381:
into the DEA, FBI and domestic law enforcement roles, bringing with them their Cold War counterinsurgency outlook and tactics. Others established or joined existing companies to do exactly what OPS had been, but for lucrative private contracts; for example, two advisors joined
Vinnell Arabia which received an $ 80 million contract from Saudi Arabia to continue US training of its paramilitary National Guard. Venezuela and Nicaraguan governments also sought to continue training programs. Byron Engle became a consultant after his retirement in 1973, advising the Rhodesian government; Lauren Goin, who succeeded him as director for the last year of the program, formed his own company, Public Safety Services, Inc.
61:
did. He described them as more successful as a preventative measure than any other program, providing "the first line of defense against demonstrations, riots and local insurrections. Only when the situation gets out of hand (as in South
Vietnam) does the military have to be called in". Police were, as USAID director David Bell put it, "a most sensitive point of contact between the government and people, close to the focal points of unrest, and more acceptable than the army as keepers of order over long periods of time. The police are frequently better trained and equipped than the military to deal with minor forms of violence, conspiracy and subversion".
65:
concern over the optics of white
American soldiers killing non-white dissidents: “In countering insurgency, the major effort must be indigenous. . . . In internal war it is always better for one national to kill another than for a foreigner—especially one with a different skin coloration to do so".
345:
started criticizing the OPS's methods. The bomb-making course at Los
Fresnos was already highly controversial, and in 1970, Life magazine published a photo essay revealing the horrific conditions that prisoners of Con Son Island were kept in. The same year, the kidnapping and assassination of torture
47:
Police assistance projects overseas had been established by the
Eisenhower administration, but military intervention and covert action by the CIA was the primary method of addressing communist groups and other subversives in poor and recently decolonised countries. In the 1950s and 60s, covert action
43:
The OPS originated in the Public Safety program under the
International Cooperation Administration (ICA) in 1954. In 1962, when the ICA was replaced by the USAID, the program was reorganised under the new title of 'Office of Public Safety', consolidating various disparate overseas police training and
114:
The IPA trained senior police officers who would take the expertise and tactics home to train their subordinates. A major objective of the IPA was to cultivate these 'assets', instilling them with a degree of loyalty to the US which would theoretically make them a source of valuable information once
60:
to grow police assistance and make it the primary agent of counterinsurgency. Komer considered the police to be “more valuable than
Special Forces in our global counter-insurgency efforts” and more cost-effective in that they did not require the expensive equipment and weaponry that military forces
349:
Overseas police assistance had become a serious issue simultaneously for antiwar and anti-imperialist activists, Black radicals and the New Left. This vocal coalition, in addition to information from a
Brazilian opposition members about the US's role in human rights abuses in their country, spurred
123:
The OPS conducted a form of international knowledge exchange by recruiting ordinary US police officers for 'short-term tours of duty' on overseas police assistance projects. The LAPD (Los
Angeles Police Department) was a major source of such officers, partly because a significant proportion of them
380:
continued to transfer equipment to security forces in foreign countries. The
International Criminal Investigative Training Assistance Program (ICITAP) was set up in 1986 as an 'officially recognized' police assistance body, employing many OPS employees. Many ex-OPS 'technicians' and advisors moved
73:
The OPS operated in at least fifty-two countries in Asia, Africa and the Americas. One of its main functions was counterinsurgency, aiding governments in the suppression of communist groups. In total, it provided over $ 200M of USAID and CIA funds to recipient countries in weaponry, communications
77:
A total of 1500 advisers were deployed overseas, reaching over a million police officers. Alongside training, the OPS provided US-made equipment to overseas police forces, creating an aftermarket for upgrades and parts. Lauren "Jack" Goin set up forensics and fingerprinting labs in South Korea,
64:
International development programs could present the modernisation and expansion of security infrastructure as growing stability and preventing crime in these nations, without the bad optics of the CIA or the military. In a document drafted to launch the concept of the OPS, the USAID expressed
163:, the ICA's 1290-d program operated with a $ 600,000 budget to professionalise the country's police force which was undisciplined and poorly equipped. Officers received counterinsurgency training, and an investigations bureau was set up to more systematically root out subversives.
90:
The OPS-operated International Police Academy (IPA) was instituted in 1963, and provided training to 7500 senior officers from seventy-seven countries in total. Its first class included sixty-eight police officers from seventeen different nations. The officers were trained at the
311:
The OPS budget for Laos was $ 900,000 in 1965 and $ 1.1 million the following year, providing a laboratory, surveillance equipment, small arms, and ammunition. In 1968, riot control equipment - tear gas and projectiles - were provided. Eleven officers were trained at the IPA.
193:. Between 1969 and 1973, at least nineteen Uruguayan police officers were trained at the IPA and in Los Fresnos to be taught the handling of explosives. On several occasions, the pupils were not officers, but individuals affiliated with the Uruguayan right-wing.
346:
expert Dan Mitrione by Tupamaro guerrillas in Uruguay attracted much attention, fuelling existing accusations over the OPS's use of torture. Growing opposition to OPS activities resulted in a protest outside the IPA in November.
188:
from 1964, providing $ 2 million in equipment, arms and training to assist the government in suppressing the National Liberation Movement (also known as the Tupamaros). Training involved courses on explosives, assassination, and
74:
equipment and tactical equipment. Its other functions were to facilitate the planting of CIA operatives within police forces of at-risk regions, and to find suitable candidates within these foreign forces to enrol in the CIA.
1574:
200:
to use for teaching purposes, a claim corroborated by Cuban CIA operative Manuel Hevia Consculluela. Former CIA operative John Stockwell has written that their bodies would be left mutilated in the streets to induce fear.
320:
In 1973, the OPS provided Thailand's security forces with thousands of fragmentation grenades to strengthen its borders against potential insurgency in regions where relations with Laos and Malaysia were unstable.
171:
From 1971 until the OPS's termination, the Somoza regime received $ 81,000 worth of equipment including vehicles and radios from USAID to assist in rooting out "subversives", primarily the leftist anti-imperialist
81:
Police assistance proved to be far more cost-effective than military aid; excluding the immense South Vietnam project, the OPS's spending in 1968 was 5.8% of the military assistance budget for that year.
290:
OPS introduced stop-and-frisk and identity cards, allowing increased surveillance and enabling police to demonstrate power on a more intimate level with individuals through the process of card checks.
373:. Exceptions were made to the prohibition on foreign police assistance if the recipient country was providing the funding as opposed to the US government, and for the policing of narcotics.
270:
to take power. The OPS spent $ 5 million in Congo on building and staffing police training facilities, riot gear, communications equipment, and developing 'paramilitary mobile brigades'.
242:
In 1967, the OPS supplied weaponry, communications equipment and three aircraft to reinforce border security against Ethiopian forces, and built POCC facilities for civil unrest training.
1628:
369:(FAA) which banned provision by the US of training or assistance to foreign police. Many OPS missions were transferred to the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and the
56:
and international development programs as an alternative method of combating the spread of Communism, Kennedy was receptive to the efforts of national security advisor
807:
35:
that provided training, assistance and equipment to the security forces of U.S. allies. The program commenced in November 1962 and was terminated by Congress in 1974.
131:(AFNL). Officers were also sent to the Dominican Republic in the same year; there was significant popular unrest following the CIA-backed assassination of dictator
221:. The OPS helped Chile build Police Operations Control Center (POCC) facilities, which were highly advanced training rooms designed to aid in combating unrest.
303:. In 1963, the OPS provided $ 807,000 to build a police academy and a laboratory for forensics and photography, and trained six senior officers at the IPA.
128:
254:, the OPS established a $ 400,000 program, providing weapons and surveillance equipment to assist police in suppressing pro-Nkrumah and labour agitation.
32:
1643:
423:
284:
44:
assistance projects across the globe. Its director, CIA operative and police reformer Byron Engle, served from 1962 until his retirement in 1973.
1638:
1526:
1185:
983:
934:
555:
358:, head of the USAID and former president of Michigan State University, unsuccessfully tried to support the OPS by sending a letter to deputy
148:
The OPS program in Guatemala was the largest in Central America, with a $ 6 million budget and 32,000 police trained (370 at the IPA).
78:
Vietnam, Indonesia, the Dominican Republic and Brazil initially under the auspices of the 1290-d program and later under the OPS.
395:
601:"American Police Training and Political Violence: From the Philippines Conquest to the Killing Fields of Afghanistan and Iraq"
1502:
1161:
1126:
1038:
959:
910:
531:
1633:
173:
883:
755:
472:
333:, the OPS provided Jordan with $ 1.1 million to aid in fighting Palestinian guerrilla fighters and suppressing riots.
229:
The Public Safety program's budget for Bolivia was $ 1.75 million in 1956, the biggest in Latin America at the time.
127:
LAPD officers were sent to Venezuela in 1962 to train local police officers and assist them in repression against the
1210:
801:
152:
1648:
370:
159:, who had implemented unprecedented land and labour reforms. Supporting his right-wing authoritarian replacement
504:
418:
366:
1599:
218:
17:
848:
793:
283:
The OPS's most expensive and wide-ranging operation was based in South Vietnam. It took over from the
196:
The director of the Uruguayan police alleged that he had kidnapped homeless people for torture expert
1103:
493:
The Most Dangerous Area in the World: John F. Kennedy Confronts Communist Revolution in Latin America
299:
The OPS's primary objective in Cambodia was training paramilitary units to clamp down on the Maoist
262:
After collaborating with Belgium to assassinate the newly independent Congo's first prime minister,
413:
377:
213:
was elected in 1970, he dismantled the OPS program in Chile and dismissed IPA-trained officials.
390:
787:
496:
250:
After a 1966 CIA-backed coup to overthrow Ghana's first leader after achieving independence,
160:
1593:
Christian, Shirley (June 21), "Uruguayan Clears Up 'State of Siege' Killing", New York Times
342:
53:
49:
8:
1118:
Modernizing Repression : Police Training and Nation-Building in the American Century
1030:
Modernizing Repression : Police Training and Nation-Building in the American Century
92:
1583:
1083:
951:
Badges without borders : how global counterinsurgency transformed American policing
523:
Badges without borders : how global counterinsurgency transformed American policing
1520:
1179:
977:
928:
600:
549:
108:
104:
1153:
A question of torture : CIA interrogation, from the Cold War to the War on Terror
1604:
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1216:
1206:
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1157:
1132:
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1044:
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965:
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879:
797:
751:
537:
527:
500:
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438:
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to expose the OPS's illicit activities and call for an end to overseas police aid.
267:
214:
210:
96:
876:
Badges without Borders: How Global Counterinsurgency Transformed American Policing
465:
Badges without Borders: How Global Counterinsurgency Transformed American Policing
156:
488:
433:
263:
132:
1099:
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669:
355:
351:
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920:
541:
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was increasingly unsuccessful, the most infamous example being the disastrous
1622:
1512:
1171:
1136:
1048:
849:"The evolution of American policing, at home and abroad, in the Cold War era"
400:
251:
151:
Guatemala first received US police assistance in 1954 following a CIA-backed
1220:
99:
Until the early 1970s, selected candidates could also receive training from
949:
900:
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521:
359:
197:
190:
57:
1492:
1151:
1116:
1028:
1200:
330:
300:
135:, and Dominican police were struggling to keep order and train officers.
878:. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. pp. 186–7.
1586:
Killing Hope: U.S. Military and C.I.A. Interventions since World War II
1086:
Killing Hope: U.S. Military and C.I.A. Interventions since World War II
1156:(First Holt paperbacks edition 2007 ed.). New York. p. 72.
467:. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. p. 19.
185:
1202:
The Praetorian guard : the U.S. role in the new world order
833:"Police Academy Under Fire for Aiding 'Foreign Dictatorships'".
750:. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. p. 28.
1121:. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. p. 229.
1033:. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. p. 222.
495:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina press. p.
428:
405:
789:
Human Rights and United States Policy Toward Latin America
365:
In 1974, Congress passed Section 660, an amendment to the
33:
United States Agency for International Development (USAID)
902:
Violence work : state power and the limits of police
100:
1100:
NIXON: "BRAZIL HELPED RIG THE URUGUAYAN ELECTIONS," 1971
115:
they had risen within their home security institutions.
111:, including the making of bombs and incendiary devices.
285:
Michigan State University Vietnam Advisory Group (MSUG)
217:
reinstated the program after he assumed power in the
1629:
Independent agencies of the United States government
748:
Violence Work: State Power and the Limits of Police
1620:
424:Michigan State University Vietnam Advisory Group
257:
85:
336:
1597:
1415:
1413:
771:"International Police School Graduates 68".
665:
663:
1205:. Boston, MA: South End Press. p. 75.
31:) was a U.S. government program within the
1579:Development Experience Clearinghouse (DEC)
1525:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1184:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
982:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
933:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
554:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
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1644:Government agencies established in 1957
1600:"U.S. has a 45-year history of torture"
1079:
1077:
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396:U.S. Army and CIA interrogation manuals
1639:Foreign relations of the United States
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371:Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
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954:. Oakland, California. p. 227.
810:from the original on January 3, 2019
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526:. Oakland, California. p. 57.
129:Armed Forces of National Liberation
118:
13:
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1429:
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685:
651:
621:
599:Kuzmarov, Jeremy (15 March 2010).
16:For the Public Safety agency, see
14:
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52:invasion. Already a proponent of
350:South Dakota Democratic Senator
278:
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419:Law Enforcement Support Office
1:
1598:A.J. Langguth (May 3, 2009).
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329:In the aftermath of the 1967
68:
258:Democratic Republic of Congo
166:
143:
86:International Police Academy
7:
1634:Central Intelligence Agency
1588:, 2003 (chapter on Uruguay)
1573:OPS-produced or OPS-funded
1088:, 2003 (chapter on Uruguay)
384:
337:Controversy and Dissolution
315:
294:
138:
18:Department of Public Safety
10:
1665:
794:Princeton University Press
237:
224:
179:
15:
1150:McCoy, Alfred W. (2007).
1115:Kuzmarov, Jeremy (2013).
1104:National Security Archive
1027:Kuzmarov, Jeremy (2013).
948:Schrader, Stuart (2019).
874:Schrader, Stuart (2019).
792:. Princeton, New Jersey:
520:Schrader, Stuart (2019).
463:Schrader, Stuart (2019).
408:, Portuguese police force
324:
232:
1491:Vitale, Alex S. (2017).
1199:Stockwell, John (1991).
605:The Asia Pacific Journal
414:Militarisation of Police
378:US Department of Defense
245:
204:
786:Schoultz, Lars (2014).
306:
273:
25:Office of Public Safety
1649:1974 disestablishments
1575:publications available
1542:Badges Without Borders
1497:. London. p. 49.
1478:Modernizing Repression
1443:Badges Without Borders
1426:(Pantheon Books, 1978)
1404:Modernizing Repression
1389:Badges Without Borders
1374:Modernizing Repression
1359:Modernizing Repression
1344:Badges Without Borders
1329:Modernizing Repression
1314:Modernizing Repression
1299:Modernizing Repression
1284:Modernizing Repression
1269:Modernizing Repression
1254:Badges Without Borders
1236:Modernizing Repression
1064:Modernizing Repression
1014:Modernizing Repression
999:Modernizing Repression
905:. Durham. p. 35.
899:Seigel, Micol (2018).
746:Siegel, Micol (2018).
733:Badges Without Borders
718:Modernizing Repression
703:Badges Without Borders
676:(Pantheon Books, 1978)
639:Badges Without Borders
586:Badges Without Borders
571:Badges Without Borders
391:School of the Americas
367:Foreign Assistance Act
39:Origins and Objectives
161:Carlos Castillo Armas
343:J. William Fulbright
341:In 1966, US senator
184:The OPS operated in
155:to overthrow leader
54:modernization theory
1494:The end of policing
93:Georgetown Car Barn
219:1973 military coup
109:Los Fresnos, Texas
105:U.S. Border Patrol
1605:Los Angeles Times
1504:978-1-78478-289-4
1316:. pp. 176–8.
1301:. pp. 173–4.
1256:. pp. 183–4.
1163:978-1-4299-0068-3
1128:978-1-61376-196-0
1040:978-1-61376-196-0
961:978-0-520-29561-2
912:978-1-4780-0202-4
855:. 16 October 2019
705:. pp. 151–2.
533:978-0-520-29561-2
352:James G. Abourezk
266:, the US enabled
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588:. pp. 80–1.
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489:Rabe, Stephen G.
485:
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439:Operation Condor
268:Mobutu Sese Seko
215:Augusto Pinochet
211:Salvador Allende
124:spoke Spanish.
119:Role of the LAPD
97:Washington, D.C.
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796:. p. 179.
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1568:External links
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1563:
1562:
1559:. p. 279.
1557:Hidden Terrors
1547:
1544:. p. 260.
1532:
1503:
1483:
1480:. p. 234.
1468:
1448:
1445:. p. 269.
1428:
1424:Hidden Terrors
1420:A. J. Langguth
1409:
1406:. p. 205.
1394:
1391:. p. 154.
1379:
1376:. p. 137.
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1361:. p. 138.
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1084:William Blum,
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1066:. p. 228.
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1016:. p. 217.
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1001:. p. 216.
989:
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885:978-0520968332
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802:
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757:978-1478002024
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735:. p. 154.
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674:Hidden Terrors
670:A. J. Langguth
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331:Six-Day War
301:Khmer Rouge
107:academy in
50:Bay of Pigs
1623:Categories
1611:2010-09-21
1555:Langguth.
1540:Schrader.
1476:Kuzmarov.
1441:Schrader.
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814:January 3,
731:Schrader.
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506:080784764X
445:References
69:Operations
1521:cite book
1513:993134288
1180:cite book
1172:960638945
1137:958385096
1049:958385096
978:cite book
929:cite book
550:cite book
287:in 1962.
167:Nicaragua
144:Guatemala
1461:Siegel.
1221:22907622
808:Archived
686:Siegel.
652:Siegel.
622:Siegel.
491:(1999).
385:See also
316:Thailand
295:Cambodia
139:Americas
238:Somalia
225:Bolivia
186:Uruguay
180:Uruguay
103:at the
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325:Jordan
233:Africa
209:After
246:Ghana
205:Chile
1527:link
1509:OCLC
1499:ISBN
1217:OCLC
1207:ISBN
1186:link
1168:OCLC
1158:ISBN
1133:OCLC
1123:ISBN
1045:OCLC
1035:ISBN
984:link
966:OCLC
956:ISBN
935:link
917:OCLC
907:ISBN
880:ISBN
861:2021
816:2019
798:ISBN
752:ISBN
556:link
538:OCLC
528:ISBN
501:ISBN
469:ISBN
429:SWAT
406:PIDE
376:The
307:Laos
274:Asia
174:FSLN
153:coup
23:The
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497:131
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