350:, that attempt to guarantee the trade of safe food. Despite the best practices in use, heavy metal and pesticide residues are still found in the food supply. Pre-natal and post-natal dietary exposures to inorganic mercury and lead residues resulting from unhealthy diets have been shown to consistently impact important gene behaviors in children with autism and ADHD. Prenatal organophosphate pesticide exposure has been shown to impact
22:
323:
diet or unhealthy diet has been shown to affect DNA methylation patterns and contribute to the development of type 2 diabetes, ADHD, and early onset conduct problems in children. Characteristics of an unhealthy prenatal diet leading to changes in DNA methylation patterns include the increased
310:
who is food insecure will likely be under financial stress and unable to secure enough food to meet her nutritional needs. Her geographical location may be in a food desert where she is unable to access enough safe and nutritious food. Food deserts are linked to food insecurity and defined as areas
240:
All life on Earth is influenced by the different flows of its environment, yet in humans, different environmental conditions such as poverty, alcohol, stress, malnutrition, exposure to pollutants, man-made chemicals, and synthetic drugs can lead to epigenetic-related illnesses/diseases with certain
341:
Food quality issues vary from one geographic region to the next depending on country, food safety practices, and manufacturing and agricultural regulations regarding heavy metal, pesticide residues, and other hazardous exposures of concern. To reduce exposures to chemical hazards such as pesticide
248:
It has been estimated that more than 60% of deaths in humans are related to nutritional or dietary factors rather than environmental triggers. Based on a couple of studies from the Dutch Famine of 1944-1945, it is stated that starvation during pregnancy and subsequent health can result in, but not
332:
can also have adverse effects on epigenetic gene regulation. The current global food system is plagued by issues that adversely affect human health through multiple pathways with contaminated, unsafe, and altered foods being one of the most common factors associated with unhealthy diet. Low iron
208:
Folate is an essential water soluble vitamin that is naturally occurring in some foods. Folate can be found naturally at high levels in dark green leafy vegetables such as spinach, brussels sprouts and asparagus, as well as in liver. Folic acid is a man made form used to supplement certain foods.
354:
in genes associated with the development of cardio-metabolic diseases. Infection from food is a serious factor during pregnancy. Not in particular of what the mother eats, but that is just as important, but the way the food is prepared. A mother should cook all of the food thoroughly, especially
289:
patterns. Another type of stressor is a poor prenatal diet that results in nutritional insufficiency and fetal epigenetic reprogramming that creates the blueprint for the development of diseases later in a child’s life. Depending on geographical region, food quality issues may impact epigenetic
162:
modifications. Because methyl groups are used for suppression of undesirable genes, a mother’s level of dietary methyl consumption can significantly alter her child’s gene expression, especially during early development. Furthermore, nutrition can affect methylation as the process continues
212:
Choline is a semi-essential nutrient that can be oxidized to betaine. The betaine then functions as a methyl group donor in the process of DNA methylation. Choline can be found in animal products such as meat, eggs, poultry, fish and dairy as well as potatoes and green leafy vegetables.
166:
DNA methylation is the addition of a methyl group on a cytosine ring of DNA. Without methylation, issues could arise regarding genomic imprinting, X-chromosome inactivation, and suppression of transcription and transposition. When methylation is not present to suppress transcription and
324:
intake of high fat/sugar ultra-processed food products along with the inadequate intake of nutrient rich whole foods (e.g. fruits and vegetables). High-fat and low-protein diets during pregnancy can also increase the risk of obesity in infants. Dietary methyl supplements such as extra
1816:
264:
The maternal lineage or mother's health and nutritional habits during pregnancy isn't the only influence on the offspring's overall health. Further transmission via the paternal line is highly likely to occur by epigenetic modulation of the
123:
and Robert A. Waterland became early pioneers of nutritional epigenetics after publishing their research on the effects of a pregnant mother’s diet on her offspring’s gene functions in the research journal
333:
diets, or women who suffer from an iron deficiency, have been shown to increase the likelihood of a premature birth, low birth weight, and the increased possibility of postpartum depression.
281:
Evidence of the generational transmission of epigenetic mechanisms in humans was first discussed by
Champagne in 2008 in the context of maternal stress with food insecurity being one type of
273:
transmission by the paternal lineage. There is evidence that both the paternal and maternal diets influence metabolic phenotypes in the offspring through epigenetic information transmission.
306:
Food insecurity refers to the inability to access enough food to meet basic needs and is associated with an increased risk of birth defects associated with DNA methylation patterns. An
1640:"Prenatal unhealthy diet, insulin-like growth factor 2 gene (IGF2) methylation, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in youth with early-onset conduct problems"
209:
Enriched breads, flours, pastas, rice, and breakfast cereals are commonly supplemented with folic acid. In DNA methylation, folate serves as a source of carbon/ methyl group.
1899:
554:
Franzek EJ, Sprangers N, Janssens AC, Van Duijn CM, Van De
Wetering BJ (March 2008). "Prenatal exposure to the 1944-45 Dutch 'hunger winter' and addiction later in life".
116:
in pregnant mothers, children born during this famine were more likely to exhibit health issues such as heart disease, obesity, schizophrenia, depression, and addiction.
516:
Roseboom TJ, Painter RC, van
Abeelen AF, Veenendaal MV, de Rooij SR (October 2011). "Hungry in the womb: what are the consequences? Lessons from the Dutch famine".
989:
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meats. All of the produce should be washed well after washing hands. Pasteurized dairy products should be the type of dairy being consumed by the mother.
245:
of an organism can be triggered by just about any environmental signal, including climate change, food/water supply, plant nutrient, temperature etc.
216:
Researchers have considered that high-fat and low-protein diets during pregnancy can increase the risk of obesity in infants. The consumption of
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Skjærven KH, Adam AC, Takaya S, Waagbø R, Espe M (January 2022). "Chapter 5 - Nutritional epigenetics". In Monzón IF, Fernandes JM (eds.).
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throughout an individual’s adult life. Because of this, nutritional epigeneticists have studied food as a form of molecular exposure.
742:
1138:"Maternal Choline Supplementation and High-Fat Feeding Interact to Influence DNA Methylation in Offspring in a Time-Specific Manner"
295:
270:
1929:"Connecting inorganic mercury and lead measurements in blood to dietary sources of exposure that may impact child development"
1784:
445:
698:
Liu HY, Liu SM, Zhang YZ (April 2020). "Maternal Folic Acid
Supplementation Mediates Offspring Health via DNA Methylation".
592:
Painter RC, Roseboom TJ, Bleker OP (2005). "Prenatal exposure to the Dutch famine and disease in later life: an overview".
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inheritance via changes in methylation patterns associated with dietary heavy metal exposures, especially in the case of
311:
of high-density fast-food restaurants and corner stores offering only unhealthy highly processed foods at low prices.
1689:"DNA methylation links genetics, fetal environment, and an unhealthy lifestyle to the development of type 2 diabetes"
66:
1738:
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126:
347:
109:
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Ortega MA, Fraile-MartĂnez Ă“, GarcĂa-Montero C, Alvarez-Mon MA, Lahera G, Monserrat J, et al. (2022).
48:
1487:"A macroepigenetic approach to identify factors responsible for the autism epidemic in the United States"
1763:
Yambi O, Rocha C, Jacobs N (2020). "Unravelling the Food-Health Nexus to Build
Healthier Food Systems".
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1244:
Açar Y, Akbulut G (November 2022). "Nutritional
Epigenetics and Phytochemicals in Cancer Formation".
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gene on DNA methylation in genes associated with cardio-metabolic disease risk-an exploratory study"
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Changes to children’s genetic profiles caused by fetal nutrition have been observed as early as the
2058:
343:
1089:"Folate and DNA Methylation: A Review of Molecular Mechanisms and the Evidence for Folate's Role"
346:(WTO) sponsored agreements between countries to establish codes of best practices, issued by the
44:
960:
1044:
254:
1978:
Declerck K, Remy S, Wohlfahrt-Veje C, Main KM, Van Camp G, Schoeters G, et al. (2017).
783:"Transposable elements: targets for early nutritional effects on epigenetic gene regulation"
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1900:"New Disclosures Show Dangerous Levels of Toxic Heavy Metals in Even More Baby Foods"
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1587:"Food insecurity, food deserts, reproduction and pregnancy: we should alert from now"
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1538:"Maternal food insecurity is associated with increased risk of certain birth defects"
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1289:"Nutrition, Epigenetics, and Major Depressive Disorder: Understanding the Connection"
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636:"The Impact of Nutrition and Environmental Epigenetics on Human Health and Disease"
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433:
400:
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32:
1980:"Interaction between prenatal pesticide exposure and a common polymorphism in the
1839:
Aruoma OI (April 2006). "The impact of food regulation on the food supply chain".
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143:
36:
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Korsmo HW, Dave B, Trasino S, Saxena A, Liu J, Caviglia JM, et al. (2022).
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food components that influence epigenetic processes range from vitamins such as
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2000:
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1305:
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1005:
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224:. Research has also suggested a link between nutritional epigenetics and the
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transposition, the lack thereof can contribute to the development of cancer.
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2019:
1964:
1945:
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Dufault R, Lukiw WJ, Crider R, Schnoll R, Wallinga D, Deth R (April 2012).
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disease-specific genes typically being activated or deactivated. The
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1503:
1389:"Epigenetic responses and the developmental origins of health and disease"
1340:"Epigenetic mechanisms and the transgenerational effects of maternal care"
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is a science that studies the effects of nutrition on gene expression and
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Dufault RJ, Wolle MM, Kingston HM, Gilbert SG, Murray JA (July 2021).
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Carmichael SL, Yang W, Herring A, Abrams B, Shaw GM (September 2007).
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242:
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Researchers in nutritional epigenetics study the interaction between
85:
1070:"Folate and Folic Acid on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels"
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can also positively affect epigenetic-based mechanisms that inhibit
1478:
282:
194:
139:
1644:
Journal of Child
Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines
381:"Food as exposure: Nutritional epigenetics and the new metabolism"
146:, which leads to areas of focus such as dietary methyl groups and
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202:
190:
186:
159:
471:
1438:"Epigenetic reprogramming and imprinting in origins of disease"
155:
1977:
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can also have adverse effects on epigenetic gene regulation.
1876:"Heavy metals in baby food? What parents should know and do"
1926:
1535:
832:"Nutrigenomics 101: Understanding the Basics of DNA Diets"
1484:
913:"Epigenetics: A New Bridge between Nutrition and Health"
427:
1135:
1591:
The
Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine
1086:
591:
743:"A Pregnant Mother's Diet May Turn the Genes Around"
235:
41:
and explaining the responses to the fringe theories.
2034:"What are the most common pregnancy complications?"
864:"Epigenetics and nutritional environmental signals"
472:Farhud D, Zarif Yeganeh M, Zarif Yeganeh M (2010).
1386:
1087:Crider K, Yang T, Berry R, Bailey L (5 Jan 2012).
1817:"Prevent iron deficiency anemia during pregnancy"
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774:
772:
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430:Cellular and Molecular Approaches in Fish Biology
261:and decreased cognitive functions later in life.
154:food components affect epigenetics by inhibiting
2045:
1762:
374:
372:
370:
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296:attention deficit hyperactivity disorders (ADHD)
1739:"What is Nutritional Genomics (Nutrigenomics)?"
1634:Rijlaarsdam J, Cecil CA, Walton E, Mesirow MS,
1221:"What is Nutritional Genomics (Nutrigenomics)?"
780:
511:
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285:that can impact gene expression via changes in
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1442:Reviews in Endocrine & Metabolic Disorders
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1246:Journal of the American Nutrition Association
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1387:Goyal D, Limesand SW, Goyal R (July 2019).
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967:. University of Utah Genetics. 15 July 2013
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640:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
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197:. Dietary methyl supplements such as extra
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2009:
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1219:Greenwood M (2019-01-24). Surat P (ed.).
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1196:"Office of Dietary Supplements - Choline"
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249:limited to a some health risks including
67:Learn how and when to remove this message
1873:
1638:, Gaunt TR, et al. (January 2017).
1045:"Office of Dietary Supplements - Folate"
158:activity related to DNA methylation and
1765:World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics
829:
781:Waterland RA, Jirtle RL (August 2003).
686:
276:
2046:
1838:
1585:Di Renzo GC, Tosto V (December 2022).
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988:Jin B, Li Y, Robertson K (June 2011).
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88:accessibility. It is a subcategory of
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432:. Academic Press. pp. 161–192.
15:
1080:
868:Integrative and Comparative Biology
862:Mazzio EA, Soliman KF (July 2014).
142:in food and molecules that control
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978:
911:Choi SW, Friso S (November 2010).
438:10.1016/B978-0-12-822273-7.00006-9
301:
14:
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474:"Nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics"
236:Nutritional-environmental signals
799:10.1128/MCB.23.15.5293-5300.2003
568:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.02084.x
478:Iranian Journal of Public Health
185:to alcohol and elements such as
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1344:Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology
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1280:
1237:
1212:
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1068:Nutrition Cf (March 25, 2024).
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1037:
965:Genetic Science Learning Center
961:"Nutrition & the Epigenome"
953:
823:
530:10.1016/j.maturitas.2011.06.017
336:
269:nucleus. An example of this is
92:that focuses on the effects of
787:Molecular and Cellular Biology
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606:10.1016/j.reprotox.2005.04.005
421:
342:and heavy metal residues, the
127:Molecular and Cellular Biology
1:
1604:10.1080/14767058.2021.2016052
1258:10.1080/27697061.2022.2147106
358:
348:Codex Alimentarius Commission
1933:World Journal of Methodology
1436:Tang WY, Ho SM (June 2007).
1393:The Journal of Endocrinology
47:or discuss the issue on the
7:
1907:US House of Representatives
1356:10.1016/j.yfrne.2008.03.003
133:
10:
2095:
1687:Nilsson E, Ling C (2017).
1338:Champagne FA (June 2008).
741:Blakeslee S (2003-10-07).
712:10.1007/s43032-020-00161-2
103:
2001:10.1186/s13148-017-0336-4
1874:McCarthy C (2021-03-05).
1853:10.1016/j.tox.2005.12.024
1706:10.1186/s13148-017-0399-2
1454:10.1007/s11154-007-9042-4
379:Landecker H (June 2011).
251:type II diabetes mellitus
110:Dutch famine of 1944-1945
1542:The Journal of Nutrition
1306:10.3389/fnut.2022.867150
1155:10.3389/fnut.2022.841787
1006:10.1177/1947601910393957
830:Gardner A (2020-02-04).
344:World Trade Organization
634:Tiffon C (2018-11-01).
594:Reproductive Toxicology
82:Nutritional epigenetics
1946:10.5662/wjm.v11.i4.144
1293:Frontiers in Nutrition
1142:Frontiers in Nutrition
255:cardiovascular disease
39:to the mainstream view
1554:10.1093/jn/137.9.2087
1504:10.1186/1868-7083-4-6
1105:10.3945/an.111.000992
1093:Advances in Nutrition
917:Advances in Nutrition
700:Reproductive Sciences
397:10.1057/biosoc.2011.1
1988:Clinical Epigenetics
1693:Clinical Epigenetics
1491:Clinical Epigenetics
653:10.3390/ijms19113425
277:Epigenetic stressors
90:nutritional genomics
2054:Nutritional science
1406:10.1530/JOE-19-0009
929:10.3945/an.110.1004
259:metabolic disorders
230:depressive disorder
96:food components on
2036:. 7 February 2022.
1656:10.1111/jcpp.12589
994:Genes & Cancer
880:10.1093/icb/icu049
747:The New York Times
315:Poor prenatal diet
37:appropriate weight
1786:978-3-318-06697-5
1777:10.1159/000507497
1597:(25): 9119–9121.
990:"DNA Methylation"
793:(15): 5293–5300.
447:978-0-12-822273-7
271:transgenerational
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1548:(9): 2087–2092.
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150:. Nutrients and
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144:gene expression
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