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elaborates that morality does not seem to have any special binding force, and she clarifies that people only behave morally when motivated by other factors. Foot says "People talk, for instance, about the 'binding force' of morality, but it is not clear what this means if not that we feel ourselves
416:
If he is an amoral man he may deny that he has any reason to trouble his head over this or any other moral demand. Of course, he may be mistaken, and his life as well as others' lives may be most sadly spoiled by his selfishness. But this is not what is urged by those who think they can close the
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This firm foundation is that of the social feelings of mankind; the desire to be in unity with our fellow creatures, which is already a powerful principle in human nature, and happily one of those which tend to become stronger, even without express inculcation, from the influences of advancing
371:
is difficult to classify fully within any of the four preceding conceptions. This view argues that moral correctness evolves similarly to other kinds of knowledge—socially over the course of many lifetimes—and that norms, principles, and moral criteria are likely to be improved as a result of
458:
perspective suggests that proper reason always leads to particular moral behaviour. As mentioned above, Foot instead believes that humans are actually motivated by desires. Proper reason, on this view, allows humans to discover actions that get them what they want (i.e.,
439:
an obligation. Morality may therefore have no binding force beyond regular human motivations, and people must be motivated to behave morally. The question then arises: what role does reason play in motivating moral behaviour?
406:
is sometimes presumed to have some kind of special binding force on behaviour, though some philosophers believe that, used this way, the word "ought" seems to wrongly attribute magic powers to morality. For instance,
115:. The former focuses on the character of those who are acting. In contrast, both deontological ethics and consequentialism focus on the status of the action, rule, or disposition itself, and come in various forms.
487:". Mill says that humans must first reason about what is moral, then try to bring the feelings of our conscience in line with our reason. At the same time, Mill says that a good moral system (in his case,
899:
Foot, Philippa. (2009). Morality as a System of
Hypothetical Imperatives. In S. M. Cahn, & P. Markie,Ethics: History, Theory, and Contemporary Issues (pp. 556-561). New York: Oxford University Press.
137:, focuses on the inherent character of a person rather than on specific actions. There has been a significant revival of virtue ethics since the 1950s, through the work of such philosophers as
476:
Feelings like shame and love are sometimes considered the only meaningful sense in which morality is binding. Absent those feelings, a person could behave "immorally" without remorse.
225:
Consequentialism argues that the morality of an action is contingent on the action's outcome or result. Consequentialist theories, varying in what they consider to be valuable (i.e.,
435:
unable to escape." The idea is that, faced with an opportunity to steal a book because we can get away with it, moral obligation itself has no power to stop us unless we
2012:
500:
Mill thus believes that it is important to appreciate that it is feelings that drive moral behavior, but also that they may not be present in some people (e.g.
41:
in that the former examines standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions, whereas the latter studies the meaning of moral language and the
417:
matter by an emphatic use of 'ought'. My argument is that they are relying on an illusion, as if trying to give the moral 'ought' a magic force.
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Most traditional moral theories rest on principles that determine whether an action is right or wrong. Classical theories in this vein include
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There are disagreements about what precisely gives an action, rule, or disposition its ethical force. There are three competing views on how
1988:
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argues that decisions should be made considering the factors of one's duties and one's rights. Some deontological theories include:
2020:
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and motivation can make morality binding in a sense, but only because it makes moral norms feel inescapable, according to Foot.
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adds that external pressures, to please others for instance, also influence this felt binding force, which he calls human "
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in that the former is more concerned with 'who ought one be' rather than the ethics of a specific issue (e.g. if, or when,
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It can be unclear what it means to say that a person "ought to do X because it is moral, whether they like it or not."
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491:) ultimately appeals to aspects of human nature—which, must themselves be nurtured during upbringing. Mill explains:
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2004:
91:. These theories mainly offered the use of overarching moral principles to resolve difficult moral decisions.
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of situational ethics hold that the correct action is the one that creates the most loving result, and that
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910:"John Stuart Mill (1863). Utilitarianism. Chapter 3: Of the Ultimate Sanction of the Principle of Utility"
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1996:
511:(1998) describe how societies can use science to figure out how to make people more likely to be good.
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192:, which holds that the moral acts are those that we would all agree to if we were unbiased, behind a "
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504:). Mill goes on to describe factors that help ensure people develop a conscience and behave morally.
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789:"The Light of Nature: John Locke, Natural Rights, and the Origins of American Religious Liberty"
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investigation of people's moral beliefs. In this context normative ethics is sometimes called
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563:, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, New Series, Vol. 64 (1963 - 1964), pp. 243-258.
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for the greatest number of people. Prior to the coining of the term "consequentialism" by
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are known as the founders of pragmatism; a more recent proponent of pragmatic ethics was
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emphasizes the particular context of an act when evaluating it ethically. Specifically,
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should be answered, along with hybrid positions that combine some elements of each:
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708:(Rev. ed.). Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
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The
Science of Morality: The Individual, Community, and Future Generations
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dictates that the best action is the one that best fosters and promotes
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ethics that investigates questions regarding how one ought to act, in a
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in 1958 and the adoption of that term in the literature that followed,
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Moral voices, moral selves: Carol
Gilligan and feminist moral theory
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687:(Fall 2022 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
584:(Fall 2023 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
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form of utility, not just those that promoted maximizing happiness.
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Branch of philosophical ethics that examines standards for morality
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worries that "ought" has become "a word of mere mesmeric force."
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Paul, Ellen
Frankel; Miller, Fred Dycus; Paul, Jeffrey (2006).
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consequentialism, holds that an action is right if it leads to
265:
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210:, which hold that human beings have absolute, natural rights.
874:. University Park, Pa: Pennsylvania State University Press.
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of moral facts. Likewise, normative ethics is distinct from
2013:
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1548:
1508:
72:. However, on certain versions of the meta-ethical view of
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357:, argues that morality arises out of the experiences of
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is acceptable). Normative ethics is also distinct from
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holds that an action is right if it leads to the most
254:, referring to all theories that promoted maximizing
575:
601:Stohr, Karen; Wellman, Christopher Heath (2002).
2235:
731:"John Rawls, Theorist on Justice, Is Dead at 82"
361:and compassion. It emphasizes the importance of
576:Hursthouse, Rosalind; Pettigrove, Glen (2023),
764:Natural rights liberalism from Locke to Nozick
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678:
397:
1042:
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683:, in Zalta, Edward N.; Nodelman, Uri (eds.),
580:, in Zalta, Edward N.; Nodelman, Uri (eds.),
365:and relationships in achieving ethical goals.
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1989:Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel
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642:"Contemporary Virtue Ethics and Aristotle"
463:)—not necessarily actions that are moral.
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812:"Nozick on Rights, Liberty, and Property"
766:. Cambridge: Cambridge university press.
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507:Popular texts such as Joseph Daleiden's
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393:is based on the concept of family roles.
2021:Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals
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685:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
679:Johnson, Robert; Cureton, Adam (2022),
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582:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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133:with some aspects being supported by
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854:. 1958. "Modern Moral Philosophy."
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2037:Elements of the Philosophy of Right
1017:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
991:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
955:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
349:, or relational ethics, founded by
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607:American Philosophical Quarterly
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816:Philosophy & Public Affairs
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304:should always be people's goal.
26:behaviour and is the branch of
2005:The Theory of Moral Sentiments
1375:Value monism – Value pluralism
963:Introduction to Utilitarianism
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729:Martin, Douglas (2002-11-26).
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603:"Recent Work on Virtue Ethics"
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324:economic well-being or welfare
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787:Heyman, Steven (2018-03-01).
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2069:On the Genealogy of Morality
2029:Critique of Practical Reason
129:Virtue ethics, advocated by
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139:G. E. M. Anscombe
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1997:A Treatise of Human Nature
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870:Hekman, Susan J. (1995).
681:"Kant's Moral Philosophy"
646:The Review of Metaphysics
330:Preference utilitarianism
250:was the generic term for
1348:Universal prescriptivism
810:Scanlon, Thomas (1976).
461:hypothetical imperatives
1137:Artificial intelligence
640:Simpson, Peter (1992).
561:Obedience to Conscience
334:preference satisfaction
202:theories, such that of
1006:Hursthouse, Rosalind.
982:"Deontological Ethics"
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456:categorical imperative
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374:Charles Sanders Peirce
262:State consequentialism
179:categorical imperative
57:, as the latter is an
2061:The Methods of Ethics
1299:Divine command theory
1294:Ideal observer theory
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2178:Political philosophy
935:at Wikimedia Commons
793:Marquette Law Review
704:Rawls, John (1999).
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157:Deontological ethics
135:Saint Thomas Aquinas
109:deontological ethics
87:, and some forms of
2148:Evolutionary ethics
2109:Reasons and Persons
2085:A Theory of Justice
1239:Uncertain sentience
852:Anscombe, Elizabeth
706:A theory of justice
450:Science of morality
444:Motivating morality
151:Rosalind Hursthouse
2259:Philosophy of life
2143:Ethics in religion
2138:Descriptive ethics
1973:Nicomachean Ethics
980:Alexander, Larry.
946:"Consequentialism"
735:The New York Times
521:Axiological ethics
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351:feminist theorists
294:Situational ethics
147:Alasdair MacIntyre
55:descriptive ethics
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2183:Population ethics
2173:Philosophy of law
2153:History of ethics
1636:Political freedom
1313:Euthyphro dilemma
1104:Suffering-focused
967:William MacAskill
931:Media related to
881:978-0-271-01483-8
773:978-0-521-61514-3
715:978-0-674-00077-3
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409:G. E. M. Anscombe
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89:contractarianism
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2019:
2014:
2011:
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1982:
1979:
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1606:Moral courage
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1544:Good and evil
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1529:Family values
1527:
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1343:Quasi-realism
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1167:Environmental
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1089:Particularism
1087:
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1080:
1077:
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583:
579:
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496:civilisation.
492:
490:
486:
482:
474:
470:
468:
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457:
451:
441:
438:
433:
432:Philippa Foot
430:
424:
418:
412:
410:
405:
392:
389:
387:
383:
379:
378:William James
375:
370:
367:
364:
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356:
352:
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345:
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331:
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321:
318:
315:
314:
309:
306:
303:
299:
295:
292:
289:
288:
283:
282:
277:
276:
271:
270:state welfare
267:
263:
260:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
240:
235:
232:
231:
230:
228:
222:
209:
208:Robert Nozick
205:
201:
198:
195:
191:
187:
183:
180:
176:
175:Immanuel Kant
173:
172:
171:
169:
164:
154:
152:
148:
144:
143:Philippa Foot
140:
136:
132:
126:
125:Virtue ethics
119:Virtue ethics
116:
114:
110:
106:
105:virtue ethics
102:
92:
90:
86:
82:
77:
75:
74:moral realism
71:
69:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
35:
33:
29:
28:philosophical
25:
21:
2202:
2158:Human rights
2101:After Virtue
1827:Schopenhauer
1601:Moral agency
1474:Common sense
1370:Universalism
1338:Expressivism
1318:Intuitionism
1289:Subjectivism
1234:Terraforming
1209:Professional
1065:
1015:
1000:
989:
974:
953:
938:
904:
871:
865:
856:
819:
815:
805:
796:
792:
782:
763:
757:
746:. Retrieved
734:
724:
705:
699:
689:, retrieved
684:
674:
649:
645:
635:
613:(1): 49–72.
610:
606:
596:
586:, retrieved
581:
560:
555:
508:
506:
499:
494:
479:
465:
453:
436:
427:The British
426:
420:
415:
401:
333:
323:
311:
301:
285:
279:
273:
269:
255:
251:
247:
237:
229:), include:
224:
166:
128:
98:
78:
67:
63:prescriptive
62:
36:
19:
18:
1976:(c. 322 BC)
1842:Kierkegaard
1661:Stewardship
1438:Rousseauian
1355:Rationalism
1267:Cognitivism
1214:Programming
1189:Meat eating
1162:Engineering
975:Deontology:
822:(1): 3–25.
502:psychopaths
391:Role ethics
68:descriptive
43:metaphysics
39:meta-ethics
2238:Categories
1872:Bonhoeffer
1581:Immorality
1524:Eudaimonia
1484:Conscience
1479:Compassion
1365:Skepticism
1360:Relativism
1277:Naturalism
1257:Absolutism
1229:Technology
1079:Deontology
857:Philosophy
748:2024-03-12
691:2024-03-12
588:2024-03-12
547:References
485:conscience
448:See also:
382:John Dewey
353:, notably
272:, through
204:John Locke
190:John Rawls
168:Deontology
85:Kantianism
2133:Casuistry
2045:Either/Or
1952:Korsgaard
1947:Azurmendi
1912:MacIntyre
1852:Nietzsche
1782:Augustine
1777:Confucius
1757:Aristotle
1733:Ethicists
1691:Intrinsic
1656:Suffering
1566:Happiness
1539:Free will
1519:Etiquette
1464:Authority
1408:Epicurean
1403:Confucian
1398:Christian
1333:Emotivism
1157:Discourse
1094:Pragmatic
1066:Normative
828:0048-3915
799:(3): 705.
743:0362-4331
658:0034-6632
619:0003-0481
536:Normative
526:Free will
372:inquiry.
320:Welfarism
313:knowledge
239:happiness
131:Aristotle
59:empirical
2223:Category
2163:Ideology
2128:Axiology
1957:Nussbaum
1907:Frankena
1902:Anscombe
1892:Williams
1847:Sidgwick
1767:Valluvar
1762:Diogenes
1747:Socrates
1671:Theodicy
1666:Sympathy
1631:Pacifism
1621:Morality
1534:Fidelity
1514:Equality
1469:Autonomy
1457:Concepts
1418:Feminist
1393:Buddhist
1323:Nihilism
1262:Axiology
1219:Research
1152:Computer
1147:Business
666:20129214
627:20010057
515:See also
429:ethicist
404:Morality
227:axiology
51:abortion
2121:Related
1867:Tillich
1832:Bentham
1807:Spinoza
1802:Aquinas
1787:Mencius
1701:Western
1676:Torture
1641:Precept
1596:Loyalty
1591:Liberty
1586:Justice
1499:Dignity
1489:Consent
1433:Kantian
1423:Islamic
1386:Schools
1272:Realism
1204:Nursing
1199:Medical
1184:Machine
1124:Applied
1014:(ed.).
988:(ed.).
952:(ed.).
860:33(24).
836:2265059
359:empathy
34:sense.
24:ethical
2254:Ethics
2112:(1984)
2104:(1981)
2096:(1979)
2088:(1971)
2080:(1903)
2072:(1887)
2064:(1874)
2056:(1861)
2048:(1843)
2040:(1820)
2032:(1788)
2024:(1785)
2016:(1780)
2008:(1759)
2000:(1740)
1992:(1726)
1984:(1677)
1942:Taylor
1927:Parfit
1922:Singer
1897:Mackie
1772:Cicero
1713:Virtue
1646:Rights
1571:Honour
1428:Jewish
1224:Sexual
1132:Animal
1114:Virtue
1058:Ethics
878:
834:
826:
770:
741:
712:
664:
656:
625:
617:
380:, and
284:, and
266:Mohist
149:, and
111:; and
70:ethics
2204:Index
1966:Works
1937:Adams
1932:Nagel
1887:Dewey
1882:Rawls
1862:Barth
1857:Moore
1822:Hegel
1797:Xunzi
1752:Plato
1742:Laozi
1723:Wrong
1696:Japan
1686:Value
1681:Trust
1576:Ideal
1443:Stoic
1194:Media
1179:Legal
1010:. In
984:. In
948:. In
832:JSTOR
662:JSTOR
623:JSTOR
275:order
264:, or
32:moral
1917:Hare
1877:Foot
1837:Mill
1817:Kant
1812:Hume
1792:Mozi
1708:Vice
1626:Norm
1554:Evil
1549:Good
1509:Duty
1249:Meta
1172:Land
1099:Role
1084:Care
876:ISBN
824:ISSN
768:ISBN
739:ISSN
710:ISBN
654:ISSN
615:ISSN
454:The
437:feel
302:love
184:The
1718:Vow
1448:Tao
1142:Bio
797:101
256:any
206:or
188:of
177:'s
2240::
890:^
844:^
830:.
818:.
814:.
795:.
791:.
737:.
733:.
660:.
650:45
648:.
644:.
621:.
611:39
609:.
605:.
568:^
376:,
278:,
196:."
153:.
145:,
141:,
107:,
83:,
1050:e
1043:t
1036:v
1020:.
994:.
969:.
958:.
912:.
884:.
838:.
820:6
776:.
751:.
718:.
668:.
629:.
336:.
326:.
316:.
290:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.