368:
subsequent research has reported more modest expansion of around 10% or less, and the direction of the effect, whether the viewer perceives an increase or a decrease in duration, also seems to be dependent upon the stimulus used. New evidence shows that this effect may be influenced by predictive coding and perceptual differences between the oddball and the standard stimuli. Predictive coding posits that the brain anticipates incoming sensory information based on previous experiences; deviations from these predictions, as introduced by oddballs, result in larger prediction errors, enhancing the perceived duration of the oddball.
282:(3) The stimuli are categorized into three types: the high-probability stimulus, which serves as the standard stimulus and occurs approximately 70% of the time; and two types of deviant stimuli, each occurring 15% of the time. Subjects are required to respond only to one type of deviant stimulus. The stimulus to which subjects must respond is designated as the target stimulus, while the deviant stimulus that does not require a response is termed the non-target deviant stimulus. This paradigm facilitates the exploration of interactions between target and non-target stimuli under specified conditions of interest.
305:
333:
during the transition to sleep and then reappears in REM sleep. Stimuli that are rare and intrusive are more likely to elicit the classic parietal P300 in REM sleep. There is, however, little or no positivity at frontal sites. This is consistent with brain imaging studies that show frontal deactivation is characteristic of REM sleep. These findings indicate that while sleepers may be able to detect stimulus deviance in stage 1 and REM, the frontal contribution to consciousness may be lost.
252:
of the entire experiment; the less frequent and sporadic stimulus is known as the deviant stimulus. Since the physical properties of the two stimuli are very similar, the deviant stimulus appears as a deviation from the frequently occurring standard stimulus, hence the names "standard stimulus" and "deviant stimulus." In the classic
Oddball paradigm, the deviant stimulus typically has an occurrence probability of about 20%, while the standard stimulus has a probability of about 80%.
256:
285:(4) This subtype further modifies (3) by changing one of the low-probability stimuli to novel stimuli. Novel stimuli are defined as a series of sudden, unexpected, and intense stimuli, each differing from the others, such as animal noises, horn sounds, or thunder. These novel stimuli are likely to provoke an orienting response in subjects and can trigger the P3a component, making this paradigm essential for studying involuntary attention.
125:
25:
66:
337:
disentangle effects due to perceptual novelty and stimulus significance. Evaluating different brain ERPs can decipher this effect. A frontro-central N2 component of ERP is primarily affected by perceptual novelty, whereas only the centro-parietal P3 component is modulated by both stimulus significance and novelty.
344:
A unique application of the oddball paradigm is being used heavily in
Schizophrenia research to study the effects in neuronal generator patterns in continuous recognition memory, and the endophenotypes, which provide model on genetic relation of psychiatric diseases that represents phenotypes between
251:
In the classic
Oddball paradigm, two types of stimuli affecting the same sensory channel are presented randomly within an experiment, with a significant difference in the probability of occurrence. The more frequently occurring stimulus is called the standard stimulus, which serves as the background
247:
research. The oddball paradigm relies on the brain's sensitivity to rare deviant stimuli presented pseudo-randomly in a series of repeated standard stimuli. The oddball paradigm has a wide selection of stimulus types, including stimuli such as sound duration, frequency, intensity, phonetic features,
367:
seems to be modulated by our recent experiences. Humans typically overestimate the perceived duration of the initial event in a stream of identical events. Initial studies suggested that this oddball-induced “subjective time dilation” expanded the perceived duration of oddball stimuli by 30–50% but
321:
is larger after the target stimulus. The P300 wave only occurs if the subject is actively engaged in the task of detecting the targets. Its amplitude varies with the improbability of the targets. Its latency varies with the difficulty of discriminating the target stimulus from the standard stimuli.
268:
In the classic oddball paradigm, the participant's task is to detect the appearance of a target stimulus with a small probability. That is, they respond by pressing a key when a deviant stimulus appears, or by counting the number of deviant stimuli that appear. There are also some oddball paradigm
332:
Since P300 has been shown to be an attention-dependent cognitive component in wakefulness, one might suppose that it would be absent during sleep; a time in which information processing of external stimuli is commonly thought to be inhibited. Research to date indicates that P300 can be recorded
371:
In infant research, the oddball paradigm is a technique that has been used to measure what infants expect. For example, in a still-face procedure, the mother suddenly adopts a neutral facial expression and stops responding to the infant's contingencies. By monitoring responses such as surprise
336:
Studies of cognition often use an oddball paradigm to study effects of stimulus novelty and significance on information processing. However, an oddball tends to be perceptually more novel than the standard, repeated stimulus as well as more relevant to the ongoing task, making it difficult to
276:(MMN) and attention. The two-choice Oddball paradigm requires subjects to accurately and swiftly respond to briefly presented high-probability standard stimuli and low-probability deviant stimuli by making differentiated keypress responses within the presentation time of the stimuli.
279:(2) In a sequence where stimuli are regularly presented, the occasional omission of a stimulus can be utilized to investigate the evoked potentials. This paradigm is also applicable for studying the brain mechanisms of habituation under specific conditions of interest.
372:
reactions, crying or distress, suppressed motor activity, duration of gaze, amplitude and latency of brainwave components, and changes in heart rate, researchers can learn which stimuli are out of the ordinary for infants.
389:
Yuan JJ, Yang JM, Meng XX, Yu FQ, Li H (December 2008). "The valence strength of negative stimuli modulates visual novelty processing: electrophysiological evidence from an event-related potential study".
308:
The P300 response of different healthy subjects in a two-tone auditory oddball paradigm. The plots show the average response to oddball (red) and standard (blue) trials and their difference (black). From
340:
The classic auditory oddball paradigm can be modified to produce different neural responses and can therefore be used to investigate dysfunctions in sensory and cognitive processing in clinical samples.
329:(fMRI) revealed that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is associated with dynamic changes in the mapping of stimuli to responses (e.g. response strategies), independently of any changes in behavior.
360:. This pupil dilation effect is discussed to indicate a detection of stimulus salience and is expected to amplify the sensory processing of the salient stimulus by increased neural gain.
317:
In ERP research it has been found that an event-related potential across the parieto-central area of the skull that usually occurs around 300 ms after stimuli presentation called
1090:
Birngruber T, Schröter H, Ulrich R (April 2014). "Duration perception of visual and auditory oddball stimuli: does judgment task modulate the temporal oddball effect?".
689:
Işoğlu-alkaç U, Kedzior K, Karamürsel S, Ermutlu N (April 2007). "Event-related potentials during auditory oddball, and combined auditory oddball-visual paradigms".
325:
Detection of these targets reliably evokes transient activity in prefrontal cortical regions. Measuring hemodynamic brain activity in the prefrontal cortex using
259:
In the classical oddball paradigm, if participants are asked to respond to a deviant stimulus, the deviant stimulus is the target stimulus at that point.
1185:
425:
Squires NK, Squires KC, Hillyard SA (April 1975). "Two varieties of long-latency positive waves evoked by unpredictable auditory stimuli in man".
965:
Aston-Jones G, Cohen JD (2005). "An integrative theory of locus coeruleus-norepinephrine function: adaptive gain and optimal performance".
562:
Huettel SA, McCarthy G (2004). "What is odd in the oddball task? Prefrontal cortex is activated by dynamic changes in response strategy".
1208:
313:. These examples show the significant individual variability in amplitude, latency and waveform shape across different subjects.
189:
1146:
326:
161:
1439:
1178:
918:"Norepinephrine ignites local hotspots of neuronal excitation: How arousal amplifies selectivity in perception and memory"
1233:
298:
272:(1) The two-choice oddball paradigm evolved from the classical oddball paradigm and was originally used in the study of
168:
226:
208:
142:
106:
52:
38:
810:"Relationships between Pupil Diameter and Neuronal Activity in the Locus Coeruleus, Colliculi, and Cingulate Cortex"
732:"Beyond the Oddball in Schizophrenia Research: Neurophysiologic Studies of Memory and Language Processing. (2010)".
356:
The oddball paradigm has robust effects on pupil dilation that is produced by transient activity of the subcortical
175:
1460:
1171:
1259:
1228:
146:
1294:
157:
248:
complex music, or speech sequences. The reaction of the participant to this "oddball" stimulus is recorded.
1465:
1424:
1309:
84:
1345:
1213:
294:
135:
1254:
1223:
1194:
605:
Cote KA (December 2002). "Probing awareness during sleep with the auditory odd-ball paradigm".
182:
88:
44:
1218:
1051:"The role of perceptual processing in the oddball effect revealed by the Thatcher illusion"
978:
870:
575:
473:
8:
1398:
1339:
1324:
1299:
1289:
1279:
318:
273:
76:
1126:
874:
477:
1419:
1355:
1314:
1138:
1026:
1001:
942:
917:
893:
858:
834:
809:
785:
760:
714:
666:
641:
587:
544:
496:
461:
403:
618:
304:
1142:
1107:
1072:
1031:
982:
947:
898:
859:"Phasic locus coeruleus activity regulates cortical encoding of salience information"
839:
790:
745:
706:
671:
622:
579:
536:
532:
501:
442:
438:
407:
591:
1243:
1134:
1099:
1062:
1021:
1013:
974:
937:
929:
888:
878:
829:
821:
780:
772:
741:
718:
698:
661:
653:
614:
571:
548:
528:
491:
481:
434:
399:
1067:
1050:
1017:
825:
486:
364:
357:
759:
Murphy PR, O'Connell RG, O'Sullivan M, Robertson IH, Balsters JH (August 2014).
519:
Picton TW (October 1992). "The P300 wave of the human event-related potential".
1163:
863:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1103:
933:
702:
1454:
1393:
255:
883:
657:
297:(ERP) research by Nancy Squires, Kenneth Squires and Steven Hillyard at the
1383:
1111:
1076:
1035:
986:
951:
902:
843:
794:
710:
675:
626:
583:
505:
411:
758:
540:
446:
1378:
1373:
1363:
353:
The oddball paradigm has been extended to use outside of ERP research.
244:
776:
269:
subtypes that have been modified by researchers that are widely used.
1388:
1368:
1269:
761:"Pupil diameter covaries with BOLD activity in human locus coeruleus"
999:
688:
124:
1403:
1000:
Aaen-Stockdale C, Hotchkiss J, Heron J, Whitaker D (June 2011).
1434:
640:
Ferrari V, Bradley MM, Codispoti M, Lang PJ (February 2010).
1319:
1284:
1274:
1264:
639:
462:"Surprise response as a probe for compressed memory states"
1334:
1329:
916:
Mather M, Clewett D, Sakaki M, Harley CW (January 2016).
915:
311:
Surprise response as a probe for compressed memory states
1089:
459:
856:
1131:
Encyclopedia of Infant and Early
Childhood Development
1048:
424:
345:
manifest clinical syndrome and genetic underpinnings.
857:
Vazey EM, Moorman DE, Aston-Jones G (October 2018).
460:
Levi-Aharoni H, Shriki O, Tishby N (February 2020).
808:Joshi S, Li Y, Kalwani RM, Gold JI (January 2016).
427:
Electroencephalography and
Clinical Neurophysiology
149:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1209:Amplitude integrated electroencephalography (aEEG)
807:
993:
1452:
1193:
964:
958:
1049:Sarodo A, Yamamoto K, Watanabe K (April 2024).
1002:"Perceived time is spatial frequency dependent"
561:
453:
388:
1179:
87:. There might be a discussion about this on
1127:"Future Orientation and Prospective Memory"
909:
752:
53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
1440:Neurophysiological Biomarker Toolbox (NBT)
1186:
1172:
850:
801:
1124:
1092:Attention, Perception & Psychophysics
1066:
1025:
941:
892:
882:
833:
784:
691:The International Journal of Neuroscience
665:
607:International Journal of Psychophysiology
495:
485:
227:Learn how and when to remove this message
209:Learn how and when to remove this message
107:Learn how and when to remove this message
303:
254:
1453:
979:10.1146/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135709
576:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2003.07.009
518:
243:is an experimental design used within
1167:
327:functional magnetic resonance imaging
293:The oddball method was first used in
642:"Detecting novelty and significance"
604:
147:adding citations to reliable sources
118:
59:
18:
1295:Contingent negative variation (CNV)
1234:Brainstem auditory evoked potential
521:Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology
13:
1139:10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.21208-x
404:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.09.023
288:
14:
1477:
922:The Behavioral and Brain Sciences
646:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
34:This article has multiple issues.
746:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2010.01099.x
533:10.1097/00004691-199210000-00002
123:
64:
23:
1118:
1083:
1042:
134:needs additional citations for
42:or discuss these issues on the
1229:Somatosensory evoked potential
1133:, Elsevier, pp. 655–669,
725:
682:
633:
598:
555:
512:
418:
382:
1:
1425:Difference due to memory (Dm)
967:Annual Review of Neuroscience
619:10.1016/s0167-8760(02)00114-9
375:
348:
1224:Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
1195:Electroencephalography (EEG)
1068:10.1016/j.visres.2024.108399
1018:10.1016/j.visres.2011.03.019
826:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.11.028
487:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1007065
439:10.1016/0013-4694(75)90263-1
16:Psychology research paradigm
7:
1219:Electrocorticography (ECoG)
263:
10:
1482:
466:PLOS Computational Biology
1412:
1354:
1242:
1201:
1104:10.3758/s13414-013-0602-2
934:10.1017/S0140525X15000667
703:10.1080/00207450600773509
1346:Late positive component
1214:Event-related potential
884:10.1073/pnas.1803716115
658:10.1162/jocn.2009.21244
295:event-related potential
1461:Psychology experiments
1255:Bereitschaftspotential
314:
260:
307:
258:
1125:Wentworth N (2020),
143:improve this article
77:confusing or unclear
1399:Sensorimotor rhythm
1356:Neural oscillations
1300:Mismatch negativity
875:2018PNAS..115E9439V
869:(40): E9439–E9448.
765:Human Brain Mapping
478:2020PLSCB..16E7065L
274:mismatch negativity
85:clarify the article
365:perception of time
315:
261:
158:"Oddball paradigm"
1466:Evoked potentials
1448:
1447:
1342:(late positivity)
1244:Evoked potentials
1148:978-0-12-816511-9
1012:(11): 1232–1238.
777:10.1002/hbm.22466
237:
236:
229:
219:
218:
211:
193:
117:
116:
109:
57:
1473:
1430:Oddball paradigm
1188:
1181:
1174:
1165:
1164:
1158:
1157:
1156:
1155:
1122:
1116:
1115:
1087:
1081:
1080:
1070:
1046:
1040:
1039:
1029:
997:
991:
990:
962:
956:
955:
945:
913:
907:
906:
896:
886:
854:
848:
847:
837:
805:
799:
798:
788:
771:(8): 4140–4154.
756:
750:
749:
734:Psychophysiology
729:
723:
722:
686:
680:
679:
669:
637:
631:
630:
602:
596:
595:
564:Neuropsychologia
559:
553:
552:
516:
510:
509:
499:
489:
457:
451:
450:
422:
416:
415:
386:
241:oddball paradigm
232:
225:
214:
207:
203:
200:
194:
192:
151:
127:
119:
112:
105:
101:
98:
92:
68:
67:
60:
49:
27:
26:
19:
1481:
1480:
1476:
1475:
1474:
1472:
1471:
1470:
1451:
1450:
1449:
1444:
1408:
1350:
1238:
1197:
1192:
1162:
1161:
1153:
1151:
1149:
1123:
1119:
1088:
1084:
1055:Vision Research
1047:
1043:
1006:Vision Research
998:
994:
963:
959:
914:
910:
855:
851:
806:
802:
757:
753:
731:
730:
726:
687:
683:
638:
634:
603:
599:
560:
556:
517:
513:
472:(2): e1007065.
458:
454:
423:
419:
387:
383:
378:
358:locus coeruleus
351:
291:
289:In ERP research
266:
233:
222:
221:
220:
215:
204:
198:
195:
152:
150:
140:
128:
113:
102:
96:
93:
82:
69:
65:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1479:
1469:
1468:
1463:
1446:
1445:
1443:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1422:
1416:
1414:
1410:
1409:
1407:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1360:
1358:
1352:
1351:
1349:
1348:
1343:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1307:
1303:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1248:
1246:
1240:
1239:
1237:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1221:
1216:
1211:
1205:
1203:
1199:
1198:
1191:
1190:
1183:
1176:
1168:
1160:
1159:
1147:
1117:
1098:(3): 814–828.
1082:
1041:
992:
957:
908:
849:
820:(1): 221–234.
800:
751:
724:
697:(4): 487–506.
681:
652:(2): 404–411.
632:
613:(3): 227–241.
597:
570:(3): 379–386.
554:
527:(4): 456–479.
511:
452:
433:(4): 387–401.
417:
398:(3): 524–531.
380:
379:
377:
374:
350:
347:
290:
287:
265:
262:
235:
234:
217:
216:
131:
129:
122:
115:
114:
72:
70:
63:
58:
32:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1478:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1458:
1456:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1418:
1417:
1415:
1411:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1394:Sleep spindle
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1361:
1359:
1357:
1353:
1347:
1344:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1305:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1250:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1241:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1206:
1204:
1202:Related tests
1200:
1196:
1189:
1184:
1182:
1177:
1175:
1170:
1169:
1166:
1150:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1121:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1086:
1078:
1074:
1069:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1045:
1037:
1033:
1028:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
996:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
961:
953:
949:
944:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
912:
904:
900:
895:
890:
885:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
853:
845:
841:
836:
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
811:
804:
796:
792:
787:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
755:
747:
743:
739:
735:
728:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
685:
677:
673:
668:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
636:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
601:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
558:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
515:
507:
503:
498:
493:
488:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
456:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
421:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
385:
381:
373:
369:
366:
361:
359:
354:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
328:
323:
320:
312:
306:
302:
300:
296:
286:
283:
280:
277:
275:
270:
257:
253:
249:
246:
242:
231:
228:
213:
210:
202:
191:
188:
184:
181:
177:
174:
170:
167:
163:
160: –
159:
155:
154:Find sources:
148:
144:
138:
137:
132:This article
130:
126:
121:
120:
111:
108:
100:
90:
89:the talk page
86:
80:
78:
73:This article
71:
62:
61:
56:
54:
47:
46:
41:
40:
35:
30:
21:
20:
1429:
1420:10-20 system
1384:Theta rhythm
1152:, retrieved
1130:
1120:
1095:
1091:
1085:
1058:
1054:
1044:
1009:
1005:
995:
970:
966:
960:
925:
921:
911:
866:
862:
852:
817:
813:
803:
768:
764:
754:
737:
733:
727:
694:
690:
684:
649:
645:
635:
610:
606:
600:
567:
563:
557:
524:
520:
514:
469:
465:
455:
430:
426:
420:
395:
392:Neuroscience
391:
384:
370:
362:
355:
352:
343:
339:
335:
331:
324:
316:
310:
299:UC San Diego
292:
284:
281:
278:
271:
267:
250:
240:
238:
223:
205:
196:
186:
179:
172:
165:
153:
141:Please help
136:verification
133:
103:
94:
83:Please help
74:
50:
43:
37:
36:Please help
33:
1310:C1 & P1
973:: 403–450.
740:: S10–S11.
1455:Categories
1379:Delta wave
1374:Gamma wave
1364:Alpha wave
1306:Positivity
1251:Negativity
1154:2024-05-05
1061:: 108399.
376:References
349:Other uses
245:psychology
169:newspapers
79:to readers
39:improve it
1389:K-complex
1369:Beta wave
1270:Visual N1
199:June 2010
97:June 2010
45:talk page
1112:24435899
1077:38603924
1036:21477613
987:16022602
952:26126507
928:: e200.
903:30232259
844:26711118
795:24510607
711:17380607
676:19400680
627:12445950
592:12374811
584:14670576
506:32012146
412:18926886
264:Subtypes
1404:Mu wave
1027:3121949
943:5830137
894:6176602
871:Bibcode
835:4707070
786:6869043
719:2420962
667:3612945
549:9193151
541:1464675
497:7018098
474:Bibcode
183:scholar
75:may be
1435:EEGLAB
1413:Topics
1145:
1110:
1075:
1034:
1024:
985:
950:
940:
901:
891:
842:
832:
814:Neuron
793:
783:
717:
709:
674:
664:
625:
590:
582:
547:
539:
504:
494:
445:
410:
185:
178:
171:
164:
156:
715:S2CID
588:S2CID
545:S2CID
447:46819
190:JSTOR
176:books
1340:P600
1325:P300
1320:P200
1290:N400
1285:N2pc
1280:N200
1275:N170
1265:N100
1260:ELAN
1143:ISBN
1108:PMID
1073:PMID
1032:PMID
983:PMID
948:PMID
899:PMID
840:PMID
791:PMID
707:PMID
672:PMID
623:PMID
580:PMID
537:PMID
502:PMID
443:PMID
408:PMID
363:The
319:P300
239:The
162:news
1335:P3b
1330:P3a
1315:P50
1135:doi
1100:doi
1063:doi
1059:220
1022:PMC
1014:doi
975:doi
938:PMC
930:doi
889:PMC
879:doi
867:115
830:PMC
822:doi
781:PMC
773:doi
742:doi
699:doi
695:117
662:PMC
654:doi
615:doi
572:doi
529:doi
492:PMC
482:doi
435:doi
400:doi
396:157
145:by
1457::
1141:,
1129:,
1106:.
1096:76
1094:.
1071:.
1057:.
1053:.
1030:.
1020:.
1010:51
1008:.
1004:.
981:.
971:28
969:.
946:.
936:.
926:39
924:.
920:.
897:.
887:.
877:.
865:.
861:.
838:.
828:.
818:89
816:.
812:.
789:.
779:.
769:35
767:.
763:.
738:47
736:.
713:.
705:.
693:.
670:.
660:.
650:22
648:.
644:.
621:.
611:46
609:.
586:.
578:.
568:42
566:.
543:.
535:.
523:.
500:.
490:.
480:.
470:16
468:.
464:.
441:.
431:38
429:.
406:.
394:.
301:.
48:.
1187:e
1180:t
1173:v
1137::
1114:.
1102::
1079:.
1065::
1038:.
1016::
989:.
977::
954:.
932::
905:.
881::
873::
846:.
824::
797:.
775::
748:.
744::
721:.
701::
678:.
656::
629:.
617::
594:.
574::
551:.
531::
525:9
508:.
484::
476::
449:.
437::
414:.
402::
230:)
224:(
212:)
206:(
201:)
197:(
187:·
180:·
173:·
166:·
139:.
110:)
104:(
99:)
95:(
91:.
81:.
55:)
51:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
