122:
133:
25:
279:
1159:
287:
1532:, a sequence entropy, also known as sequence complexity or information profile, is a numerical sequence providing a quantitative measure of the local complexity of a DNA sequence, independently of the direction of processing. The manipulations of the information profiles enable the analysis of the sequences using alignment-free techniques, such as for example in motif and rearrangements detection.
1054:
1243:
1420:, which are used to classify the evolutionary relationships between homologous genes represented in the genomes of divergent species. The degree to which sequences in a query set differ is qualitatively related to the sequences' evolutionary distance from one another. Roughly speaking, high sequence identity suggests that the sequences in question have a comparatively young
1183:
fragment. The sequence of the DNA of a living thing encodes the necessary information for that living thing to survive and reproduce. Therefore, determining the sequence is useful in fundamental research into why and how organisms live, as well as in applied subjects. Because of the importance of DNA
1044:
Given the two 10-nucleotide sequences, line them up and compare the differences between them. Calculate the percent difference by taking the number of differences between the DNA bases divided by the total number of nucleotides. In this case there are three differences in the 10 nucleotide sequence.
1339:
Genetic testing identifies changes in chromosomes, genes, or proteins. Usually, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders. The results of a genetic test can confirm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person's chance of developing or
421:
to another sequence, meaning that they have the base on each position in the complementary (i.e., A to T, C to G) and in the reverse order. For example, the complementary sequence to TTAC is GTAA. If one strand of the double-stranded DNA is considered the sense strand, then the other strand,
436:
While A, T, C, and G represent a particular nucleotide at a position, there are also letters that represent ambiguity which are used when more than one kind of nucleotide could occur at that position. The rules of the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
1444:
or the possible functional conservation of specific regions in a sequence. (In the case of nucleotide sequences, the molecular clock hypothesis in its most basic form also discounts the difference in acceptance rates between
959:
Apart from adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T) and uracil (U), DNA and RNA also contain bases that have been modified after the nucleic acid chain has been formed. In DNA, the most common modified base is
1457:
being incorporated into the protein.) More statistically accurate methods allow the evolutionary rate on each branch of the phylogenetic tree to vary, thus producing better estimates of coalescence times for genes.
220:(GACU) molecule. This succession is denoted by a series of a set of five different letters that indicate the order of the nucleotides. By convention, sequences are usually presented from the
1801:
128:
126:
1580:"Nomenclature for incompletely specified bases in nucleic acid sequences. Recommendations 1984. Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry (NC-IUB)"
1222:
Current sequencing methods rely on the discriminatory ability of DNA polymerases, and therefore can only distinguish four bases. An inosine (created from adenosine during
127:
2010:"The family of box ACA small nucleolar RNAs is defined by an evolutionarily conserved secondary structure and ubiquitous sequence elements essential for RNA accumulation"
125:
1406:
have similar biochemical properties) in a particular region of the sequence, suggest that this region has structural or functional importance. Although DNA and RNA
1390:) introduced in one or both lineages in the time since they diverged from one another. In sequence alignments of proteins, the degree of similarity between
1402:
is among lineages. The absence of substitutions, or the presence of only very conservative substitutions (that is, the substitution of amino acids whose
1230:) is read as a C. With current technology, it is difficult to sequence small amounts of DNA, as the signal is too weak to measure. This is overcome by
270:. Primary structure is sometimes mistakenly referred to as "primary sequence". However there is no parallel concept of secondary or tertiary sequence.
1150:" sequences which code for proteins, and the complementary "antisense" sequence, which is by itself nonfunctional, but can bind to the sense strand.
406:
backbone. In the typical case, the sequences are printed abutting one another without gaps, as in the sequence AAAGTCTGAC, read left to right in the
1809:
1472:
Frequently the primary structure encodes motifs that are of functional importance. Some examples of sequence motifs are: the C/D and H/ACA boxes of
2386:
1410:
bases are more similar to each other than are amino acids, the conservation of base pairs can indicate a similar functional or structural role.
1440:
are constant across sequence lineages. Therefore, it does not account for possible differences among organisms or species in the rates of
1753:
89:
61:
996:
presence, both of them through deamination (replacement of the amine-group with a carbonyl-group). Hypoxanthine is produced from
1374:
relationships between the sequences. If two sequences in an alignment share a common ancestor, mismatches can be interpreted as
1142:
where the mRNA is used as a template for the construction of the protein strand. Since nucleic acids can bind to molecules with
42:
68:
2484:
2379:
1546:
1143:
418:
2318:"Sequence complexity profiles of prokaryotic genomic sequences: A fast algorithm for calculating linguistic complexity"
1123:
1086:
448:
means that either an adenine or a thymine could occur in that position without impairing the sequence's functionality.
407:
221:
75:
2489:
2479:
2431:
1839:
108:
2359:
2469:
345:
312:
Nucleic acids consist of a chain of linked units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three subunits: a
263:
57:
2474:
2372:
2154:
Bogenhagen DF, Brown DD (1981). "Nucleotide sequences in
Xenopus 5S DNA required for transcription termination".
1340:
passing on a genetic disorder. Several hundred genetic tests are currently in use, and more are being developed.
349:
267:
237:
224:. For DNA, with its double helix, there are two possible directions for the notated sequence; of these two, the
1556:
46:
2436:
2426:
1424:, while low identity suggests that the divergence is more ancient. This approximation, which reflects the "
1636:
2499:
2416:
1961:"The snoRNA box C/D motif directs nucleolar targeting and also couples snoRNA synthesis and localization"
1658:
1421:
1413:
2581:
2421:
1501:
1126:
outlines the mechanism by which proteins are constructed using information contained in nucleic acids.
2555:
2411:
1551:
1265:
1231:
1147:
353:
225:
147:
1513:
1131:
82:
1509:
1395:
411:
35:
336:) make up the backbone of the nucleic acid strand, and attached to the sugar is one of a set of
236:
structure of the entire molecule. For this reason, the nucleic acid sequence is also termed the
2586:
2456:
2446:
2395:
2014:
1505:
1433:
1104:
1066:
143:
2261:"An alignment-free method to find and visualise rearrangements between pairs of DNA sequences"
1761:
1694:
Nguyen, T; Brunson, D; Crespi, C L; Penman, B W; Wishnok, J S; Tannenbaum, S R (April 1992).
1394:
occupying a particular position in the sequence can be interpreted as a rough measure of how
1216:
431:
248:
2272:
2213:
2063:
1917:
1707:
1379:
1336:, or mutant forms of genes associated with increased risk of developing genetic disorders.
1016:
Example of comparing and determining the % difference between two nucleotide sequences
422:
considered the antisense strand, will have the complementary sequence to the sense strand.
1783:
1184:
to living things, knowledge of a DNA sequence may be useful in practically any biological
8:
2525:
2494:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1432:
can be used to extrapolate the elapsed time since two genes first diverged (that is, the
1383:
403:
2276:
2217:
2067:
1921:
1711:
1264:
below), be digitally altered and be used as templates for creating new actual DNA using
1119:
by which each possible combination of three bases corresponds to a specific amino acid.
2293:
2260:
2236:
2201:
2179:
2087:
1985:
1960:
1941:
1517:
1367:
1349:
1312:, and can also be used to determine a child's paternity (genetic father) or a person's
2334:
2317:
2131:
2106:
1881:
1856:
1676:
1614:
1579:
1212:
is a burgeoning discipline, with the potential for many useful products and services.
414:, a sequence is on the coding strand if it has the same order as the transcribed RNA.
2403:
2339:
2298:
2241:
2171:
2167:
2136:
2079:
2033:
1990:
1933:
1929:
1886:
1835:
1735:
1730:
1695:
1619:
1601:
1437:
1429:
1417:
1416:
makes extensive use of sequence alignments in the construction and interpretation of
1305:
1277:
1257:
981:
164:
1945:
956:
These symbols are also valid for RNA, except with U (uracil) replacing T (thymine).
2550:
2329:
2288:
2280:
2231:
2221:
2183:
2163:
2126:
2118:
2091:
2071:
2023:
1980:
1972:
1925:
1876:
1868:
1725:
1715:
1638:
1637:
Nomenclature
Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry (NC-IUB) (1984).
1609:
1591:
1162:
1091:
In biological systems, nucleic acids contain information which is used by a living
961:
2226:
1446:
1425:
1333:
1295:
1227:
1201:
2520:
2441:
1976:
1541:
1529:
1467:
1399:
1375:
1354:
In bioinformatics, a sequence alignment is a way of arranging the sequences of
1283:
1170:
1092:
969:
1328:
to the level of individual genes, genetic testing in a broader sense includes
1320:, one inherited from their mother, the other inherited from their father. The
1250:
Once a nucleic acid sequence has been obtained from an organism, it is stored
2570:
2122:
1834:(2nd ed.). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press: Cold Spring Harbor, NY.
1605:
1209:
977:
965:
2591:
2576:
2535:
2360:
A bibliography on features, patterns, correlations in DNA and protein texts
2343:
2302:
2245:
1937:
1890:
1720:
1324:
is believed to contain around 20,000–25,000 genes. In addition to studying
1321:
1116:
1082:
1062:
1058:
985:
2175:
2140:
2107:"An analysis of 5'-noncoding sequences from 699 vertebrate messenger RNAs"
2037:
1994:
1739:
1623:
2364:
2083:
2028:
2009:
2008:
Ganot, Philippe; Caizergues-Ferrer, Michèle; Kiss, Tamás (1 April 1997).
1696:"DNA damage and mutation in human cells exposed to nitric oxide in vitro"
1639:"Nomenclature for Incompletely Specified Bases in Nucleic Acid Sequences"
1329:
1223:
329:
278:
252:
205:
151:
1596:
1165:
printout from automated sequencer for determining part of a DNA sequence
2530:
2051:
1808:. EuroGentest Network of Excellence Project. 2008-09-11. Archived from
1454:
1441:
1407:
1403:
1391:
1325:
1176:
1108:
1100:
1070:
755:
379:
376:
337:
307:
299:
295:
201:
159:
155:
2284:
1958:
1905:
1872:
1806:
Definitions of
Genetic Testing (Jorge Sequeiros and Bárbara Guimarães)
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
2315:
2075:
2054:(1975). "Determinant of cistron specificity in bacterial ribosomes".
1906:"Crucial steps to life: From chemical reactions to code using agents"
1371:
1252:
1205:
1193:
341:
313:
24:
2316:
Troyanskaya, O; Arbell, O; Koren, Y; Landau, G; Bolshoy, A (2002).
1313:
1189:
1185:
1139:
1005:
989:
506:
399:
387:
256:
233:
229:
2199:
1226:) is read as a G, and 5-methyl-cytosine (created from cytosine by
2515:
2258:
1366:
to identify regions of similarity that may be due to functional,
1363:
1309:
1215:
RNA is not sequenced directly. Instead, it is copied to a DNA by
1197:
1096:
1074:
1001:
997:
993:
973:
560:
533:
476:
395:
391:
383:
1111:
making up a protein strand. Each group of three bases, called a
228:
is used. Because nucleic acids are normally linear (unbranched)
132:
1473:
1301:
1158:
1009:
726:
698:
587:
321:
209:
1256:
in digital format. Digital genetic sequences may be stored in
1115:, corresponds to a single amino acid, and there is a specific
1450:
1387:
1282:
Digital genetic sequences may be analyzed using the tools of
1112:
1053:
669:
438:
317:
286:
2200:
Pinho, A; Garcia, S; Pratas, D; Ferreira, P (Nov 21, 2013).
2259:
Pratas, D; Silva, R; Pinho, A; Ferreira, P (May 18, 2015).
1317:
1242:
1135:
291:
2007:
2545:
2540:
1959:
Samarsky, DA; Fournier MJ; Singer RH; Bertrand E (1998).
1693:
1477:
1359:
1355:
1316:. Normally, every person carries two variations of every
1180:
1127:
333:
325:
217:
213:
964:(m5C). In RNA, there are many modified bases, including
232:, specifying the sequence is equivalent to defining the
2153:
931:
146:(primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary) using
2050:
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1857:"Predicting Deleterious Amino Acid Substitutions"
1175:DNA sequencing is the process of determining the
2568:
1436:time), assumes that the effects of mutation and
1208:may lead to treatments for contagious diseases.
1584:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1453:and other mutations that result in a different
124:
2380:
1832:Bioinformatics: Sequence and Genome Analysis
2147:
1146:sequences, there is a distinction between "
16:Succession of nucleotides in a nucleic acid
2394:
2387:
2373:
1854:
1048:
992:are two of the many bases created through
2333:
2292:
2235:
2225:
2195:
2193:
2130:
2098:
2027:
1984:
1880:
1829:
1729:
1719:
1613:
1595:
1449:that do not alter the meaning of a given
1237:
1153:
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
2252:
1241:
1157:
1061:, by which the information contained in
1052:
285:
277:
136:The image above contains clickable links
120:
2104:
1903:
1848:
294:molecule. Each codon consists of three
2569:
2190:
1286:to attempt to determine its function.
2368:
1428:" hypothesis that a roughly constant
1343:
1107:by cell machinery into a sequence of
2309:
1823:
1630:
1574:
1572:
1547:Nucleic acid structure determination
1271:
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
1523:
1480:found in spliceosomal RNAs such as
1332:tests for the possible presence of
1246:Genetic sequence in digital format.
340:. The nucleobases are important in
13:
1461:
1289:
1219:, and this DNA is then sequenced.
1124:central dogma of molecular biology
1087:Central dogma of molecular biology
255:which directs the functions of an
131:
14:
2603:
2353:
1569:
1930:10.1016/j.biosystems.2015.12.007
1855:Ng, P. C.; Henikoff, S. (2001).
1802:"Definitions of Genetic Testing"
1045:Thus there is a 30% difference.
1000:, and xanthine is produced from
344:of strands to form higher-level
298:, usually representing a single
290:A series of codons in part of a
23:
2335:10.1093/bioinformatics/18.5.679
2044:
2001:
1952:
1897:
1760:. 16 March 2015. Archived from
1138:molecules, which travel to the
892:
748:
719:
691:
662:
636:
607:
34:needs additional citations for
1794:
1776:
1746:
1687:
1669:
1651:
1557:Single-nucleotide polymorphism
273:
1:
1563:
1518:RNA polymerase III terminator
1308:vulnerabilities to inherited
2227:10.1371/journal.pone.0079922
2168:10.1016/0092-8674(81)90522-5
1192:it can be used to identify,
1103:on a nucleic acid strand is
1004:. Similarly, deamination of
7:
2202:"DNA Sequences at a Glance"
1535:
1430:rate of evolutionary change
1422:most recent common ancestor
1414:Computational phylogenetics
1204:. Similarly, research into
425:
410:direction. With regards to
10:
2608:
1754:"What is genetic testing?"
1465:
1347:
1293:
1275:
1168:
1080:
930:
898:
870:
842:
814:
783:
754:
725:
697:
668:
642:
613:
586:
559:
532:
505:
475:
429:
305:
262:Nucleic acids also have a
2556:Nucleic acid double helix
2508:
2455:
2402:
1552:Quaternary numeral system
1300:The DNA in an organism's
1266:artificial gene synthesis
1232:polymerase chain reaction
801:
629:
492:
462:
359:The possible letters are
282:Chemical structure of RNA
2105:Kozak M (October 1987).
1977:10.1093/emboj/17.13.3747
1514:Kozak consensus sequence
1196:and potentially develop
375:, representing the four
243:The sequence represents
2015:Genes & Development
1758:Genetics Home Reference
1659:"BIOL2060: Translation"
1510:Shine-Dalgarno sequence
1398:a particular region or
1049:Biological significance
58:"Nucleic acid sequence"
2457:Nucleic acid structure
2396:Biomolecular structure
2123:10.1093/nar/15.20.8125
1721:10.1073/pnas.89.7.3030
1700:Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
1247:
1238:Digital representation
1166:
1154:Sequence determination
1095:to construct specific
1078:
303:
283:
193:
150:and examples from the
144:nucleic acid structure
137:
1245:
1234:(PCR) amplification.
1217:reverse transcriptase
1161:
1081:Further information:
1056:
903:ucleotide (not a gap)
432:Nucleic acid notation
289:
281:
249:deoxyribonucleic acid
198:nucleic acid sequence
135:
130:
2029:10.1101/gad.11.7.941
1179:sequence of a given
875:comes after T and U)
417:One sequence can be
222:5' end to the 3' end
43:improve this article
2526:Protein engineering
2277:2015NatSR...510203P
2218:2013PLoSO...879922P
2068:1975Natur.254...34S
2052:Shine J, Dalgarno L
1922:2016BiSys.140...49W
1904:Witzany, G (2016).
1812:on February 4, 2009
1712:1992PNAS...89.3030N
1597:10.1073/pnas.83.1.4
1304:can be analyzed to
1260:, be analyzed (see
1057:A depiction of the
453:
350:tertiary structures
264:secondary structure
245:genetic information
200:is a succession of
2265:Scientific Reports
1830:Mount DM. (2004).
1418:phylogenetic trees
1384:deletion mutations
1350:Sequence alignment
1344:Sequence alignment
1258:sequence databases
1248:
1188:. For example, in
1167:
1099:. The sequence of
1079:
460:Meaning/derivation
451:
441:) are as follows:
382:of a DNA strand –
352:such as the famed
304:
284:
268:tertiary structure
194:
138:
2582:Molecular biology
2564:
2563:
2404:Protein structure
2285:10.1038/srep10203
2111:Nucleic Acids Res
1873:10.1101/gr.176601
1784:"Genetic Testing"
1278:Sequence analysis
1272:Sequence analysis
1262:Sequence analysis
982:7-methylguanosine
954:
953:
238:primary structure
140:Interactive image
119:
118:
111:
93:
2599:
2551:Structural motif
2389:
2382:
2375:
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2348:
2347:
2337:
2313:
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2306:
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2256:
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2076:10.1038/254034a0
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2031:
2005:
1999:
1998:
1988:
1965:The EMBO Journal
1956:
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1901:
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1655:
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1648:
1646:
1645:
1634:
1628:
1627:
1617:
1599:
1590:(1): 4–8. 1986.
1576:
1524:Sequence entropy
1447:silent mutations
1334:genetic diseases
1202:genetic diseases
1163:Electropherogram
962:5-methylcytidine
454:
452:List of symbols
450:
216:(using GACT) or
191:
134:
123:
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
2607:
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2314:
2310:
2257:
2253:
2198:
2191:
2152:
2148:
2117:(20): 8125–48.
2103:
2099:
2062:(5495): 34–38.
2049:
2045:
2006:
2002:
1971:(13): 3747–57.
1957:
1953:
1902:
1898:
1861:Genome Research
1853:
1849:
1842:
1828:
1824:
1815:
1813:
1800:
1799:
1795:
1782:
1781:
1777:
1767:
1765:
1752:
1751:
1747:
1706:(7): 3030–034.
1692:
1688:
1675:
1674:
1670:
1657:
1656:
1652:
1643:
1641:
1635:
1631:
1578:
1577:
1570:
1566:
1538:
1526:
1478:Sm binding site
1470:
1464:
1462:Sequence motifs
1426:molecular clock
1376:point mutations
1352:
1346:
1298:
1296:Genetic testing
1292:
1290:Genetic testing
1280:
1274:
1240:
1228:DNA methylation
1173:
1156:
1089:
1051:
434:
428:
324:in the case of
310:
276:
251:represents the
163:
129:
121:
115:
104:
98:
95:
52:
50:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2605:
2595:
2594:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2562:
2561:
2559:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2521:Protein domain
2518:
2512:
2510:
2506:
2505:
2503:
2502:
2500:Thermodynamics
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2461:
2459:
2453:
2452:
2450:
2449:
2447:Thermodynamics
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2408:
2406:
2400:
2399:
2392:
2391:
2384:
2377:
2369:
2363:
2362:
2355:
2354:External links
2352:
2350:
2349:
2322:Bioinformatics
2308:
2251:
2212:(11): e79922.
2189:
2146:
2097:
2043:
2000:
1951:
1896:
1847:
1840:
1822:
1793:
1775:
1764:on 29 May 2006
1745:
1686:
1668:
1650:
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1567:
1565:
1562:
1561:
1560:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1542:Gene structure
1537:
1534:
1530:bioinformatics
1525:
1522:
1468:Sequence motif
1466:Main article:
1463:
1460:
1400:sequence motif
1348:Main article:
1345:
1342:
1294:Main article:
1291:
1288:
1284:bioinformatics
1276:Main article:
1273:
1270:
1239:
1236:
1171:DNA sequencing
1169:Main article:
1155:
1152:
1050:
1047:
1042:
1041:
1030:
1018:
1017:
970:dihydrouridine
952:
951:
948:
945:
943:
941:
939:
937:
929:
923:
922:
919:
916:
913:
910:
907:
904:
897:
891:
890:
887:
885:
882:
879:
876:
869:
863:
862:
859:
856:
854:
851:
848:
847:comes after G)
841:
835:
834:
831:
828:
825:
823:
820:
819:comes after C)
813:
807:
806:
803:
800:
797:
794:
791:
789:
788:comes after A)
782:
776:
775:
772:
769:
767:
764:
762:
753:
747:
746:
743:
741:
738:
736:
733:
724:
718:
717:
714:
711:
708:
706:
704:
696:
690:
689:
686:
684:
682:
679:
676:
667:
661:
660:
657:
655:
652:
649:
647:
641:
635:
634:
631:
628:
625:
623:
621:
618:
612:
606:
605:
602:
599:
597:
595:
593:
585:
579:
578:
575:
572:
570:
568:
566:
558:
552:
551:
548:
546:
543:
541:
539:
531:
525:
524:
521:
519:
517:
514:
512:
504:
498:
497:
494:
491:
489:
487:
485:
482:
474:
468:
467:
464:
463:Possible bases
461:
458:
430:Main article:
427:
424:
404:phosphodiester
306:Main article:
275:
272:
117:
116:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2604:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2587:Nucleic acids
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2574:
2572:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2513:
2511:
2507:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2485:Determination
2483:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2462:
2460:
2458:
2454:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2432:Determination
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2409:
2407:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2390:
2385:
2383:
2378:
2376:
2371:
2370:
2367:
2361:
2358:
2357:
2345:
2341:
2336:
2331:
2328:(5): 679–88.
2327:
2323:
2319:
2312:
2304:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2255:
2247:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2196:
2194:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2162:(1): 261–70.
2161:
2157:
2150:
2142:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2101:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2047:
2039:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2022:(7): 941–56.
2021:
2017:
2016:
2011:
2004:
1996:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1955:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1900:
1892:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1867:(5): 863–74.
1866:
1862:
1858:
1851:
1843:
1841:0-87969-608-7
1837:
1833:
1826:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1797:
1789:
1785:
1779:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1749:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1690:
1682:
1678:
1672:
1664:
1660:
1654:
1640:
1633:
1625:
1621:
1616:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1575:
1573:
1568:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1539:
1533:
1531:
1521:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1469:
1459:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1351:
1341:
1337:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1297:
1287:
1285:
1279:
1269:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1254:
1244:
1235:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1220:
1218:
1213:
1211:
1210:Biotechnology
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1178:
1172:
1164:
1160:
1151:
1149:
1145:
1144:complementary
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1120:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1088:
1084:
1076:
1073:sequences in
1072:
1068:
1064:
1063:nucleic acids
1060:
1055:
1046:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1019:
1015:
1014:
1013:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
978:ribothymidine
975:
971:
967:
966:pseudouridine
963:
957:
949:
946:
944:
942:
940:
938:
936:
934:
928:
925:
924:
920:
917:
914:
911:
908:
905:
902:
896:
893:
888:
886:
883:
880:
877:
874:
868:
865:
864:
860:
857:
855:
852:
849:
846:
840:
837:
836:
832:
829:
826:
824:
821:
818:
812:
809:
808:
804:
798:
795:
792:
790:
787:
781:
778:
777:
773:
770:
768:
765:
763:
761:
759:
752:
749:
744:
742:
739:
737:
734:
732:
730:
723:
720:
715:
712:
709:
707:
705:
703:
701:
695:
692:
687:
685:
683:
680:
677:
675:
673:
666:
663:
658:
656:
653:
650:
648:
645:
640:
637:
632:
626:
624:
622:
619:
616:
611:
608:
603:
600:
598:
596:
594:
592:
590:
584:
581:
580:
576:
573:
571:
569:
567:
565:
563:
557:
554:
553:
549:
547:
544:
542:
540:
538:
536:
530:
527:
526:
522:
520:
518:
515:
513:
511:
509:
503:
500:
499:
495:
490:
488:
486:
483:
481:
479:
473:
470:
469:
465:
459:
456:
455:
449:
447:
444:For example,
442:
440:
433:
423:
420:
419:complementary
415:
413:
412:transcription
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
357:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
309:
301:
297:
293:
288:
280:
271:
269:
265:
260:
258:
254:
250:
247:. Biological
246:
241:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
113:
110:
102:
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67:
63:
60: –
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
2536:Nucleic acid
2464:
2325:
2321:
2311:
2268:
2264:
2254:
2209:
2205:
2159:
2155:
2149:
2114:
2110:
2100:
2059:
2055:
2046:
2019:
2013:
2003:
1968:
1964:
1954:
1913:
1909:
1899:
1864:
1860:
1850:
1831:
1825:
1814:. Retrieved
1810:the original
1805:
1796:
1787:
1778:
1766:. Retrieved
1762:the original
1757:
1748:
1703:
1699:
1689:
1680:
1671:
1662:
1653:
1642:. Retrieved
1632:
1587:
1583:
1527:
1471:
1412:
1378:and gaps as
1372:evolutionary
1353:
1338:
1322:human genome
1299:
1281:
1261:
1251:
1249:
1221:
1214:
1174:
1121:
1117:genetic code
1090:
1083:Genetic code
1059:genetic code
1043:
1037:
1033:
1026:
1022:
986:Hypoxanthine
958:
955:
932:
926:
900:
894:
872:
866:
844:
838:
816:
810:
785:
779:
757:
750:
728:
721:
699:
693:
671:
664:
643:
638:
614:
609:
588:
582:
561:
555:
534:
528:
507:
501:
477:
471:
445:
443:
435:
416:
402:linked to a
372:
368:
364:
360:
358:
354:double helix
342:base pairing
316:group and a
311:
261:
244:
242:
226:sense strand
197:
195:
139:
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
1434:coalescence
1404:side chains
1392:amino acids
1330:biochemical
1326:chromosomes
1224:RNA editing
1132:transcribed
1109:amino acids
1101:nucleobases
1008:results in
466:Complement
338:nucleobases
330:deoxyribose
296:nucleotides
274:Nucleotides
253:information
206:nucleotides
204:within the
152:VS ribozyme
148:DNA helices
2571:Categories
2531:Proteasome
2490:Prediction
2480:Quaternary
2437:Prediction
2427:Quaternary
1910:Biosystems
1816:2008-08-10
1677:"Research"
1644:2008-02-04
1564:References
1455:amino acid
1442:DNA repair
1408:nucleotide
1368:structural
1198:treatments
1177:nucleotide
1105:translated
1071:amino acid
1067:translated
400:covalently
377:nucleotide
308:Nucleotide
300:amino acid
160:nucleosome
156:telomerase
99:March 2014
69:newspapers
2470:Secondary
2417:Secondary
2271:: 10203.
1916:: 49–57.
1681:uw.edu.pl
1606:0027-8424
1438:selection
1396:conserved
1380:insertion
1253:in silico
1206:pathogens
980:(rT) and
496:T (or U)
346:secondary
314:phosphate
212:within a
2509:See also
2475:Tertiary
2422:Tertiary
2344:12050064
2303:25984837
2246:24278218
2206:PLOS ONE
1946:30962295
1938:26723230
1891:11337480
1536:See also
1516:and the
1314:ancestry
1310:diseases
1306:diagnose
1194:diagnose
1190:medicine
1186:research
1140:ribosome
1097:proteins
1075:proteins
1006:cytosine
990:xanthine
760:rimidine
426:Notation
408:5' to 3'
388:cytosine
257:organism
234:covalent
230:polymers
208:forming
2516:Protein
2465:Primary
2412:Primary
2294:4434998
2273:Bibcode
2237:3836782
2214:Bibcode
2184:9982829
2176:6263489
2141:3313277
2092:4162567
2064:Bibcode
2038:9106664
1995:9649444
1986:1170710
1918:Bibcode
1788:nih.gov
1740:1557408
1708:Bibcode
1624:2417239
1474:snoRNAs
1364:protein
1002:guanine
998:adenine
994:mutagen
984:(m7G).
974:inosine
871:not T (
843:not G (
815:not C (
784:not A (
510:ytosine
396:thymine
392:guanine
384:adenine
210:alleles
83:scholar
2495:Design
2442:Design
2342:
2301:
2291:
2244:
2234:
2182:
2174:
2139:
2132:306349
2129:
2090:
2084:803646
2082:
2056:Nature
2036:
1993:
1983:
1944:
1936:
1889:
1882:311071
1879:
1838:
1768:19 May
1738:
1728:
1663:mun.ca
1622:
1615:322779
1612:
1604:
1512:, the
1508:, the
1388:indels
1302:genome
1010:uracil
564:hymine
537:uanine
480:denine
457:Symbol
371:, and
322:ribose
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
2180:S2CID
2088:S2CID
1942:S2CID
1731:48797
1559:(SNP)
1451:codon
1370:, or
1362:, or
1148:sense
1134:into
1113:codon
1069:into
976:(I),
972:(D),
968:(Ψ),
646:trong
591:racil
439:IUPAC
380:bases
318:sugar
202:bases
90:JSTOR
76:books
2340:PMID
2299:PMID
2242:PMID
2172:PMID
2156:Cell
2137:PMID
2080:PMID
2034:PMID
1991:PMID
1934:PMID
1887:PMID
1836:ISBN
1770:2010
1736:PMID
1620:PMID
1602:ISSN
1504:and
1318:gene
1200:for
1136:mRNA
1122:The
1093:cell
1085:and
1065:are
988:and
899:any
348:and
292:mRNA
266:and
189:1EQZ
185:1YMO
181:4R4V
177:4OCB
173:1BNA
169:ADNA
158:and
154:and
62:news
2592:RNA
2577:DNA
2546:RNA
2541:DNA
2330:doi
2289:PMC
2281:doi
2232:PMC
2222:doi
2164:doi
2127:PMC
2119:doi
2072:doi
2060:254
2024:doi
1981:PMC
1973:doi
1926:doi
1914:140
1877:PMC
1869:doi
1726:PMC
1716:doi
1610:PMC
1592:doi
1528:In
1502:U12
1382:or
1360:RNA
1356:DNA
1181:DNA
1130:is
1128:DNA
1040:TAG
1029:TAG
935:ero
731:ine
702:eto
674:ino
617:eak
334:DNA
332:in
326:RNA
218:RNA
214:DNA
165:PDB
162:. (
142:of
45:by
2573::
2338:.
2326:18
2324:.
2320:.
2297:.
2287:.
2279:.
2267:.
2263:.
2240:.
2230:.
2220:.
2208:.
2204:.
2192:^
2178:.
2170:.
2160:24
2158:.
2135:.
2125:.
2115:15
2113:.
2109:.
2086:.
2078:.
2070:.
2058:.
2032:.
2020:11
2018:.
2012:.
1989:.
1979:.
1969:17
1967:.
1963:.
1940:.
1932:.
1924:.
1912:.
1908:.
1885:.
1875:.
1865:11
1863:.
1859:.
1804:.
1786:.
1756:.
1734:.
1724:.
1714:.
1704:89
1702:.
1698:.
1679:.
1661:.
1618:.
1608:.
1600:.
1588:83
1586:.
1582:.
1571:^
1520:.
1506:U3
1500:,
1498:U6
1496:,
1494:U5
1492:,
1490:U4
1488:,
1486:U2
1484:,
1482:U1
1476:,
1358:,
1268:.
1038:CT
1036:CC
1032:AA
1027:GC
1025:CC
1021:AA
1012:.
950:Z
921:N
889:B
861:D
833:H
805:V
774:R
745:Y
727:pu
716:M
688:K
659:S
633:W
604:A
577:A
550:C
523:G
398:–
394:,
390:,
386:,
367:,
363:,
356:.
328:,
259:.
240:.
196:A
192:)
187:,
183:,
179:,
175:,
171:,
167::
2388:e
2381:t
2374:v
2346:.
2332::
2305:.
2283::
2275::
2269:5
2248:.
2224::
2216::
2210:8
2186:.
2166::
2143:.
2121::
2094:.
2074::
2066::
2040:.
2026::
1997:.
1975::
1948:.
1928::
1920::
1893:.
1871::
1844:.
1819:.
1790:.
1772:.
1742:.
1718::
1710::
1683:.
1665:.
1647:.
1626:.
1594::
1386:(
1077:.
1034:A
1023:T
947:0
933:Z
927:Z
918:4
915:T
912:G
909:C
906:A
901:N
895:N
884:G
881:C
878:A
873:V
867:V
858:T
853:C
850:A
845:H
839:H
830:T
827:G
822:A
817:D
811:D
802:3
799:T
796:G
793:C
786:B
780:B
771:T
766:C
758:Y
756:p
751:Y
740:G
735:A
729:R
722:R
713:T
710:G
700:K
694:K
681:C
678:A
672:M
670:a
665:M
654:G
651:C
644:S
639:S
630:2
627:T
620:A
615:W
610:W
601:U
589:U
583:U
574:T
562:T
556:T
545:G
535:G
529:G
516:C
508:C
502:C
493:1
484:A
478:A
472:A
446:W
437:(
373:T
369:G
365:C
361:A
320:(
302:.
112:)
106:(
101:)
97:(
87:·
80:·
73:·
66:·
39:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
