoles 18627:Bergish 18343:Drèents 18333:Tweants 18185:Central 18167:Mooring 18030:Frisian 17989:Kildare 17934:English 17440:Sources 16683:'coat'. 16574:: 9–55. 16455:1261448 15978:(ed.). 15951:dorsals 15943:dentals 15816:or the 15695:a fable 15642:*inkwiz 15627:Dative 15504:Neuter 15484:Plural 15431:numanaz 15328:nēmīdiz 15319:nēmudiz 15238:nēmį̄?? 15234:(?; or 15188:nemandi 15135:nemamaz 15104:nemadiz 15050:nemadau 15026:nemadai 14981:nemazai 14918:Active 14912:Active 14906:Active 14856:dis-sat 14828:werþaną 14815:preverb 14783:grētaną 14770:farjaną 14747:lagjaną 14740:ligjaną 14731:nazjaną 14676:beuganą 14613:to the 14584:Faroese 14558:wiljaną 14506:" and " 14154:þeim-si 14151:, dat. 14145:, gen. 14076:, dat. 13733:blindôz 13717:blindai 13693:blindaz 13435:gastinz 13419:wulfanz 13091:in the 13067:, e.g. 12624:, but * 12547:on the 12544:gestumz 12533:on the 11956:brą̄htæ 11949:brōchte 11932:brought 11783:before 11743:junhizô 11736:jų̄hizô 11662:(later 11658:became 11650:(later 11646:became 11607:-a, -u 11585:-u / — 11562:Gothic 11457:, long 11364:← PIE * 11344:, Goth 11326:: OEng 11299:arjanan 11255:← PIE * 11185:runes, 11133:(PGmc. 10915:← PIE * 10873:← PIE * 10850:← PIE * 10847:wúlpōom 10822:h₂éḱ-mō 10818:← PIE * 10773:salbôną 10710:-u / Ø 10687:Gothic 10589:before 10531:Short: 10517:teacher 10504:-ārijaz 10468:Rūmōnīz 10461:Rūmānīz 10428:Rūmōnīs 10315:Notes: 10230:overl. 10099:overl. 10090:overl. 10025:, 3pl. 10022:guppōþi 10014:and an 9995:sterraz 9991:, gen. 9977:guppōn- 9951:steran- 9931:steorra 9926:grading 9896:C_C-néh 9853:C_́C-ōn 9839:-stems 9751:sehwaną 9725:snaiwaz 9699:'god', 9677:sangwaz 9451:letters 9112:velars 8882:Notes: 8618:Labial– 8608:Palatal 8294:with a 8225:Semitic 8121:hringaz 8117:(later 8114:hrengaz 8019:wurstwą 8015:), and 8009:, gen. 8002:Avestan 7913:hanapiz 7900:La Tène 7870:lēkijaz 7737:hanhidi 7676:*steh₂- 7569:hringaz 7565:(later 7562:hrengaz 7486:(later 7467:þikkwiz 7460:þekkwiz 7453:deahkki 7438:(later 7415:(later 7379:*tréyes 7364:) > 7360:in the 7350:teiwaz- 7342:*deywós 7306:*néwios 7139:sōkija- 7135:(later 7132:sākija- 7121:Finnish 7111:Rūmōnīz 7104:Rūmānīz 7074:*-eh₂es 7052:*séh₁mō 6959:*hʷewlā 6936:snaiwaz 6848:*mélit- 6796:*déḱm̥d 6750:*h₁esmi 6566:þagaiþi 6559:þagəiþi 6514:*ph₂tḗr 6450:samədaz 6268:is lost 6246:*tehunt 6238:*tehumt 6230:*déḱm̥d 6215:*hundan 6207:*humdan 6199:*ḱm̥tóm 6070:*-eh₂es 6039:*séh₁mō 6005:*swātuz 5932:*kápros 5917:*gostiz 5864:*gostīz 5805:*tréyes 5759:*-oyint 5751:*-oyend 5718:*legidi 5617:before 5537:*-éteh₂ 5425:*bidiþi 5294:*h₁esmi 5286:*h₁ésmi 5158:*yungós 5150:*yunhós 5142:*yunkós 5110:*þewdā́ 5102:*þewþā́ 5023:sangwaz 4900:*béreþi 4861:kwimidi 4815:*wérkom 4807:*wérgom 4799:*wérǵom 4746:*tónþum 4699:*h₂ébōl 4662:*nohtum 4654:*noktum 4545:*həftós 4537:*kəptós 4491:remain. 4393:*h₂eǵs- 4282:*ph₂tḗr 3986:*gumtís 3924:*nókʷts 3794:*ph₂tḗr 3750:*n̥h₃wé 3742:*n̥h₃mé 3660:*-eh₂es 3613:*séh₁mō 3575:*h₁ésti 3557:*dóntum 3506:*séh₁mô 3498:*séh₁mō 3474:*káysis 3462:) > 3420:*wissós 3408:) > 3345:*wúrmis 3337:*wŕ̥mis 3283:'among' 3236:*kumtóm 3228:*ḱm̥tóm 3119:*wérgom 3111:*wérǵom 3083:*km̥tóm 3075:*ḱm̥tóm 2925:*h₂ánti 2917:*h₂énti 2631:to the 2606:Vistula 2494: 2483: 2474: 2452: 1 2373:Tacitus 2304:English 2296:contact 2271:of the 2267:of the 2071:Latvian 2029:Cornish 1899:Kurdish 1885:Persian 1877:Iranian 1869:Sikhism 1862:Jainism 1825:Hittite 1764:Iranian 1660:Dacians 1453:Jastorf 1376:Tumulus 1356:Únětice 1285:Yamnaya 1280:Chariot 1218:Usatovo 1159:Yamnaya 996:Society 980:Origins 913:Rigveda 765:Grammar 592:Extinct 582:Romance 561:Iranian 422:of the 387:Unicode 310:–200 AD 231:See why 135:scholar 19939:Vowels 19502:Gothic 19372:Danish 19276:Bokmål 18775:Yenish 18585:Bildts 18368:Veluws 18363:Urkers 18202:Strand 17926:Anglic 17774: 17755: 17736: 17710: 17672: 17619: 17586: 17571: 17481: 17425: 16949: 16924: 16899: 16874: 16740: 16607:409353 16605: 16521: 16498:411849 16496: 16461: 16453: 16420:411250 16418: 16372:162958 16370: 16228: 16173: 16142: 16107: 16082: 16048: 16019: 15986: 15926: 15912:408831 15910: 15791:Mannus 15782:framea 15693:wrote 15674:*imiz 15657:*imaz 15654:*immai 15648:*immai 15645:*izwiz 15636:*unsiz 15633:*unkiz 15622:*ezǫ̂ 15604:*þīnaz 15595:*mīnaz 15578:*izwiz 15495:Neuter 15478:Plural 15469:Plural 15405:nemaną 15231:nēmijų 15196:nemain 15167:nemaid 15143:nemaim 15080:nemaiw 15018:nimidi 14989:nemaiz 14973:nimizi 14954:nema-ų 14946:nemai? 14940:nemôi? 14884:nemaną 14833:clitic 14756:faraną 14724:nesaną 14660:rīsaną 14644:bītaną 14619:-j/ij- 14565:mood. 14512:ablaut 14504:strong 14484:/bʱuː/ 14430:, and 14409:þaimiz 14378:þaimaz 14370:þaizōi 14362:þammai 14355:Dative 14347:þaizǫ̂ 14339:þaizōz 14226:Neuter 14211:Neuter 14199:Plural 14148:þes-si 14100:(with 13897:Dative 13752:blindǭ 13741:blindô 13725:blindō 13709:blindō 13674:Neuter 13659:Neuter 13644:Neuter 13629:Neuter 13617:Plural 13607:Plural 13576:Gothic 13568:German 13560:strong 13489:wulfai 13482:Dative 13466:gastīz 13458:wulfǫ̂ 13373:gastīz 13365:gastiz 13349:wulfaz 13335:Plural 13325:Plural 13290:German 13186:plural 13184:, and 13152:, and 13073:*-ijaz 12632:> * 12628:> * 12620:> * 12597:(< 12586:(< 12553:Gothic 11943:brōhte 11937:brocht 11925:*tanþs 11749:jūhiza 11722:hanhaz 11715:hą̄haz 11409:'this' 11381:, OHG 11332:, OHG 11191:Eihwaz 11181:-like 10973:-eh₂ns 10888:wulfôz 10877:-eh₂es 10841:wulfôn 10834:wulfǫ̂ 10797:h₃ér-ō 10779:salbōn 10667:hwadrê 10624:niwjaz 10561:Long: 10480:A new 10454:Rōmānī 10413:Rōmānī 10389:; PIE 10361:, and 10341:, and 10224:short 10218:short 10093:short 10084:short 10052:Vowels 9970:gupfen 9964:gubōn- 9911:C_C-nh 9856:C_C-ō 9793:Finnic 9718:warmaz 9714:(e.g. 9692:(e.g. 9655:sungun 9577:after 9509:, and 9371:brōþēr 9357:accent 9278:stella 9276:) has 9264:, and 8598:Dental 8475:ogonek 8221:Basque 8172:lunnas 8159:lammas 8153:lambaz 8133:rõngas 8127:rengas 8040:marhaz 7970:kʷəræt 7931:gæn(æ) 7863:īsarną 7856:gīslaz 7849:brunjǭ 7820:Volcae 7815:walhaz 7768:Celtic 7699:stānþi 7555:rengas 7476:jievja 7357:teiva- 7321:niwjaz 7314:newyaz 7299:midjaz 7292:medyaz 7277:biridi 7270:beridi 7229:Early 7202:*lēgā- 7178:*kāpa- 7162:skrahō 7155:skrahā 7097:Rōmānī 7032:swōtuz 7025:swātuz 6967:hweulō 6891:milid- 6877:melid- 6863:melid- 6840:*mélid 6826:berayt 6804:tehunt 6706:fullaz 6699:fullos 6692:fulnos 6656:þunnuz 6457:samdaz 6367:Nasal 6335:*-oHom 6305:*-eh₂m 6104:umlaut 6035:(â) — 6013:swōtuz 5982:*dāmaz 5974:*dōmoz 5940:hafraz 5925:gastiz 5872:gastīz 5813:þreyiz 5790:*ayiri 5782:*áyeri 5767:*-oint 5734:ligiþi 5454:*-owos 5349:*sendi 5341:*senþi 5207:hweulō 5166:jungaz 5070:*ubéri 5062:*uféri 5054:*upéri 5026:'song' 4969:*gʰáns 4938:*dṓmos 4908:biridi 4626:/gʷʰt/ 4604:*ohtṓw 4596:*oktṓw 4588:*oḱtṓw 4553:haftaz 4485:, and 4378:*háþus 4370:*kátus 4290:*fəþḗr 4209:*unswé 4201:*n̥swé 4193:*n̥smé 4142:*tósyo 4107:*wóyde 4050:gunþiz 3995:kumþiz 3932:*nókts 3870:*ékʷos 3862:*ékwos 3854:*éḱwos 3833:samdaz 3802:*pətḗr 3758:*ungwé 3636:*-oHom 3629:hiatus 3482:haisiz 3428:wissaz 3353:wurmiz 3317:wulfaz 3272:*untér 3264:*n̥tér 3001:*h₃órō 2993:*h₃érō 2849:Gothic 2843: 2841: 2833: 2831: 2823: 2821: 2813: 2811: 2799: 2797: 2762:wóyd-e 2671:Moesia 2633:Dniepr 2618:Slavic 2590:Danube 2502: 2491: 2481: 2471: 2444: 2433: 2422: 2411: 2403:Celtic 2086:Slavic 2065:Baltic 2015:Breton 1995:Celtic 1979:Dacian 1935:Others 1715:Europe 1588:Europe 1582:Yuezhi 1436:Europe 1423:Steppe 1334:Europe 1191:Maykop 1145:Samara 1101:Kurgan 918:Avesta 700:Ablaut 696:Accent 643:Mysian 615:Dacian 576:Italic 524:Celtic 516:Slavic 509:Baltic 477:Extant 291:Region 137: 130: 123: 116: 108: 19616:South 19567:North 19177:North 19161:North 18503:Kaaps 18494:Dutch 18141:Amrum 18082:Weser 18004:Scots 17834:Table 17241:(PDF) 17234:(PDF) 16811:(PDF) 16804:(PDF) 16730:(PDF) 16680:paida 16674:Pfoad 16668:pfeit 16603:JSTOR 16494:JSTOR 16459:S2CID 16451:JSTOR 16416:JSTOR 16368:S2CID 16348:(PDF) 16076:69–70 15908:JSTOR 15768:Notes 15762:Suebi 15723:* 15709:* 15651:*ezōi 15616:*ezōz 15587:*inz 15575:*inkw 15551:*ijō 15548:*ijōz 15429:* 15416:* 15403:* 15392:nēmīn 15390:* 15384:nēmun 15382:* 15371:nēmīd 15369:* 15363:nēmud 15361:* 15350:nēmīm 15348:* 15342:nēmum 15340:* 15326:* 15317:* 15306:nēmīw 15304:* 15295:* 15282:* 15274:* 15263:nēmīz 15261:* 15253:* 15236:* 15229:* 15218:* 15211:Past 15202:* 15194:* 15186:* 15175:nimid 15173:* 15165:* 15159:nimid 15157:* 15141:* 15133:* 15120:* 15111:* 15102:* 15086:* 15078:* 15070:* 15063:nemōz 15061:* 15048:* 15040:* 15034:nemai 15032:* 15024:* 15016:* 15003:* 14995:* 14987:* 14979:* 14971:* 14952:* 14944:* 14938:* 14930:* 14882:* 14869:Latin 14826:* 14819:* 14804:* 14797:* 14788:* 14781:* 14768:* 14761:* 14754:* 14745:* 14738:* 14729:* 14722:* 14713:* 14706:* 14697:* 14690:* 14681:* 14674:* 14665:* 14658:* 14649:* 14642:* 14556:* 14525:*dʰeH 14442:Latin 14438:Greek 14418:Verbs 14407:* 14401:þaizō 14399:* 14393:þana? 14391:* 14376:* 14368:* 14360:* 14345:* 14337:* 14329:* 14314:* 14306:* 14298:* 14283:* 14275:* 14267:* 14259:* 14251:* 14243:* 14190:Case 14175:those 14171:these 14167:those 14163:these 14142:sa-si 14079:himma 14065:* 14058:* 14051:* 14044:* 14037:* 14030:* 14013:* 14005:* 13997:* 13989:* 13981:* 13973:* 13965:* 13950:* 13942:* 13934:* 13926:* 13918:* 13910:* 13902:* 13887:* 13879:* 13871:* 13863:* 13855:* 13847:* 13839:* 13824:* 13816:* 13808:* 13800:* 13792:* 13784:* 13769:* 13758:* 13750:* 13739:* 13731:* 13723:* 13715:* 13707:* 13699:* 13691:* 13586:Case 13542:* 13534:* 13528:wulfō 13526:* 13511:* 13505:gastī 13503:* 13495:* 13487:* 13472:* 13464:* 13456:* 13448:* 13433:* 13427:gastį 13425:* 13417:* 13411:wulfą 13409:* 13396:gasti 13394:* 13386:* 13371:* 13363:* 13355:* 13347:* 13298:Case 13283:Nouns 13150:Latin 13146:Greek 13138:Latin 13120:, or 13118:Latin 13114:Greek 12947:ijaz 12944:ijaz 12659:Goth 12626:-anaz 12601:-anaz 12599:* 12588:* 12530:horna 11961:* 11954:* 11917:* 11901:tooth 11894:*gans 11886:* 11858:goose 11777:weary 11770:* 11741:* 11734:* 11720:* 11713:* 11535:-unh- 11531:-inh- 11527:-anh- 11523:-ų̄h- 11519:-į̄h- 11515:-ą̄h- 11511:-unh- 11507:-anh- 11503:-inh- 11396:* 11389:* 11361:mizdō 11359:* 11354:mē₂dō 11352:* 11347:mizdō 11341:meord 11335:miata 11314:e-ar- 11312:* 11297:* 11292:erien 11273:with 11250:* 11245:fē₂rō 11243:* 11226:fiara 11187:Ehwaz 11160:* 11135:* 11046:malth 11005:moras 10946:-eh₂m 10886:* 10860:* 10839:* 10832:* 10815:aḱmō̃ 10813:* 10804:akmuõ 10788:* 10771:* 10764:* 10762:(cf. 10665:* 10622:* 10585:> 10575:/ɛːi/ 10571:/ɛːu/ 10567:/ɔːi/ 10563:/ɔːu/ 10513:baker 10502:* 10498:-aja- 10466:* 10464:> 10459:* 10457:> 10335:/ɑ̃ː/ 10236:Close 10227:long 10221:long 10207:Front 10203:Type 10146:eː~ɛː 10105:Close 10096:long 10087:long 10073:Front 10069:Type 10032:< 10027:* 10020:* 9993:* 9988:sterō 9986:* 9975:* 9962:* 9949:* 9944:stera 9936:* 9915:-énti 9789:Samic 9765:sēwīn 9763:* 9758:sēgun 9756:* 9749:* 9739:> 9732:neurô 9730:* 9723:* 9716:* 9701:* 9694:* 9675:* 9653:* 9646:* 9591:waurþ 9589:* 9584:waurd 9386:mōdēr 9384:* 9369:* 9244:> 9227:> 9214:> 9205:> 9196:> 9187:> 9179:> 9171:> 9151:> 9138:> 9129:> 9120:> 9098:> 9085:> 9076:> 9067:> 9045:> 9032:> 9023:> 9014:> 8856:Trill 8627:Nasal 8620:velar 8613:Velar 8589:Type 8482:/õːː/ 8166:lunaz 8164:* 8151:* 8138:* 8119:* 8112:* 8099:* 8038:* 8017:* 8012:pathō 8006:pantā 7997:paþaz 7995:* 7990:paidō 7988:* 7975:* 7962:* 7957:čapiš 7949:* 7936:* 7922:kaṃhā 7911:* 7909:came 7905:From 7889:* 7884:Rīnaz 7882:* 7877:laudą 7875:* 7868:* 7861:* 7854:* 7847:* 7840:* 7822:with 7813:* 7790:* 7783:* 7776:* 7742:* 7735:* 7697:* 7695:> 7690:* 7669:/ɑjɑ/ 7652:* 7650:> 7647:ayiri 7645:* 7630:* 7628:> 7624:*-ayų 7620:> 7617:-oyum 7615:* 7567:* 7560:* 7544:* 7542:> 7537:* 7530:* 7523:* 7508:> 7490:hiują 7488:* 7483:heują 7481:* 7465:* 7458:* 7440:* 7433:* 7419:þiljō 7417:* 7412:þeljō 7410:* 7405:teljo 7392:* 7390:> 7387:þreiz 7385:* 7368:Tīwaz 7366:* 7355:* 7348:* 7319:* 7317:> 7312:* 7297:* 7295:> 7290:* 7275:* 7273:> 7268:* 7240:> 7216:lieko 7210:lēgō- 7208:* 7195:lieka 7186:hōfa- 7184:* 7171:kavio 7160:* 7153:* 7137:* 7130:* 7125:hake- 7109:* 7102:* 7087:* 7085:> 7080:* 7065:* 7063:> 7058:* 7045:/ɔːː/ 7042:> 7039:/ɑːː/ 7030:* 7028:> 7023:* 7010:dōmaz 7008:* 7006:> 7003:dāmaz 7001:* 6985:> 6965:* 6963:> 6955:> 6934:* 6932:> 6927:* 6904:> 6889:* 6882:* 6880:> 6875:* 6868:* 6866:> 6861:* 6856:melit 6854:* 6833:berai 6831:* 6829:> 6824:* 6811:tehun 6809:* 6807:> 6802:* 6772:* 6770:> 6766:*emmi 6762:> 6758:*ezmi 6739:> 6728:polnē 6726:* 6721:> 6718:pulna 6716:* 6704:* 6702:> 6697:* 6695:> 6690:* 6673:> 6663:þunnī 6661:* 6654:* 6652:> 6649:þunnī 6647:* 6642:þunus 6640:* 6638:> 6635:þunwī 6633:* 6628:þunus 6626:* 6624:> 6608:> 6586:> 6564:* 6562:> 6557:* 6555:> 6550:* 6529:fadēr 6527:* 6525:> 6522:fədēr 6520:* 6504:> 6492:* 6490:> 6485:* 6483:> 6478:* 6455:* 6453:> 6448:* 6412:* 6410:> 6407:dedą̄ 6405:* 6403:> 6400:dedę̄ 6398:* 6396:> 6393:dedēn 6391:* 6378:/ɑ̃ː/ 6357:* 6355:> 6347:> 6326:* 6324:> 6319:* 6317:> 6309:> 6296:* 6294:> 6286:> 6254:tehun 6252:* 6250:> 6242:> 6223:hundą 6221:* 6219:> 6211:> 6187:> 6172:* 6170:> 6165:* 6163:> 6158:* 6143:* 6141:> 6136:* 6119:> 6084:* 6082:> 6061:* 6059:> 6055:*sēmâ 6051:> 6047:*sēmô 6032:/ɑːː/ 6029:> 6026:/aːː/ 6020:/oːː/ 6011:* 6009:> 5990:dōmaz 5988:* 5986:> 5978:> 5956:> 5938:* 5923:* 5921:> 5899:> 5870:* 5868:> 5860:> 5835:/iji/ 5825:* 5823:> 5820:þreiz 5818:* 5816:> 5811:* 5796:* 5794:> 5773:* 5771:> 5763:> 5739:* 5732:* 5730:> 5714:> 5675:> 5656:* 5649:* 5642:* 5636:*éǵh₂ 5604:* 5602:> 5594:> 5590:*-iys 5582:*-éys 5559:* 5557:> 5553:*-iþā 5549:> 5545:*-eþā 5520:> 5503:* 5501:> 5497:*-owz 5489:*-ews 5477:> 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