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more food per unit of land area than the previously mentioned modes, the tendency of agricultural societies to focus on relatively few crops has often meant that these societies have much less diverse diets than foraging and horticultural societies. There is some archaeological and fossil evidence that populations in transition from foraging to agriculture have tended to suffer reduced stature, reduced musculature, and to exhibit other markers of malnutrition. Research has suggested that agriculture paradoxically allows a higher, but less healthy population for a given area. The advent of agriculture has marked that advent of social stratification in many parts of the world, with marked differentials in access to resources between segments of the same society. This mode of production also is more likely to entail permanent individual or family ownership of particular tracts of land than previously mentioned modes of production. Agriculture has co-occurred with both subsistence and market economies, often with a single society exhibiting some degree of both types of economies and has a more negative impact on the environment than the aforementioned modes of production.
1660:, is a subsistence strategy in which a group of people gathers wild plants and hunts wild animals in order to obtain food. This strategy was the sole mode of existence for human beings for the vast majority of human history (inclusive of the archaeological and fossil record) and continued to be practiced by a few groups at least into the middle part of the 20th century. This mode of production is generally associated with small, nomadic groups of no more than fifty, also known as bands. The vast majority of foraging societies do not acknowledge exclusive ownership of land or other major resources, though they do acknowledge primary use rights for groups and people may individually possess small objects or tools such as a bow or cutting tools. Because foraging usually involves frequent movement and taking food naturally available rather than altering landscapes for production, many scholars state the foraging has a minimal negative environmental impact compared to other modes of production. Though foragers are generally limited in absolute amount of food available in a given area, foraging groups such as the
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community. Nutritional scholars explicitly state that delocalization does not necessarily entail increased food insecurity and malnutrition, but that access to an adequate diet becomes increasingly removed from local control and increasingly contingent on access to hard cash or some other non-food precious resource. Leatherman and
Goodman discuss the ironic result of their study in Quintana Roo that both the groups with the best and worst food security and nutritional status worked in service industries related to tourism, with the median group being a milpa community. They differentiate between those with stable employment and income who have access to a wide variety of foods on a regular basis and those with sporadic employment who struggle for caloric sufficiency within the household and have low dietary diversity. The main import of these examples is not that delocalization is universally negative, but that it tends to increase disparities of food security and nutritional status within and between social groups, with some segments suffering marked degradation of both.
1698:, defined as reliance on products from livestock coupled with a seasonal nomadic herding tradition, is similar to horticulture in that it is extensive in its use of land area. Social groups in pastoral societies tend to have similar numbers and population density to horticultural societies. Pastoral societies often trade animal products with agricultural societies for plant based foods to augment their diet. Frequent movement often means that pastoralism has a similar environmental impact to horticulture, though instances of overgrazing, and consequent land degradation (see later subsection under Globalization and Nutrition), have been sited in some cases. Pastoralism generally entails a greater reliance on meat or other animal products, such as milk or blood, than other modes of production. This mode of production has a similar use rights profile to shifting cultivation. Traditionally, pastoralism has coincided with a subsistence based economy, but in the last several decades, some pastoralist societies, such as
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populations have over their own subsistence production. Delocalization of food systems, which Pelto and Pelto define as taking production of food out of a local subsistence context and tying it to geographically broader market systems, can precipitate marked cultural and nutritional disruption. Likewise commoditization of food systems, defined as a paradigm shift from one of subsistence or social significances shift toward one which treats food primarily as a market commodity, can affect dietary health as well as collective identity. Commoditization tends to shift food security and dietary diversity away from integrated kinship or other reciprocal distribution networks toward being an issue of who can best compete in a free market to achieve these ends; indeed, commoditization has often been linked to breakdowns in food entitlements, which are defined as cultural or social norms that ensure food access for all members of a given social group.
1830:(WTO) and many transnational corporations (TNC's), most of which are headquartered in developed nations. The rise of Capitalism and the free market society have indeed increased and exacerbated food insecurity in the world's poor due to the structure and function of a Capitalist society where only those who can afford to buy food to feed themselves are the only ones with access to a secure and adequate food supply. Food is no longer a human right to life and health due to the Capitalist approach to commodifying food in the free market society that as a result of globalization has spread all over the world. Transnational corporations and trade organizations such as NAFTA facilitate this approach of commodifying our world's food supply by enforcing laws and regulations which further deepen the inequality of wealth and unequal distribution of common goods such as food between the rich and the poor.
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eradicate once introduced and makes subsequent subsistence production virtually impossible. This article treats a common situation of households prioritizing working males in food allocation, exposing growing children to malnutrition, particularly under nutrition and micronutrient deficiency, and all of its attendant ills. Edgar discusses how exclusive planting of cotton in the
Southeastern United States during the late Nineteenth and early Twentieth Centuries caused substantial land degradation, lead to a great deal of land expropriation from small scale farmers, and occurred in a context of widespread malnutrition. Especially in Today's complex, accelerated version of globalization, cash cropping is intimately linked with the delocalization of diets and the commoditization of food and has profound, though varied, implications for food security and nutritional status.
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communities in
Central America, to include reductions in food security and nutritional status. Much of tourism literature details marked increases in the commoditization of food subsequent to the introduction of tourism as a form of market based economic development. Dewey and Robbins also state that when food is primarily seen as a commodity by powerful interests, not only does such an ideology increase delocalization, but also land degradation and expropriation as elite land owners or transnational corporations cause massive social and ecological disruptions in the process of mono-cropping food crops over broad swaths of land in order to reap maximum profits from overseas sales. Indeed, delocalization and commoditization have significant potential to diminish food security and nutritional status in poor communities over broad areas of the world.
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larger populations, higher population densities, and a more complex social structure has correlated with the geographic expansion of agricultural and industrial societies at the expense of societies emphasizing other modes of production. Concurrent with this trend toward intensified agricultural and industrial production has been the rise of the social and economic paradigm of capitalism, which entails the production and sale of goods and services in the market place in order to produce a profit. These trends have had profound implications for nutritional status for human beings on a global scale. In order to discern how broader economic and environmental trends affect a community's food systems, food security, and nutritional status, it is important to summarize one of the most significant economic and ecological phenomena today,
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temporary âgrowing painâ until economic development attains its full efficacy is a matter of debate, but there are many empirical examples of communities being dissociated from traditional means of food production and not being able to find sufficient wages in a new market economy to achieve a balanced and calorically sufficient diet. Several factors affecting food security and nutritional status range on a continuum from more physical phenomena such as land degradation and land expropriation, to more culturally and socio-politically driven things such as cash cropping, dietary delocalization, and commoditization of food; one important caveat is that all of these trends are interconnected and fall under a broad category of socio-cultural and economic disruptions and dislocations under the current paradigm of globalization.
1723:. Additionally, industrial societies use mechanized equipment in order to prepare land for planting, harvest crops, and distribute food to locations distant from where the original crops were planted. Industrialism shows similar trends to agriculture in terms of population density, and environmental impact, except to a much greater degree. Dietary diversity can be highly variable under an industrial mode of production and can depend on access to foods produced for local subsistence on the one hand, or to income level and purchasing power visa vie foods available in food markets (Leatherman and Goodman 2005). Dietary diversity and nutritional health often correlate with the degree of social stratification within an industrial society and sometimes between societies. With the exception of
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cleared vegetation in order to use the ashes to nourish the soil (hence the phrase slash and burn). Next, the group plants a crop or crops in this clearing and uses it for cultivation for several years. At the end of this period, the entire village relocates and starts the process anew, leaving the old clearing fallow for a period of decades in order to allow regeneration through the regrowth of wild vegetation. These food items can be supplemented through the raising of livestock, hunting wild game, and in many cases with the gathering of wild plants (Miller 2005; Park 2006). Though periodic movement precludes absolute permanent ownership of land, some horticultural societies fiercely defend current territories and practice violence against neighboring groups. For instance,
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companies (linked with all-inclusive German-owned resorts in the Canary
Islands) and are paid for before tourists ever arrive at their vacation destination. Leatherman and Goodman and Daltabuit point to circumscription of land available for traditional milpa horticultural production in communities in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo in the face of growing demands for land for resorts by tourism interests, under the auspices of the Mexican national government. One expropriation scenario with a long history is cash cropping, where crops grown for revenue from exports are prioritized over crops grown for local consumption.
1805:(1999); here Sen disagrees about whether or not the world's poor are getting poorer, but also maintains that this criterion is not the most important. He argues that relative disparities and power differentials are the most important problems of globalization. Sen states that the increasing interconnection of the Worlds societies can have positive benefits, but that the disparities and opportunities for exploitation must be mitigated to the greatest extent possible, if they can not be eliminated outright. Sen provides groundwork for a nuanced middle ground between unabashed proponents and opponents of globalization.
1885:, both in terms of chance of infection and severity of symptoms for those infected. While the extremely low percentage of the U.S. population involved in agriculture strongly suggests that direct access to arable land is not an absolute necessity for food security and nutritional health, land degradation in many developing nations is accelerating the rate of rural to urban migration at a more accelerated rate than most major cities are equipped to handle. Leatherman and Goodman also allude to land degradation co-occurring with decreases in food security and nutritional status in some communities in the
2044:, and stroke. Overnutrition is also often associated with the co-occurrence of caloric sufficiency (or over-sufficiency) and micronutrient deficiency, as is often the case where processed foods that are high in calories, but low in most nutrients, increase in dietary prominence. Leatherman and Goodman and Guest and Jones discuss the growing coincidence of stunting and other symptoms of MMM and obesity within developing nations, sometimes within the same community. This trend can be linked to changing economies and food practices in much of the World under contemporary economic globalization.
1918:(NAFTA); in many cases, these subsistence producers are forced either to migrate to cities or work sporadically as agricultural labors. Since most if not all food must be purchased under these circumstances, the food security and nutritional status of these newer additions to the pool of poor unskilled labor often declines. Another common impetus for expropriation is non-agricultural âeconomic developmentâ, often in the form of tourism. In one Example, Donald MacLeod details curtailment of subsistence activities, mainly fishing and cultivation, in areas of the
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1984:. The most obvious manifestation of MMM, stunting is defined as height and or weight below the standard range for a particular age group. However, far from being a mere difference in height and weight, stunting was correlated with a wide variety of health effects. Closely related to stunting, level of physical activity closely articulates with nutritional status and affects childhood development. Chronically malnourished infants and toddlers showed decreased physical activity compared to supplemented groups or those who are adequately nourished.
1769:, whereby European merchants began to achieve power in world markets and in relation to European governing aristocracies. Robbins cites example of government protections that facilitated mercantilism in the form of exclusive proprietary rights to trading companies and armies used to protect trade by force if necessary. He details instances of government protection such as the example of how Great Britain destroyed India's textile industry and turned that society into an importer of textiles is especially illustrative. In dealing with
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utilizing a simple version of reciprocity. Whatever the theoretical stance of social scholars on non-western traditional economies, there is a consensus that such essentials as food and water tended to be shared more freely than other types of goods or services. This dynamic tends to change with the introduction of a market-based economy into a society, with food coming to be increasingly treated as a commodity, rather than a social good or an essential component of health and survival.
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social obligations, and local environments for colonized societies. In order to understand the effects of globalization on nutritional status and food security, it is important to understand the historical circumstances that have led to contemporary globalization, and that still manifest themselves in political, social, material, and physical/health differentials between (and within) the different peoples of the world today.
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1761:âThe Rise of the Merchant, Industrialist, and Capital Controller,â written by Richard Robbins in 2005, uses a hypothetical scenario of the reader as a âmerchant adventurerâ to detail economic world history starting in 1400. In 1400, China was arguably the most cosmopolitan and technologically complex society in the world. It was a center of trade, along with the Middle East, East Africa, and ports on the
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foragers, they are generally less dense than those which practice other modes of production. If practiced on a small scale, over a large area, with long fallow periods, horticulture has less negative environmental impact than agriculture or industrialism, but more than foraging (Miller 2005). Generally, horticulture coincides with a subsistence type of economy in terms of production, distribution.
1765:. Western Europe, while playing a part in this network, did not dominate it by any means; one could argue for European marginalization in fact. This circumstance began to change when the Europeans âdiscoveredâ the Americas, setting in motion a process that would disrupt many societies and devastate indigenous populations of the Western Hemisphere. The dominant economic paradigm of this period was
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where individuals and communities who can best adapt to rapid changes in the role of governments and the particular economic base of a given location would be in the best position to take advantage of the opportunities offered by economic, political, and cultural globalization. This free market ideology is also predominant in the policies and procedures of the
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its sugar crop and substantial food imports for the later centuries of the
Spanish Colonial Period. He describes Cuba as an example of growing impoverishment and malnutrition concurrent with increasing concentration of land and other resources in fewer hands. Gross and Underwood illustrate the mid Twentieth Century example of the advent of sisal production in
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the
European sub-continent to found colonies in the Americas, East Asia, South Asia, Australia and Oceania. This expansion has had a profound impact in terms of wealth creation in Europe and extraction elsewhere, cultural changes in most of the world's societies, and biological phenomena such as the introduction of several infectious diseases into the
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the same region who received dietary supplements, Chavez et al. show a relation between MMM and poorer school performance; unsupplemented children showed poorer participation, greater degree of in-class distraction, more sleeping in class, and poorer performance on standardized tests. In addition, malnourished children showed poorer scores on
1980:(MMM) not only pertain to caloric insufficiency (often closely associated with food insecurity) but also to poor dietary diversity; in particular, curtailed access to protein, complex carbohydrates, zinc, iron, and other micronutrients. The ways in which undernutrition and micronutrient deficiency interact with other health effects are
2007:, birth spacing was an average of 27 months, versus 19 months.Though longer birth spacing can help control population growth, the evidence that Chavez et al. present suggest a curtailing of reproductive choice and adaptability due to malnutrition. This study also linked maternal MMM with higher infant and young child mortality.
1901:. Coupled with land expropriation, land degradation has the effect of thrusting unprepared subsistence producers or other peasant farmers into a fast-paced and complex market economy heavily influence by policy makers who are far removed from the concerns and worldview of small scale farmers in developing countries.
1868:, with definitional variation depending in large part on the scholar or stakeholder in question, they do outline a general idea of reduced soil fertility and reduced ability of a given area of land to provide for people's subsistence needs, as compared to earlier periods in human history on that same land area.
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Perhaps, the most critical facets of human development correlated to nutrition levels are behavior and cognition; development in these two areas could have profound effects on life chances for individuals and populations. In comparing a group of southern
Mexican children subject to MMM and a group in
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in 1985, details examples of mono-cropping, or planting massive areas with one cash crop, in several
Caribbean Islands, including Cuba. He states that Cuba went from being an economically diverse place with many small scale subsistence producers to a mono-crop plantation system dependent on cash from
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The general trend for many societies over the past several millennia has been toward agriculture, and in the past two centuries, toward industrialism. Though these two modes of production are by no means superior to other modes in every respect, the fact that societies that practice them tend to have
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in the preparation of land for planting and the cultivation of crops. Agriculture often supports much higher population densities than other modes of production (except industrialism) and agricultural societies can range in population from a few thousand into the millions. Though agriculture produces
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also entails the exchange of goods for currency, versus bartering commodities or being under continuing reciprocal gift exchange obligations. This is not to say that market economies do not coexist with subsistence economies and other forms, but that one type usually dominates within a given society.
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In terms of food security and dietary diversity, which are defined as reliable access to a caloric sufficiency and access to a wide variety of macro and micro nutrients in order to maintain nutritive balance, respectively, the commoditization of food plays a key role in diminishing the control local
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may experienced greater food insecurity and nutritional status due to insufficient income to replace the foods no longer produced by a household. Whether the growth of food insecurity and socioeconomic disparities in many parts of the world in recent decades is an inherent part of globalization or a
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have held forth extensively about the possibilities of economic and social improvement in developed and developing nations alike, mainly through increased access to appropriate education, sophisticated communications and transportation technology, and a paradigm of social and economic âflexibilityâ,
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Though the scope and dimensions of globalization as most people currently construe it are of fairly recent origin, the broader phenomenon of global interconnections through cultural diffusion and trade is several centuries old. Starting in the late
Fifteenth century, European powers expanded beyond
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have a synergistic relationship that can lead to spiraling health deterioration. According to Allen, the incidence of infectious disease does not vary significantly between MMM and adequately nourished populations, but the duration and severity of disease episodes is greater for MMM populations. A
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workers who put forth work effort comparable to better nourished counterparts, but were likely to engage in resting behavior than in recreational or social activity during off hours. In wage economies where workers get paid in proportion to productive output, reduced work capacity can translate to
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Another effect of MMM crucial to life chances is work capacity; MMM shows a cyclical pattern of decreasing work capacity and its rewards, further exacerbating the problem. Allen found a correlation between reduced VO2 max rates among MMM populations and decreased muscular strength and endurance in
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In âDiet and
Delocalization: Dietary Challenges since 1750â, Pelto and Pelto trace the concurrent historical development of global capitalism and dietary delocalization, a process in which increasing portions of diet for a household or community come from an increasing distance away from that same
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Occurring for a variety of reasons, land expropriation, or the disruption of traditional ownership of land by more powerful interests such as local elites, governments, or transnational corporations, can also markedly affect nutritional status. Robbins details examples in Mexico of peasants facing
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Most scholars construe economy as involving the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services within and between societies. A key concept in a broad study of economies (versus a particular econometric study of commodities and stock markets) is social relations. For instance, many
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Also the study conducted by Baten and Blum have illustrated changes in the effects from a particular diet of the population between 1870 and 1989. Important finding of the study was that the effect of the protein on heights of the individuals became less significant during the second half of the
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production for smallholders; because owners of sisal processing machines did not think small farms worth their time, small holders could not process and sell their sisal and were often forced to work as laborers on large farms. Sisal is cited as being particularly insidious because it is hard to
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populations through infectious disease often preceding and facilitating subsequent conquest by European powers. Such conquests in turn have often had significantly negative impacts on internal cohesion, ability of populations to attain adequate resources for their own subsistence and traditional
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Closely linked with delocalization is food commoditization, or the treatment of food primarily as a market commodity, rather than prioritizing other uses, such as sustenance, human rights entitlement, or social relations. Dewey describes the deleterious effects of food commoditization for rural
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in the face of pressures from tourism interests wishing to monopolize the âpristineâ beauty of locations catering to Germans and other tourists from EU nations. Ironically, local people see relatively little monetary benefit from the rise in tourism, as many vacations are planned by German tour
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Regardless of one's overall perspective on the costs and benefits of economic globalization, there are several examples in social scholarship of groups of people suffering a decline in nutritional statues subsequent to the introduction of a capitalist market-based economy into an area that has
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is a mode of production involving the low intensity production of plant-based foods; this mode is also known as horticulture or âslash and burn agricultureâ in some texts. Horticultural societies are generally situated in semi-sedentary villages of a few hundred that clear a field and burn the
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actually describes ritual objects as a type of commodity, he couches them as such under significantly different terms than the market-based types of commodity normally treated by economists. Annette Wiener criticizes earlier works in anthropology and sociology that depicted âsimpleâ societies
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as the âFierce Peopleâ, though others have been highly critical of Chagnon's account of this society. Horticulture can also produce a broad diet, and in some cases more food per unit of land area than foraging. Though populations of horticulturalists tend to have greater density than those of
1600:
The most important step in understanding the links between economics and nutrition is to understand major modes of production that societies have used to produce the goods (and services) they have needed throughout human history. These modes are foraging, shifting cultivation, pastoralism,
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gift exchange, competitive gift exchange, and impersonal market exchange are all reflective of dominant paradigms of social relations within a given society. The main forms of economy around most of the world today, in terms of a simple production, distribution, and consumption model, are
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the performance of strenuous manual labor. Although personal motivation can have a strong positive impact on individual work performance, better muscular development associated with a history of adequate nutrition increases overall work capacity, irrespective of effort. Among
1813:(USAID) have utilized free market capitalist theories extensively in development programs in many corners of the globe whose state aims are to promote economic growth for communities and nation-states and to alleviate poverty. Likewise prominent individuals such as former
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Chavez, Adolfo; Martinez, Celia; Soberanes, Beatriz (2000). "The Effects of Malnutrition on Human Development: a 24-year Study of Well âNourished and Malnourished Children Living in a Poor Mexican Village". In Goodman, Alan H.; DuFour, Darna L.; Pelto, Gretel H. (eds.).
1788:(IMF) in the promotion of high intensity capital investment in developing nations (e.g. Weller et al. 2001; Fort et al. 2004). Disparities within nations and growing poverty rates in many nations also provide compelling evidence of the idea that the rewards of
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associated with globalization. Nutritional status affects overall health status, work performance potential, and the overall potential for economic development (either in terms of human development or traditional Western models) for any given group of people.
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referred to the gift as a âtotal social phenomenonâ, fraught with ritual and socio political as well as material significance. Though some objects, such as armbands or shell necklaces in the kula ring that runs through several island groups off the coast of
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Aside from MMM due to under-nutrition or micro-nutrient deficiency, over-nutrition, defined as the consumption of too many calories for one's body size and physical activity level, is also becoming an increasingly significant problem for much of the World.
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Far from being universally decried, the recent accelerated expansion of western capitalism, geographically, politically, and ideologically, has been lauded in many quarters. International and bilateral agencies such as the World Bank, IMF, and the
1773:, capitalism, and the rise of corporations, Robins further details the manner in which the âWestâ transformed various regions/peoples from proactive participants on global trade networks into sources of raw materials and consumers of European or
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subsistence-based and market economies. Subsistence refers to production and consumption on a small-scale of the household or community, while a market-based economy implies a much broader scale of production, distribution, and consumption. A
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key reason for this disparity is that infectious disease often results in poor food intake and nutrient absorption. Not only do sick people generally eat little, but what they do eat is often of minimal benefit due to nausea and diarrhea.
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previously practiced an economy based more on subsistence production and reciprocity. Although some people's food security may improve with access to more steady income, many people in communities that have heretofore practiced a
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period under observation (i.e. 1950-1989). Moreover, the main sources of the protein were also modified. This was caused by the development of the technologies and global trade, which have likewise reduced the food shortage.
1753:, which caused tremendous disruption and population reduction for indigenous societies there. These events, far from occurring coincidentally, have had synergistic relationships, in one vivid example, the decimation of
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on local people's ability to produce sufficient food for their families within the environs of their own communities. Farmer links malnutrition in a Haitian village with vulnerability to infectious diseases, including
1735:. The next section will treat the linkages between economic and ideological trends over the last several centuries and environmental and political economic factors affecting access to food and nutritional status.
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Himmelgreen, David A.; Daza, Nancy Romero; Vega, Maribel; Cambronero, Humberto Brenes; Amador, Edgar (2006). ""The Tourist Season Goes Down but not the Prices.": Tourism and Food Insecurity in Rural Costa Rica".
1555:. If economic and environmental changes in a community affect access to food, food security, and dietary health, then this interplay between culture and biology is in turn connected to broader historical and
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However, a broad array of scholarship exists, stating that market economies are rapidly increasing in importance on a global scale, even in societies that have traditionally relied much more heavily on
1833:
In contrast to the âwesternâ economic model, most early social scholarship about economics stressed the predominance of reciprocity as a primary driving force in traditional non-Western societies.
1708:, sometimes referred to as intensive agriculture, involves clearing and using the same plot of land for an extended period, sometimes several generations; it also involves the use of plows and
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have often been cited as having a more diverse diet and spending less time per week procuring food than societies that practice other modes of production such as intensive agriculture.
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may have the most detailed articulation with malnutrition. In populations subject to MMM, menarche occurs later (15.5 years) than in adequately nourished populations; an early average
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1842:, might induce some form of prestige based competition, the terms of exchange are significantly different from a monetary transaction under a modern capitalist system. While
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Crooks, Deborah (1998). "Poverty and Nutrition in Eastern Kentucky: The Political Economy of Childhood Growth". In Goodman, Alan H.; Leatherman, Thomas L. (eds.).
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Pelto, Gretel H.; Pelto, Pertti J. (2000). "Diet and Delocalization: Dietary Changes Since 1750". In Goodman, Alan H.; Dufour, Darna L.; Pelto, Gretel H. (eds.).
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Stonich, Susan (1991). "The Political Economy of Environmental Destruction: Food Security in Southern Honduras". In Whiteford, Scott; Ferguson, Anne E. (eds.).
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Daltabuit, Magli; Leatherman, Thomas L. (1998). "The Biocultural Impact of Tourism on Mayan Communities". In Goodman, Alan H.; Leatherman, Thomas L. (eds.).
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model states, industrial societies are heavily based on the concept of private property rights and the accumulation of profit through âfree enterpriseâ.
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cane cutters, those within normal size range cut more cane than those who showed stunting. One cultural variation in this trend was found among MMM
2003:(40.5 years) makes for a relatively short reproductive period for women in the study area for Chavez et al. Because of longer postpartum periods of
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are uneven at best. There is a great deal of literature about globalization and increases in health disparities both between and within countries.
1893:. Walter Edgar discusses the correlation between land degradation and economic disruption, as well as nutritional hardship, in the U.S. state of
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Crooks, Deborah L. (2000). "Food Consumption, Activity, and Overweight Among Elementary School Children in an Appalachian Kentucky Community".
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Smith, Carol (1993). "Local History in Global Context: Social and Economic Transitions in Western Guatemala". In Levine, Daniel H. (ed.).
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Armelagos, George J.; Goodman, Alan H. (1998). "Race, Racism, and Anthropology". In Goodman, Alan H.; Leatherman, Thomas L. (eds.).
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Food from Peace: Breaking the Links Between Conflict and Hunger In Food, Agriculture, and the Environment. Discussion Paper 24
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exports. This history of world trade is important to the consideration of current issues of disparity of power and wealth.
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Polanyi, Karl (1957). "The Economy as Instituted Process". In Polanyi, Karl; Arensberg, Conrad; Pearson, Harry (eds.).
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Guest, Greg; Jones, Eric C. (2005). "Globalization, Health and the Environment: an Introduction.". In Guest, G. (ed.).
1702:, have herded animals and practiced nomadic living patterns but have produced livestock primarily for market exchange.
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Allen, Lindsay H. (1984). "Functional Indications of Nutritional Status of the Whole Individual or the Community".
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Dewey, Kathryn G. (1989). "Nutrition and the Commoditization of Food Systems in Latin America and the Caribbean".
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Saitta, Dean J. (1998). "Linking Political Economy and Human Biology: Lessons from North American Archaeology".
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The Enigma of the Gift in Building a New Biocultural Synthesis: Political-Economic Perspectives on Human Biology
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has been associated with obesity, which the USDA and McEwen and Seeman correlate with increased risk of type II
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2147:"Health, Wealth and the Environment: the Impacts of the CUSTA, GATT and NAFTA on Canadian Food Security".
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Evans, David K. (1986). "RoatĂĄn Island: a Quarter Century of Demographic and Nutritional Change".
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1156:
1036:
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865:
830:
820:
798:
793:
335:
138:
2999:
Pelto, Gretel H.; Pelto, Pertti J. (1989). "Small but Healthy? An Anthropological Perspective".
2507:
Blaikie, Piers; Harold, Brookfield, eds. (1987). "Approaches to the Study of Land Degradation".
680:
3554:
3512:
3507:
3390:
3267:
2041:
1801:
1789:
1589:
1382:
1183:
1168:
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1016:
955:
91:
3621:
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1989:
1898:
1575:
1509:
1422:
1402:
1188:
1128:
1088:
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1671:
1412:
1093:
1063:
1031:
1006:
905:
895:
870:
860:
391:
260:
3180:
The Unremarkable Record of Liberalized Trade. In Talking Points on Global Issues: a Reader
3140:
2860:
Leatherman, Thomas L.; Goodman, Alan (2005). "Coca-colonization of Diets in the YucatĂĄn".
8:
3722:
3500:
3331:
3282:
3225:
3143:. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services & U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2005
2949:. John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Research Network on Socioeconomic Status and Health.
1996:
1943:
1852:
1592:. This economic shift has nutritional implications that this entry will explore further.
1427:
1260:
1143:
1118:
1021:
1011:
991:
835:
721:
705:
460:
386:
348:
3178:
Weller, Christian E.; Robert E. Scott; Adam S. Hersh (2004). Robbins, Richard H. (ed.).
3012:
2820:
3748:
3626:
3564:
3352:
3341:
3319:
3314:
3303:
2906:
2832:
2690:
2024:
1750:
1719:
combines agriculture with mechanized industrial production of goods through the use of
1556:
1447:
1138:
1083:
855:
640:
592:
3109:
3049:
Building a New Biocultural Synthesis: Political-Economic Perspectives on Human Biology
2744:
Building a New Biocultural Synthesis: Political-Economic Perspectives on Human Biology
2575:
Building a New Biocultural Synthesis: Political-Economic Perspectives on Human Biology
2537:
Building a New Biocultural Synthesis: Political-Economic Perspectives on Human Biology
2491:
Building a New Biocultural Synthesis: Political-Economic Perspectives on Human Biology
3601:
3475:
3368:
3277:
3164:
3157:
3126:
3119:
2877:
2747:
2710:
2653:
2617:
2613:
2561:
2498:
Appadurai, Arjun, ed. (1986). "Introduction: Commodities and the Politics of Value".
2122:
2057:
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1255:
1245:
1223:
970:
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587:
401:
320:
3207:
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2437:
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1865:
1839:
1676:
1544:
1193:
1173:
910:
885:
700:
655:
547:
358:
2788:
2771:
3687:
3448:
2772:"Technological Change and Caloric Cost: Sisal Agriculture in Northeastern Brazil"
2118:
1843:
1822:
1665:
1657:
1437:
1377:
1354:
1103:
645:
602:
376:
280:
2584:
Tourism, Health Social Change Among the Maya of Quintana Roo: Preliminary Report
1579:
3692:
1919:
1894:
1818:
1774:
1584:
1392:
1098:
915:
875:
353:
2889:
MacLeod, Donald V. L. (1999). "Tourism and Globalization of a Canary Island".
2828:
2288:
2286:
492:
3737:
3431:
3380:
2033:
1886:
1864:
Though Blakie and Brookfield acknowledge the problematic aspects of defining
1732:
1716:
1709:
1552:
1540:
1270:
1265:
1213:
935:
675:
665:
660:
650:
635:
471:
433:
396:
3480:
2920:
Tourism, Globalization and Cultural Change: an Island Community Perspective
2881:
2565:
2283:
1977:
1938:
1911:
1890:
1878:
1834:
1766:
1724:
1720:
1661:
1178:
1068:
774:
695:
690:
685:
498:
330:
325:
300:
3189:
Globalization, Water, and Health: Resource Management in Times of Scarcity
2621:
2441:
2271:
2232:
3363:
1869:
1796:
1770:
1705:
1695:
1350:
1218:
975:
848:
815:
476:
381:
3022:
Nutritional Anthropology: Biocultural Perspectives on Food and Nutrition
2845:
2558:
10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(2000)112:2<159::AID-AJPA3>3.0.CO;2-G
2528:
Nutritional Anthropology: Biocultural Perspectives on Food and Nutrition
2220:
3248:
3089:
Harvest of Want: Hunger and Food Security in Central America and Mexico
2910:
2004:
1781:
1754:
1330:
2298:
2261:
2259:
1946:. These authors detail a vicious cycle of the unfulfilled promises of
3418:
2016:
2000:
1684:
1548:
1303:
1298:
1230:
710:
428:
2902:
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3374:
3191:. Oxford: James Currey Publisher/School of American Research Press.
2742:
Arbor, Ann (1998). Goodman, Alan H.; Leatherman, Thomas L. (eds.).
2256:
2037:
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Seckler, David (1980). ""Malnutrition": an Intellectual Odyssey".
2012:
1340:
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3395:
2938:
The Gift: the Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies
2646:. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press.
2186:
2184:
2182:
1981:
1688:
1315:
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2705:
The World is Flat: a Brief History of the Twenty First Century
2500:
The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective
3217:
2805:
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Fort, Meredith (2004). Mercer, Mary Ann; Gish, Oscar (eds.).
2196:
1947:
1873:
3198:
Inalienable Possessions: the Paradox of Keeping While Giving
2179:
2843:
2692:
Sickness and Wealth: the Corporate Assault on Global Health
1325:
290:
2470:
3024:. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company.
2965:
Sweetness and Power: the Place of Sugar in Modern History
2954:
Messer, Ellen; Cohen, Marc J.; DâCosta, Jashinta (1998).
2530:. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company.
2113:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 43â49,
2381:
2208:
782:
3213:. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
3200:. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
2524:
2520:. Fort Worth, Texas: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.
2473:
Integration of Markets versus Integration of Agreements
2304:
2292:
2277:
2265:
2244:
2238:
2226:
3612:
International Conference on Population and Development
2735:
The Biological Consequences of Inequality in Antiquity
2405:
2655:
AIDS and Accusation: Haiti and the Geography of Blame
2356:
2354:
2155:
1954:
1872:
discusses the effects of land degradation in central
3096:
Stonich, S. (1998). "Political Ecology of Tourism".
3051:. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press.
2577:. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press.
2539:. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press.
2493:. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press.
2339:
2327:
2317:
2315:
2313:
1595:
2675:"Remarks by Henrietta H. Fore. Electronic Document"
2572:
2371:
2369:
2149:
Toronto Food Policy Council Discussion Paper Series
2020:reduced food security, increasing the risk of MMM.
1992:(I.Q.) tests than their supplemented counterparts.
1743:
152:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3206:
3156:
3118:
2953:
2891:The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute
2702:
2689:
2652:
2480:Arbache, Jorge; Go, Delfin S.; Page, John (2008).
2351:
2202:
1811:United States Agency for International Development
1563:
2983:Introduction Anthropology: an Integrated Approach
2859:
2471:Aminian, Nathalie; K.C. Fung; Francis Ng (2008).
2393:
2310:
2190:
3735:
3187:Whiteford, Linda (2005). Scott Whiteford (ed.).
2770:Gross, Daniel G.; Underwood, Barbara A. (1971).
2763:The Age of Turbulence: Adventures in a New World
2595:. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4176.
2488:
2484:. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4519.
2475:. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4546.
2366:
2167:
3080:Constructing Culture and Power in Latin America
2985:(3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
2976:(3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
2666:Infections and Inequalities: the Modern Plagues
2593:Controls on Capital Inflows and External Shocks
2769:
2104:
2082:"Research methods in nutritional anthropology"
1738:
3233:
3031:Global Problems and the Culture of Capitalism
2506:
2479:
2105:Mackie, J. R.; Faulkner, O. T., eds. (2013),
1780:There are many critiques the policies of the
1517:
743:
2944:
2931:. Long Grove, Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc.
2732:
2696:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: South End Press.
2387:
1976:The deleterious effects of mild to moderate
1601:agriculture, and industrialism (Park 2006).
3637:United Nations world population conferences
3154:
2668:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
2659:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
1568:
53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
3550:Population and housing censuses by country
3240:
3226:
3082:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
3019:
2998:
2926:
2799:Globalization, Health, and the Environment
2796:
2746:. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.
2424:Baten, Jörg; Blum, Matthias (1 May 2014).
2411:
2161:
1524:
1510:
750:
736:
3186:
3058:Western Journal of Agricultural Economics
2787:
2760:
2737:. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.
2581:
2546:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
2497:
2423:
230:Learn how and when to remove this message
212:Learn how and when to remove this message
110:Learn how and when to remove this message
3273:Estimates of historical world population
3037:
3033:(3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
2723:
2709:. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.
2700:
2502:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1623:: vague phrasing that often accompanies
73:This article includes a list of general
3141:"Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005"
3116:
3095:
3086:
3055:
3028:
2989:
2917:
2888:
2728:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2515:
2482:Is Africa's Economy at a Turning Point?
1995:Of all the aspects of human existence,
3736:
3195:
3046:
2971:
2945:McEwen, Bruce; Seeman, Teresa (1999).
2663:
2650:
2543:
2534:
2360:
2214:
1539:is the study of the interplay between
3221:
3209:Europe and the People Without History
3077:
2992:Trade and Market in the Early Empires
2962:
2935:
2922:. Toronto: Channel View Publications.
2741:
2641:
2628:
2599:
2590:
2457:
2399:
2345:
2333:
2321:
2305:Chavez, Martinez & Soberanes 2000
2293:Chavez, Martinez & Soberanes 2000
2278:Chavez, Martinez & Soberanes 2000
2266:Chavez, Martinez & Soberanes 2000
2250:
2239:Chavez, Martinez & Soberanes 2000
2227:Chavez, Martinez & Soberanes 2000
2173:
1904:
3706:
3204:
3139:
3091:. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
2980:
2844:International Monetary Fund (2008).
2687:
2672:
2375:
1603:
150:adding citations to reliable sources
121:
59:
18:
3642:Voluntary Human Extinction Movement
3068:
3013:10.17730/humo.48.1.eu7v81qn71w172tu
2430:European Review of Economic History
2151:(Discussion Paper #2). August 1994.
1916:North American Free Trade Agreement
1859:
13:
3073:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1955:Delocalization and commoditization
1910:land expropriation in the face of
79:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
3765:
3534:Population and Development Review
3182:. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
1967:
1596:Modes of production and nutrition
34:This article has multiple issues.
3718:
3717:
3705:
3582:Population concern organizations
3288:Projections of population growth
2929:Argonauts of the Western Pacific
2203:Messer, Cohen & DâCosta 1998
1926:
1744:General summary of globalization
1608:
781:
126:
64:
23:
3683:Human impact on the environment
3617:Population Action International
2874:10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.08.047
2417:
2023:Additionally, malnutrition and
1564:General economics and nutrition
137:needs additional citations for
42:or discuss these issues on the
3632:United Nations Population Fund
3247:
3155:Wallerstein, Immanuel (1974).
2927:Malinowski, Bronislaw (1961).
2918:MacLeod, Donald V. L. (2004).
2140:
2098:
2074:
1471:Anthropologists by nationality
576:Formalistâsubstantivist debate
1:
3110:10.1016/S0160-7383(97)00037-6
2809:Ecology of Food and Nutrition
2789:10.1525/aa.1971.73.3.02a00130
2733:Goodman, Alan H.; Ann Arbor.
2451:
2191:Leatherman & Goodman 2005
1897:in the decades following the
566:Critique of political economy
3163:. New York: Academic Press.
3029:Robbins, Richard H. (2005).
2701:Friedman, Thomas L. (2005).
2614:10.1016/0277-9536(89)90097-X
2509:Land Degradation and Society
2119:10.1017/CBO9781316530122.006
7:
3657:World Population Foundation
3647:World Population Conference
3560:World population milestones
3196:Wiener, Annette B. (1992).
3038:Sahalins, Marshall (1972).
2972:Miller, Barbara D. (2005).
2947:"Allostatic Load (Summary)"
2862:Social Science and Medicine
2673:Fore, Henrietta H. (2008).
2602:Social Science and Medicine
2051:
1786:International Monetary Fund
1739:Globalization and nutrition
618:Anthropology of development
506:Colonialism and development
10:
3770:
3529:Population and Environment
3098:Annals of Tourism Research
2765:. New York: Penguin Press.
2724:Godelier, Maurice (1998).
2591:David, Antonio C. (2007).
2516:Chagnon, Napoleon (1997).
1821:and U.S. based journalist
1815:U.S. Federal Reserve Board
1635:Such statements should be
1491:List of indigenous peoples
161:"Nutritional anthropology"
3701:
3665:
3590:
3542:
3521:
3439:Human population planning
3404:
3350:
3301:
3263:Demographics of the world
3255:
3117:Tierney, Patrick (2000).
2981:Park, Michael A. (2006).
2829:10.1080/03670240600848753
2801:. Lanham: Altamira Press.
2644:South Carolina: a History
2586:. Unpublished Manuscript.
2582:Daltabuit, Magli (2000).
1236:Cross-cultural comparison
571:Original affluent society
516:The Anti-Politics Machine
3444:Compulsory sterilization
3069:Sen, Amartya K. (2001).
2761:Greenspan, Alan (2007).
2388:McEwen & Seeman 1999
2111:West African Agriculture
2068:
1914:consolidation under the
1828:World Trade Organization
1656:Foraging, also known as
1576:economic anthropologists
1569:General economic summary
1537:Nutritional anthropology
1408:Historical particularism
613:Heritage commodification
608:Nutritional anthropology
582:The Great Transformation
3386:Malthusian growth model
3159:The Modern World System
2994:. New York: Free Press.
2936:Mauss, Marcel (1990) .
2776:American Anthropologist
2631:Collegiate Anthropology
1241:Participant observation
336:Inalienable possessions
94:more precise citations.
3744:Agriculture in society
3513:Zero population growth
3508:Sustainable population
3432:Malthusian catastrophe
3391:Overshoot (population)
3268:Demographic transition
3205:Wolf, Eric R. (1982).
3071:Development as Freedom
2963:Mintz, Sidney (1985).
2642:Edgar, Walter (1998).
2412:Guest & Jones 2005
2162:Pelto & Pelto 2000
2107:"Shifting Cultivation"
2042:cardiovascular disease
1802:Development as Freedom
1790:economic globalization
1590:subsistence production
1383:Cross-cultural studies
531:People Without History
3754:Economic anthropology
3622:Population Connection
3486:Mere addition paradox
3325:Physiological density
3121:Darkness in El Dorado
2974:Cultural Anthropology
2664:Farmer, Paul (1999).
2651:Farmer, Paul (1992).
1990:intelligence quotient
1899:Reconstruction Period
1658:hunting and gathering
726:cultural anthropology
3652:World Population Day
3607:Church of Euthanasia
3496:Non-identity problem
3471:Political demography
3427:Human overpopulation
3125:. New York: Norton.
2967:. New York: Penguin.
2958:. Washington: IFPRI.
2295:, pp. 236, 239.
1672:Shifting cultivation
1637:clarified or removed
1476:Anthropology by year
1413:Boasian anthropology
1388:Cultural materialism
1373:Actorânetwork theory
971:Paleoanthropological
681:BronisĆaw Malinowski
392:Shifting cultivation
371:Provisioning systems
146:improve this article
3501:Reproductive rights
3332:Population dynamics
3283:Population momentum
3040:Stone Age Economics
2940:. New York: Norton.
2821:2006EcoFN..45..295H
2442:10.1093/ereh/heu003
2280:, pp. 248â249.
2241:, pp. 249â251.
2217:, pp. 339â355.
1997:sexual reproduction
1944:Northeastern Brazil
1934:Sweetness and Power
1853:subsistence economy
1679:(1997) depicts the
1428:Performance studies
1321:Kinship and descent
1261:Cultural relativism
911:Paleoethnobotanical
886:Ethnoarchaeological
706:Harold K. Schneider
461:Gifting remittances
387:Nomadic pastoralism
349:Spheres of exchange
343:(commodity pathway)
3627:Population Matters
3342:Population pyramid
3320:Population density
3315:Population decline
3042:. Chicago: Aldine.
3001:Human Organization
2511:. London: Methuen.
2460:Clinical Nutrition
2253:, pp. 172â73.
2229:, pp. 237â51.
2025:infectious disease
1905:Land expropriation
1795:Finally, there is
1751:Western Hemisphere
1549:nutritional status
1448:Post-structuralism
1207:Research framework
641:Alexander Chayanov
593:Culture of poverty
495:(hunter-gatherers)
3731:
3730:
3602:7 Billion Actions
3476:Population ethics
3369:Carrying capacity
3278:Population growth
2753:978-0-472-06606-3
2128:978-1-107-62535-8
2058:Geography of food
1763:Mediterranean Sea
1654:
1653:
1534:
1533:
1433:Political economy
1256:Thick description
1053:Political economy
916:Zooarchaeological
876:Bioarchaeological
760:
759:
598:Political economy
588:Peasant economics
539:Political economy
402:Peasant economics
377:Hunting-gathering
240:
239:
232:
222:
221:
214:
196:
120:
119:
112:
57:
3761:
3721:
3720:
3709:
3708:
3678:Green Revolution
3459:Two-child policy
3454:One-child policy
3377:
3337:Population model
3293:World population
3242:
3235:
3228:
3219:
3218:
3214:
3212:
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2159:
2153:
2152:
2144:
2138:
2137:
2136:
2135:
2102:
2096:
2095:
2093:
2092:
2078:
2063:Food sovereignty
1866:land degradation
1860:Land degradation
1840:Papua New Guinea
1677:Napoleon Chagnon
1649:
1646:
1640:
1612:
1611:
1604:
1545:economic systems
1526:
1519:
1512:
1054:
936:Anthrozoological
785:
762:
761:
752:
745:
738:
701:Marshall Sahlins
656:Maurice Godelier
560:Related articles
548:Jim Crow economy
359:Cultural capital
344:
341:Singularization
242:
241:
235:
228:
217:
210:
206:
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197:
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154:
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95:
90:this article by
81:inline citations
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3517:
3466:Overconsumption
3449:Family planning
3406:
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3246:
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2903:10.2307/2661277
2850:
2848:
2846:"About the IMF"
2754:
2717:
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2328:
2320:
2311:
2303:
2299:
2291:
2284:
2276:
2272:
2264:
2257:
2249:
2245:
2237:
2233:
2225:
2221:
2213:
2209:
2201:
2197:
2189:
2180:
2172:
2168:
2160:
2156:
2146:
2145:
2141:
2133:
2131:
2129:
2103:
2099:
2090:
2088:
2086:archive.unu.edu
2080:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2054:
1970:
1957:
1929:
1907:
1862:
1823:Thomas Friedman
1746:
1741:
1666:Kalahari Desert
1650:
1644:
1641:
1634:
1613:
1609:
1598:
1578:state that the
1571:
1566:
1557:economic trends
1530:
1501:
1500:
1466:
1458:
1457:
1438:Practice theory
1378:Alliance theory
1368:
1360:
1359:
1355:Postcolonialism
1284:
1276:
1275:
1209:
1199:
1198:
1164:Anthropological
1159:
1149:
1148:
1052:
1002:
1001:
981:
980:
931:
921:
920:
851:
841:
840:
811:
803:
756:
716:
715:
646:Stanley Diamond
631:
630:Major theorists
623:
622:
603:State formation
561:
553:
552:
530:
529:Europe and the
415:
407:
406:
372:
364:
363:
342:
281:Commodification
276:
266:
236:
225:
224:
223:
218:
207:
201:
198:
155:
153:
143:
131:
116:
105:
99:
96:
86:Please help to
85:
69:
65:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3767:
3757:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3729:
3728:
3726:
3725:
3715:
3702:
3699:
3698:
3696:
3695:
3693:Sustainability
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3669:
3667:
3666:Related topics
3663:
3662:
3660:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3598:
3596:
3591:
3588:
3587:
3585:
3584:
3579:
3578:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3557:
3555:Largest cities
3552:
3546:
3544:
3540:
3539:
3537:
3536:
3531:
3525:
3523:
3519:
3518:
3516:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3504:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3462:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3436:
3435:
3434:
3424:
3416:
3410:
3408:
3402:
3401:
3399:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3375:I = P Ă Aâ Ă T
3371:
3366:
3360:
3358:
3351:
3348:
3347:
3345:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3328:
3327:
3317:
3311:
3309:
3302:
3299:
3298:
3296:
3295:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3259:
3257:
3253:
3252:
3245:
3244:
3237:
3230:
3222:
3216:
3215:
3202:
3193:
3184:
3175:
3169:
3152:
3137:
3131:
3114:
3093:
3084:
3075:
3066:
3053:
3044:
3035:
3026:
3017:
2996:
2987:
2978:
2969:
2960:
2951:
2942:
2933:
2924:
2915:
2886:
2857:
2841:
2815:(4): 295â321.
2803:
2794:
2767:
2758:
2752:
2739:
2730:
2721:
2715:
2698:
2685:
2670:
2661:
2648:
2639:
2626:
2608:(5): 415â424.
2597:
2588:
2579:
2570:
2552:(2): 159â170.
2541:
2532:
2522:
2513:
2504:
2495:
2486:
2477:
2468:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2447:
2436:(2): 144â165.
2416:
2404:
2392:
2380:
2365:
2350:
2348:, p. 169.
2338:
2336:, p. 173.
2326:
2309:
2307:, p. 236.
2297:
2282:
2270:
2255:
2243:
2231:
2219:
2207:
2195:
2178:
2166:
2154:
2139:
2127:
2097:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2066:
2065:
2060:
2053:
2050:
1969:
1968:Dietary health
1966:
1956:
1953:
1928:
1925:
1920:Canary Islands
1906:
1903:
1895:South Carolina
1861:
1858:
1819:Alan Greenspan
1775:North American
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1652:
1651:
1645:September 2019
1616:
1614:
1607:
1597:
1594:
1585:market economy
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1532:
1531:
1529:
1528:
1521:
1514:
1506:
1503:
1502:
1499:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1478:
1473:
1467:
1464:
1463:
1460:
1459:
1456:
1455:
1453:Systems theory
1450:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1393:Culture theory
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1369:
1366:
1365:
1362:
1361:
1358:
1357:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1312:
1311:
1301:
1296:
1291:
1285:
1282:
1281:
1278:
1277:
1274:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1227:
1226:
1216:
1210:
1205:
1204:
1201:
1200:
1197:
1196:
1191:
1186:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1160:
1155:
1154:
1151:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1141:
1136:
1131:
1126:
1121:
1116:
1111:
1106:
1101:
1096:
1091:
1086:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1024:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1003:
1000:
999:
994:
988:
987:
986:
983:
982:
979:
978:
976:Primatological
973:
968:
963:
958:
953:
948:
943:
938:
932:
927:
926:
923:
922:
919:
918:
913:
908:
903:
898:
893:
888:
883:
878:
873:
868:
863:
858:
852:
849:Archaeological
847:
846:
843:
842:
839:
838:
833:
828:
823:
818:
816:Archaeological
812:
809:
808:
805:
804:
802:
801:
796:
790:
787:
786:
778:
777:
771:
770:
758:
757:
755:
754:
747:
740:
732:
729:
728:
718:
717:
714:
713:
708:
703:
698:
693:
688:
683:
678:
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
648:
643:
638:
632:
629:
628:
625:
624:
621:
620:
615:
610:
605:
600:
595:
590:
585:
578:
573:
568:
562:
559:
558:
555:
554:
551:
550:
544:
543:
541:
535:
534:
524:
523:
520:
519:
511:
510:
508:
502:
501:
496:
489:
488:
486:
480:
479:
474:
468:
467:
464:
463:
457:
456:
454:
448:
447:
441:
440:
437:
436:
431:
425:
424:
422:
416:
413:
412:
409:
408:
405:
404:
399:
394:
389:
384:
379:
373:
370:
369:
366:
365:
362:
361:
356:
354:Social capital
351:
346:
338:
333:
328:
323:
318:
313:
311:Redistribution
308:
303:
298:
293:
288:
283:
277:
275:Basic concepts
274:
273:
270:
269:
253:
252:
238:
237:
220:
219:
202:September 2013
134:
132:
125:
118:
117:
100:September 2013
72:
70:
63:
58:
32:
31:
29:
22:
16:Field of study
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3766:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3741:
3739:
3724:
3716:
3714:
3713:
3704:
3703:
3700:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3673:Bennett's law
3671:
3670:
3668:
3664:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3599:
3597:
3594:organizations
3589:
3583:
3580:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3562:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3547:
3545:
3541:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3526:
3524:
3520:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3478:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3441:
3440:
3437:
3433:
3430:
3429:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3421:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3411:
3409:
3403:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3381:Kaya identity
3379:
3376:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3349:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3326:
3323:
3322:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3300:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3260:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3243:
3238:
3236:
3231:
3229:
3224:
3223:
3220:
3211:
3210:
3203:
3199:
3194:
3190:
3185:
3181:
3176:
3172:
3170:9780127859194
3166:
3161:
3160:
3153:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3132:9780393049220
3128:
3123:
3122:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3094:
3090:
3085:
3081:
3076:
3072:
3067:
3064:(2): 219â227.
3063:
3059:
3054:
3050:
3045:
3041:
3036:
3032:
3027:
3023:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2997:
2993:
2988:
2984:
2979:
2975:
2970:
2966:
2961:
2957:
2952:
2948:
2943:
2939:
2934:
2930:
2925:
2921:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2897:(3): 443â56.
2896:
2892:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2868:(4): 833â46.
2867:
2863:
2858:
2847:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2804:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2782:(3): 725â40.
2781:
2777:
2773:
2768:
2764:
2759:
2755:
2749:
2745:
2740:
2736:
2731:
2727:
2722:
2718:
2716:9780374292881
2712:
2707:
2706:
2699:
2694:
2693:
2686:
2676:
2671:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2656:
2649:
2645:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2598:
2594:
2589:
2585:
2580:
2576:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2542:
2538:
2533:
2529:
2523:
2519:
2514:
2510:
2505:
2501:
2496:
2492:
2487:
2483:
2478:
2474:
2469:
2466:(5): 169â174.
2465:
2461:
2456:
2455:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2420:
2413:
2408:
2401:
2396:
2389:
2384:
2377:
2372:
2370:
2362:
2357:
2355:
2347:
2342:
2335:
2330:
2323:
2318:
2316:
2314:
2306:
2301:
2294:
2289:
2287:
2279:
2274:
2267:
2262:
2260:
2252:
2247:
2240:
2235:
2228:
2223:
2216:
2211:
2204:
2199:
2192:
2187:
2185:
2183:
2175:
2170:
2163:
2158:
2150:
2143:
2130:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2101:
2087:
2083:
2077:
2073:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2055:
2049:
2045:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2034:Overnutrition
2029:
2026:
2021:
2018:
2014:
2008:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1993:
1991:
1985:
1983:
1979:
1974:
1965:
1961:
1952:
1949:
1945:
1940:
1937:, written by
1936:
1935:
1927:Cash cropping
1924:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1902:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1887:Mexican state
1884:
1880:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1857:
1854:
1848:
1845:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1829:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1806:
1804:
1803:
1798:
1793:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1778:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1759:
1756:
1752:
1736:
1734:
1733:globalization
1728:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1717:Industrialism
1714:
1711:
1710:draft animals
1707:
1703:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1673:
1669:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1648:
1638:
1632:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1617:This section
1615:
1606:
1605:
1602:
1593:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1577:
1561:
1558:
1554:
1553:food security
1550:
1546:
1542:
1541:human biology
1538:
1527:
1522:
1520:
1515:
1513:
1508:
1507:
1505:
1504:
1497:
1496:Organizations
1494:
1492:
1489:
1487:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1477:
1474:
1472:
1469:
1468:
1462:
1461:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1443:Structuralism
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1418:Functionalism
1416:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1370:
1364:
1363:
1356:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1310:
1309:sociocultural
1307:
1306:
1305:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1286:
1280:
1279:
1272:
1271:Emic and etic
1269:
1267:
1266:Ethnocentrism
1264:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1225:
1222:
1221:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1214:Anthropometry
1212:
1211:
1208:
1203:
1202:
1195:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1185:
1182:
1180:
1179:Ethnopoetical
1177:
1175:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1161:
1158:
1153:
1152:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1135:
1134:Transpersonal
1132:
1130:
1127:
1125:
1122:
1120:
1117:
1115:
1114:Psychological
1112:
1110:
1107:
1105:
1102:
1100:
1097:
1095:
1092:
1090:
1087:
1085:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1075:
1074:Institutional
1072:
1070:
1067:
1065:
1062:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1042:Environmental
1040:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1015:
1013:
1010:
1008:
1005:
1004:
998:
995:
993:
990:
989:
985:
984:
977:
974:
972:
969:
967:
964:
962:
959:
957:
954:
952:
949:
947:
944:
942:
939:
937:
934:
933:
930:
925:
924:
917:
914:
912:
909:
907:
904:
902:
899:
897:
894:
892:
889:
887:
884:
882:
881:Environmental
879:
877:
874:
872:
869:
867:
864:
862:
859:
857:
854:
853:
850:
845:
844:
837:
834:
832:
829:
827:
824:
822:
819:
817:
814:
813:
807:
806:
800:
797:
795:
792:
791:
789:
788:
784:
780:
779:
776:
773:
772:
768:
764:
763:
753:
748:
746:
741:
739:
734:
733:
731:
730:
727:
723:
720:
719:
712:
709:
707:
704:
702:
699:
697:
694:
692:
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1939:Sidney Mintz
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1879:tuberculosis
1863:
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1835:Marcel Mauss
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1621:weasel words
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1423:Interpretive
1398:Diffusionism
1367:Key theories
1353: /
1283:Key concepts
1194:Sociological
1174:Ethnological
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961:Neurological
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891:Experiential
775:Anthropology
696:Karl Polanyi
691:Sidney Mintz
686:Marcel Mauss
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301:Embeddedness
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144:Please help
139:verification
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3405:Society and
3364:Biocapacity
2637:(1): 81â89.
2361:Crooks 2000
2215:Crooks 1998
1870:Paul Farmer
1797:Amartya Sen
1771:imperialism
1706:Agriculture
1696:Pastoralism
1631:information
1351:Colonialism
1294:Development
1251:Reflexivity
1219:Ethnography
1169:Descriptive
1027:Development
966:Nutritional
941:Biocultural
866:Battlefield
493:Aché people
477:Shell money
420:Prestations
382:Pastoralism
306:Reciprocity
92:introducing
3738:Categories
3592:Events and
3407:population
3353:Population
3304:Population
3249:Population
3147:2005-09-16
2680:2008-04-27
2452:References
2400:Evans 1986
2346:Allen 1984
2334:Allen 1984
2322:Allen 1984
2251:Allen 1984
2174:Dewey 1989
2134:2023-07-04
2091:2023-07-04
2017:Guatemalan
2005:amenorrhea
1782:World Bank
1755:Amerindian
1580:reciprocal
1331:Prehistory
1184:Historical
1157:Linguistic
1069:Historical
1037:Ecological
929:Biological
831:Linguistic
821:Biological
671:Keith Hart
172:newspapers
75:references
39:improve it
3749:Nutrition
3688:Migration
3565:6 billion
2376:USDA 2005
2001:menopause
1844:Appadurai
1685:Venezuela
1619:contains
1304:Evolution
1299:Ethnicity
1231:Ethnology
1109:Political
1017:Cognitive
956:Molecular
711:Eric Wolf
429:Kula ring
45:talk page
3723:Category
3491:Natalism
3414:Eugenics
2882:15950095
2851:April 8,
2837:72252137
2566:10813699
2518:Yanamamo
2052:See also
2038:diabetes
2013:Jamaican
1883:HIV/AIDS
1784:and the
1700:Mongolia
1681:Yanamamo
1486:Journals
1403:Feminism
1189:Semiotic
1129:Symbolic
1124:Religion
1059:Feminist
1047:Economic
997:Cultural
951:Forensic
906:Maritime
901:Forensic
896:Feminist
871:Biblical
861:Aviation
826:Cultural
767:a series
765:Part of
445:Potlatch
257:Economic
248:a series
246:Part of
3712:Commons
3355:ecology
3306:biology
2911:2661277
2817:Bibcode
2622:2648596
1664:in the
1341:Society
1289:Culture
1104:Musical
1099:Museums
1094:Medical
1079:Kinship
1032:Digital
1007:Applied
799:History
794:Outline
452:Gifting
296:Finance
261:applied
186:scholar
88:improve
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1982:myriad
1817:Chair
1725:Soviet
1689:Brazil
1625:biased
1316:Gender
1246:Holism
1144:Visual
1119:Public
1022:Cyborg
992:Social
856:Aerial
836:Social
722:Social
321:Wealth
286:Barter
263:, and
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77:, but
3543:Lists
2907:JSTOR
2833:S2CID
2069:Notes
1948:sisal
1874:Haiti
1799:with
1662:!Kung
1465:Lists
1346:Value
1224:cyber
1139:Urban
1089:Media
1084:Legal
810:Types
316:Value
193:JSTOR
179:books
3165:ISBN
3127:ISBN
2878:PMID
2853:2008
2748:ISBN
2711:ISBN
2618:PMID
2562:PMID
2123:ISBN
1881:and
1687:and
1551:and
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1326:Meme
1064:Food
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