969:. In the center of Eurasia pastoralism extended south to Iran and surrounded agrarian oasis cities. When pastoral and agrarian societies went to war, horse-borne mobility counterbalanced greater numbers. Attempts by agrarian civilizations to conquer the steppe usually failed until the last few centuries. Pastoralists frequently raided and sometimes collected regular tribute from their farming neighbors. Especially in north China and Iran, they would sometimes conquer agricultural societies, but these dynasties were usually short-lived and broke up when the nomads became 'civilized' and lost their warlike virtues.
641:
772:
1271:. In the 14th and 15th century, when reindeer population was sufficiently reduced that Sami could not subsist on hunting alone, some Sami, organized along family lines, became reindeer herders. Each family has traditional territories on which they herd, arriving at roughly the same time each season. Only a small fraction of Sami have subsisted on reindeer herding over the past century; as the most colorful part of the population, they are well known. But as elsewhere in Europe, transhumance is dying out.
938:
978:
709:
882:
1198:
1356:, increase food security, relieve border tensions and promote regional integration. However, there are also risks as the unregulated and undocumented nature of this trade runs risks, such as allowing disease to spread more easily across national borders. Furthermore, governments are unhappy with lost tax revenue and foreign exchange revenues.
700:
it is maintained that some, such as overgrazing and overstocking, may be overstated while others, such as climate change, mining and agricultural reclamation, may be under reported. In this context, there is also uncertainty as to the long-term effect of human behavior on the grassland as compared to non-biotic factors.
1194:, it is estimated that a little over five million herders are dispersed over the pastoral counties, and more than 11 million over the semi-pastoral counties. This brings the total of the (semi)nomadic herder population to over 16 million, in general living in remote, scattered and resource-poor communities.
951:
made the following observations about pastoralism. The agriculturist lives from domesticated plants and the pastoralist lives from domesticated animals. Since animals are higher on the food chain, pastoralism supports a thinner population than agriculture. Pastoralism predominates where low rainfall
699:
There is substantive uncertainty over the extent to which the various causes for degradation affect grassland. Different causes have been identified which include overgrazing, mining, agricultural reclamation, pests and rodents, soil properties, tectonic activity, and climate change. Simultaneously,
1359:
There have been initiatives seeking to promote cross-border trade and also document it, in order to both stimulate regional growth and food security, but also to allow the effective vaccination of livestock. Initiatives include
Regional Resilience Enhancement Against Drought (RREAD), the Enhanced
964:
Christian distinguished 'Inner
Eurasia', which was pastoral with a few hunter-gatherers in the far north, from 'Outer Eurasia', a crescent of agrarian civilizations from Europe through India to China. High civilization is based on agriculture where tax-paying peasants support landed aristocrats,
956:
when animals began to be used for wool, milk, riding and traction as well as meat. Where grass is poor herds must be moved, which leads to nomadism. Some peoples are fully nomadic while others live in sheltered winter camps and lead their herds into the steppe in summer. Some nomads travel long
1335:
Sometimes nomadic pastoralists move their herds across international borders in search of new grazing terrain or for trade. This cross-border activity can occasionally lead to tensions with national governments as this activity is often informal and beyond their control and regulation. In East
965:
kings, cities, literacy and scholars. Pastoral societies are less developed and as a result, according to
Christian, more egalitarian. One tribe would often dominate its neighbors, but these 'empires' usually broke up after a hundred years or so. The heartland of pastoralism is the
737:
and plants for food and started forming cities. Nomadism generally has existed in symbiosis with such settled cultures trading animal products (meat, hides, wool, cheese and other animal products) for manufactured items not produced by the nomadic herders.
1360:
Livelihoods in
Mandera Triangle/Enhanced Livelihoods in Southern Ethiopia (ELMT/ELSE) as part of the Regional Enhanced Livelihoods in Pastoral Areas (RELPA) programme in East Africa, and the Regional Livelihoods Advocacy Project (REGLAP) funded by the
795:
burial sites. Pastoral nomadic sites are identified based on their location outside the zone of agriculture, the absence of grains or grain-processing equipment, limited and characteristic architecture, a predominance of sheep and goat bones, and by
1223:
and nomadic pastoralism because settled agriculture becomes less productive due to steep slopes, cooler temperatures and limited irrigation possibilities. Distances between summer and winter pasture may be short, for example in the vicinity of
921:
In the rainy season, the groups live in a village intended for a comfortable stay. The villages are often made of sturdy material as clay. Old men and women remain in this village when the other people move the herds in the dry
768:. Andrew Sherratt demonstrates that "early farming populations used livestock mainly for meat, and that other applications were explored as agriculturalists adapted to new conditions, especially in the semiâarid zone."
577:, where seasonal pastures are fixed. However, this distinction is often not observed and the term 'nomad' used for bothâand in historical cases the regularity of movements is often unknown in any case. The herded
2102:
914:
The movements in this example are about 180 to 200 km. Camps are established in the same place each year; often semi-permanent shelters are built in at least one place on this migration route.
873:
across large parts of
Eurasia. By the medieval period in Central Asia, nomadic communities exhibited isotopically diverse diets, suggesting a multitude of subsistence strategies.
787:
In the past it was asserted that pastoral nomads left no presence archaeologically or were impoverished, but this has now been challenged, and was clearly not so for many ancient
537:
1244:
Himalaya. In far western Nepal, ethnic
Tibetans living in Dolpo and other valleys north among the high Himalaya moved their herds north to winter on the plains of the upper
1570:
Sherratt, Andrew (1983), "The secondary exploitation of animals in the Old World" in (World
Archaeology Volume 15, Issue 1, 1983 Special Issue: Transhumance and pastoralism)
1064:
has been largely populated by pastoralist nomads since the late prehistoric times, with a succession of peoples known by the names given to them by surrounding literate
1037:. There are an estimated 30â40 million nomads in the world. Pastoral nomads and semi-nomadic pastoralists form a significant but declining minority in such countries as
1622:
Zarins, Juris (1992) "Pastoral
Nomadism in Arabia: Ethnoarchaeology and the Archaeological Record," in O. Bar-Yosef and A. Khazanov, eds. "Pastoralism in the Levant"
1190:. Some remnants of these populations are nomadic to this day. In Mongolia, about 40% of the population continues to live a traditional nomadic lifestyle. In
893:
Often traditional nomadic groups settle into a regular seasonal pattern of transhumance. An example of a normal nomadic cycle in the northern hemisphere is:
1709:
530:
925:
In the dry season, the people move their herds to southern villages with a more temporary character. They then move inland, where they stay in tent camps.
1336:
Africa, for example, over 95% of cross-border trade is through unofficial channels and the unofficial trade of live cattle, camels, sheep and goats from
1352:
generates an estimated total value of between US$ 250 and US$ 300 million annually (100 times more than the official figure). This trade helps lower
1437:
1727:
Hermes, Taylor R.; Frachetti, Michael D.; Bullion, Elissa A.; Maksudov, Farhod; Mustafokulov, Samariddin; Makarewicz, Cheryl A. (26 March 2018).
523:
1494:
Ho, P. (2001). "Rangeland
Degradation in North China Revisited? A Preliminary Statistical Analysis to Validate Non-Equilibrium Range Ecology".
1561:
Fleisch, Henri., Notes de Préhistoire
Libanaise : 1) Ard es Saoude. 2) La Bekaa Nord. 3) Un polissoir en plein air. BSPF, vol. 63, 1966.
1632:
Spengler, Robert; Frachetti, Michael; Doumani, Paula; Rouse, Lynne; Cerasetti, Barbara; Bullion, Elissa; Mar'yashev, Alexei (22 May 2014).
997:
Nomadic pastoralism was historically widespread throughout less fertile regions of Earth. It is found in areas of low rainfall such as the
2103:
Working across borders - Harnessing the potential of cross-border activities to improve livelihood security in the Horn of Africa drylands
1361:
1690:
1911:
957:
distances, usually north in summer and south in winter. Near mountains, herds are led uphill in summer and downhill in winter (
98:
1421:
316:
1819:
Ho, Peter (2000). "The Myth of Desertification at China's Northwestern Frontier: The Case of Ningxia Province, 1929-1958".
1899:
Dale Eickelman, The Middle East and Central Asia. An Anthropological Approach. Fourth Edition. Prentice Hall, 2002, p. 11
1583:
1183:
649:
93:
17:
1595:
Oriental Institute of Chicago "Nomads, Tribes, and the State in the Ancient Near East: Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives".
1873:
363:
1888:
1253:
385:
103:
1927:
Ho, Peter (2016). "Empty institutions, non-credibility and pastoralism: China's grazing ban, mining and ethnicity".
1791:
Beck, Lois (1991) "Nomad: a year in the life of nomadic Qashqa'i tribesman in Iran" (University of California Press)
633:, especially in the steppe lands north of the agricultural zone of Eurasia. Pastoralists often trade with sedentary
807:
has proposed that pastoral nomadism began as a cultural lifestyle in the wake of the 6200 BC climatic crisis when
929:
In Chad, the sturdy villages are called hillé, the less sturdy villages are called dankhout and the tents ferik.
369:
2128:
2106:
35:
1291:
953:
353:
1240:
move their herds between winter pastures just north of India and summer pastures on the southern slopes of
1228:
where a valley at about 800 meters elevation is less than 20 km. from alpine pastures just below the
2038:"Interactions and Pastoralism Along the Southern and Southeastern Frontiers of the Meroitic State, Sudan"
948:
458:
405:
128:
52:
1451:
Ho, Peter; Azadi, Hossein (2010). "Rangeland degradation in North China: Perceptions of pastoralists".
859:
358:
303:
83:
1049:(at most 10%). They comprise less than 2% of the population in the countries of North Africa except
855:
400:
395:
1729:"Urban and nomadic isotopic niches reveal dietary connectivities along Central Asia's Silk Roads"
1634:"Early agriculture and crop transmission among Bronze Age mobile pastoralists of Central Eurasia"
870:
812:
123:
1710:"Thousands of horsemen may have swept into Bronze Age Europe, transforming the local population"
468:
27:
Form of pastoralism where livestock are herded in order to find fresh pastures on which to graze
1613:
Mellaart, James (1975), The Neolithic of the Near East (London: Thames and Hudson), pp. 239-241
866:
746:
640:
692:
if lands are not allowed to fully recover between one grazing period and the next. Increased
2143:
2123:
513:
44:
1740:
1604:
Perrot J. (1964), "Les deux premiĂšres campagnes de fouilles Ă Munhata" Syria XLI pp. 323-45
1460:
1245:
1072:
726:
179:
48:
1809:
David Christian, A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, 1998, pp 81-98 and passim
8:
2013:
1996:
1373:
509:
493:
248:
136:
1995:
Yilmaz, Engin; Gogib, Liza; Urivelarrea, Pablo; Demirbas ĂaÄlayan, Semiha (2019-05-03).
1908:
1744:
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2133:
2070:
2037:
1952:
1844:
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1666:
1633:
1519:
1431:
1287:
1076:
743:
428:
380:
2075:
2057:
2018:
1978:
1956:
1944:
1869:
1836:
1774:
1756:
1671:
1653:
1540:
Inventory of Stone-Age Sites in Lebanon: North, South and East-Central Lebanon, p. 49
1523:
1511:
1476:
1417:
998:
375:
189:
108:
1848:
842:
Central Asia, nomadic populations are associated with the earliest transmissions of
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2049:
2008:
1936:
1828:
1764:
1748:
1661:
1645:
1503:
1468:
1279:
1006:
734:
634:
630:
488:
443:
335:
146:
1997:"Mobile pastoralism and protected areas: Conflict, collaboration and connectivity"
1940:
1393:
771:
2138:
1915:
1863:
1538:
1507:
1472:
1283:
1144:
1061:
1022:
966:
863:
689:
648:
Of the estimated 30â40 million nomadic pastoralists worldwide, most are found in
433:
390:
164:
68:
1832:
1752:
1304:
1264:
788:
754:
141:
2053:
280:
2117:
2061:
2022:
1982:
1972:
1948:
1840:
1760:
1657:
1515:
1312:
1308:
1201:
1179:
1140:
1030:
1010:
832:
820:
776:
739:
665:
657:
586:
463:
453:
448:
438:
423:
259:
221:
184:
1017:, cattle, sheep and goat nomadic pastoralism is especially common). Nomadic
2079:
1778:
1675:
1649:
1480:
1220:
1038:
1018:
958:
804:
765:
574:
483:
478:
473:
286:
118:
113:
88:
917:
In sub-regions such as Chad, the nomadic pastoralist cycle is as follows:
1579:
1353:
1260:
1046:
1026:
937:
797:
730:
685:
669:
626:
554:
264:
169:
1412:
Pollard, Rosenberg, and Tignor, Elizabeth, Clifford, and Robert (2015).
977:
573:. True nomads follow an irregular pattern of movement, in contrast with
1994:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1128:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1069:
1054:
990:
839:
824:
696:
and fencing of land has reduced the amount of land for this practice.
1186:
were nomadic people who practiced nomadic transhumance on harsh Asian
1229:
1100:
1080:
1065:
1014:
982:
851:
693:
578:
558:
498:
216:
1691:"Nomadic herders left a strong genetic mark on Europeans and Asians"
1263:, an indigenous people of northern Finland, Sweden, Norway, and the
1232:
Himalaya, or distances may be 100 km or more. For example, in
1349:
1337:
1324:
1268:
1212:
1171:
1156:
1108:
1034:
986:
961:). Pastoralists often trade with or raid their agrarian neighbors.
886:
881:
808:
761:
708:
673:
606:
232:
1638:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences
1341:
1225:
1205:
1167:
1160:
1152:
1136:
1132:
1112:
1002:
850:
grains through the region that eventually became central for the
816:
800:
750:
681:
677:
661:
570:
566:
562:
1197:
637:, exchanging meat for grains, however have been known to raid.
1187:
1175:
1120:
1104:
907:
843:
792:
757:
and that it may have been used by one of the first cultures of
614:
594:
582:
73:
1726:
1411:
1631:
1345:
1320:
1316:
1275:
1249:
1216:
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1124:
1096:
1050:
942:
847:
780:
758:
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653:
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598:
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of Russia, practise a form of nomadic transhumance based on
1296:
1148:
1116:
1042:
602:
78:
952:
makes farming impractical. Full pastoralism required the
900:
Summer (end of June to late September) â a higher plateau
625:
pastoralism is commonly practised in regions with little
590:
811:
pottery making hunter-gatherers in the Sinai fused with
712:
Overview map of the world in the mid 1st millennium BC:
1286:) that had an important economic and political role in
1536:
903:
Autumn (mid-September to end of November) â transition
897:
Spring (early April to the end of June) â transition
1973:ARTE France. Films Media Group, film distributor.,
1530:
1416:. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. p. 23.
1362:European Commission Humanitarian Aid Office (ECHO)
1021:is also common in areas of harsh climate, such as
1252:proper, until this practice was prohibited after
2115:
1625:
1219:, people living above about 2,000 m practise
906:Winter (from December to the end of March) â
819:culture, a nomadic lifestyle based on animal
644:Nomadic Herders Grazing Livestock in Nigeria.
531:
1436:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
932:
876:
1800:Tsjaad by Dorrit van Dalen16 September 2024
1720:
1330:
1303:In Chad, nomadic pastoralists include the
1300:, the Mesta acted against small peasants.
684:. Increasing numbers of stock may lead to
538:
524:
2069:
2012:
1768:
1665:
1009:inhabited, among other ethnic groups, by
656:region of North and West Africa, such as
1855:
1196:
976:
936:
880:
770:
707:
676:, and in other parts of Africa, such as
639:
1707:
1688:
1450:
1025:and Russia inhabited by the indigenous
829:circum-Arabian nomadic pastoral complex
733:. During that revolution, humans began
14:
2116:
2097:
2095:
2093:
2091:
2089:
1586:Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
1391:
885:Reindeer milking in a forest; western
2035:
1968:
1966:
1861:
1278:was an association of sheep owners, (
1236:some 100 km west of Pokhara the
703:
2014:10.2305/iucn.ch.2019.parks-25-1ey.en
2086:
972:
803:to modern pastoral nomadic peoples
24:
1963:
1926:
1868:. LIT Verlag MĂŒnster. p. 31.
1818:
1496:The Journal of Development Studies
1493:
1395:Pastoralists in the new millennium
941:A boy herding a flock of sheep in
25:
2155:
1708:Gibbons, Ann (21 February 2017).
1537:L. Copeland; P. Wescombe (1966).
1294:of its transhumant herds through
2036:Brass, Michael (December 2015).
1909:Mongolia Today â online magazine
815:agriculturalists to produce the
725:pastoralism was a result of the
2029:
1988:
1920:
1902:
1893:
1882:
1812:
1803:
1794:
1785:
1701:
1682:
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1607:
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2107:Overseas Development Institute
1929:The Journal of Peasant Studies
1589:
1573:
1564:
1555:
1487:
1444:
1405:
1385:
364:Formalistâsubstantivist debate
13:
1:
1975:Ladakh : the Last Nomads
1941:10.1080/03066150.2016.1239617
1689:Gibbons, Ann (10 June 2015).
1379:
954:Secondary products revolution
354:Critique of political economy
1508:10.1080/00220380412331321991
1473:10.1016/j.envres.2009.12.007
1414:Worlds Together Worlds Apart
1174:, Russia and China, and the
7:
2042:Journal of World Prehistory
1367:
1327:also practice pastoralism.
565:in order to seek for fresh
406:Anthropology of development
294:Colonialism and development
10:
2160:
1833:10.1177/009770040002600304
1753:10.1038/s41598-018-22995-2
791:, who have left very rich
742:tentatively suggested the
717: nomadic pastoralists
621:, or mixtures of species.
2054:10.1007/s10963-015-9089-1
1914:January 22, 2009, at the
1068:societies, including the
1041:(probably less than 3%),
933:David Christian's account
877:Nomadic pattern in season
359:Original affluent society
304:The Anti-Politics Machine
1331:Cross-border pastoralism
1211:In the Middle Hills and
856:Indo-European migrations
672:, such as traditionally
668:, with some also in the
401:Heritage commodification
396:Nutritional anthropology
370:The Great Transformation
871:Indo-European languages
813:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B
124:Inalienable possessions
2101:Pavanello, Sara 2010.
1650:10.1098/rspb.2013.3382
1584:Nomads in Archaeology.
1453:Environmental Research
1401:. FAO. pp. 11â12.
1392:Blench, Roger (2001).
1208:
1182:of Eastern Europe and
994:
945:
890:
823:, developing into the
784:
719:
645:
319:People Without History
2129:Cultural anthropology
1254:China took over Tibet
1200:
980:
940:
884:
860:PonticâCaspian steppe
774:
735:domesticating animals
711:
643:
514:cultural anthropology
1865:A Pastoral Democracy
1862:Lewis, I.M. (1999).
1073:Proto-Indo-Europeans
727:Neolithic Revolution
469:BronisĆaw Malinowski
180:Shifting cultivation
159:Provisioning systems
1745:2018NatSR...8.5177H
1465:2010ER....110..302H
1374:Holistic management
1315:. Farther north in
1204:nomads in southern
1077:Proto-Indo-Iranians
629:, typically in the
551:Nomadic pastoralism
494:Harold K. Schneider
249:Gifting remittances
175:Nomadic pastoralism
137:Spheres of exchange
131:(commodity pathway)
18:Nomadic pastoralist
1889:NOMADS â The FACTS
1733:Scientific Reports
1644:(1783): 20133382.
1543:. Impr. Catholique
1290:. To preserve the
1209:
995:
946:
891:
867:Steppe pastoralist
827:and thence into a
785:
744:Shepherd Neolithic
720:
704:Origin and history
646:
429:Alexander Chayanov
381:Culture of poverty
283:(hunter-gatherers)
1423:978-0-393-91847-2
999:Arabian Peninsula
779:cattle herder in
548:
547:
386:Political economy
376:Peasant economics
327:Political economy
190:Peasant economics
165:Hunting-gathering
16:(Redirected from
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2109:
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2027:
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2016:
1992:
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1935:(6): 1145â1176.
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1389:
1288:medieval Castile
1284:religious orders
1280:Spanish nobility
1007:Northeast Africa
973:Around the world
831:, and spreading
753:may date to the
729:and the rise of
716:
688:of the area and
631:developing world
540:
533:
526:
489:Marshall Sahlins
444:Maurice Godelier
348:Related articles
336:Jim Crow economy
147:Cultural capital
132:
129:Singularization
30:
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1916:Wayback Machine
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1145:Pannonian Avars
1062:Eurasian steppe
1023:Northern Europe
975:
967:Eurasian steppe
949:David Christian
935:
879:
789:Eurasian nomads
718:
714:
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690:desertification
544:
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434:Stanley Diamond
419:
418:Major theorists
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391:State formation
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317:Europe and the
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2126:
2111:
2110:
2085:
2048:(4): 255â288.
2028:
1987:
1962:
1919:
1901:
1892:
1881:
1875:978-3825830847
1874:
1854:
1827:(3): 348â395.
1811:
1802:
1793:
1784:
1719:
1700:
1681:
1624:
1615:
1606:
1597:
1588:
1572:
1563:
1554:
1529:
1486:
1459:(3): 302â307.
1443:
1422:
1404:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1377:
1376:
1369:
1366:
1332:
1329:
1265:Kola Peninsula
974:
971:
934:
931:
927:
926:
923:
912:
911:
904:
901:
898:
878:
875:
755:Epipaleolithic
713:
705:
702:
546:
545:
543:
542:
535:
528:
520:
517:
516:
506:
505:
502:
501:
496:
491:
486:
481:
476:
471:
466:
461:
456:
451:
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416:
413:
412:
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398:
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388:
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378:
373:
366:
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299:
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268:
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255:
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245:
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236:
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229:
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201:
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197:
196:
193:
192:
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
161:
158:
157:
154:
153:
150:
149:
144:
142:Social capital
139:
134:
126:
121:
116:
111:
106:
101:
99:Redistribution
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
65:
63:Basic concepts
62:
61:
58:
57:
41:
40:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2156:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2121:
2119:
2108:
2104:
2098:
2096:
2094:
2092:
2090:
2081:
2077:
2072:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2032:
2024:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1991:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1969:
1967:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1923:
1917:
1913:
1910:
1905:
1896:
1890:
1885:
1877:
1871:
1867:
1866:
1858:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1815:
1806:
1797:
1788:
1780:
1776:
1771:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1723:
1715:
1711:
1704:
1696:
1692:
1685:
1677:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1628:
1619:
1610:
1601:
1592:
1585:
1581:
1576:
1567:
1558:
1542:
1541:
1533:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1502:(3): 99â133.
1501:
1497:
1490:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1447:
1439:
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1425:
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1415:
1408:
1397:
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1375:
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1365:
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1339:
1328:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1301:
1299:
1298:
1293:
1292:rights of way
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1272:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
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1227:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1180:Turkic people
1177:
1173:
1169:
1164:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
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1118:
1114:
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1098:
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1078:
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1071:
1067:
1063:
1058:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1031:Nenets people
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1005:, as well as
1004:
1001:inhabited by
1000:
992:
988:
984:
979:
970:
968:
962:
960:
955:
950:
944:
939:
930:
924:
920:
919:
918:
915:
909:
905:
902:
899:
896:
895:
894:
888:
883:
874:
872:
869:ancestry and
868:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
836:
834:
833:Proto-Semitic
830:
826:
822:
821:domestication
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
799:
794:
790:
782:
778:
773:
769:
767:
763:
760:
756:
752:
748:
745:
741:
740:Henri Fleisch
736:
732:
728:
724:
710:
701:
697:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
642:
638:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
587:water buffalo
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
553:is a form of
552:
541:
536:
534:
529:
527:
522:
521:
519:
518:
515:
511:
508:
507:
500:
497:
495:
492:
490:
487:
485:
482:
480:
477:
475:
472:
470:
467:
465:
464:Marvin Harris
462:
460:
457:
455:
454:Jane I. Guyer
452:
450:
449:David Graeber
447:
445:
442:
440:
439:Raymond Firth
437:
435:
432:
430:
427:
425:
424:Paul Bohannan
422:
421:
415:
414:
407:
404:
402:
399:
397:
394:
392:
389:
387:
384:
382:
379:
377:
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372:
371:
367:
365:
362:
360:
357:
355:
352:
351:
345:
344:
337:
334:
333:
330:
328:
325:
324:
321:
320:
314:
313:
310:
309:
306:
305:
301:
300:
297:
295:
292:
291:
288:
285:
282:
279:
278:
275:
273:
270:
269:
266:
263:
261:
260:Organ gifting
258:
257:
254:
253:
250:
247:
246:
243:
241:
238:
237:
234:
231:
230:
227:
226:
223:
222:Moka exchange
220:
218:
215:
214:
211:
209:
206:
205:
199:
198:
191:
188:
186:
185:Moral economy
183:
181:
178:
176:
173:
171:
168:
166:
163:
162:
156:
155:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
135:
133:
127:
125:
122:
120:
117:
115:
112:
110:
107:
105:
102:
100:
97:
95:
92:
90:
87:
85:
82:
80:
77:
75:
72:
70:
67:
66:
60:
59:
56:
50:
46:
43:
42:
39:
37:
32:
31:
19:
2144:Transhumance
2124:Pastoralists
2045:
2041:
2031:
2004:
2000:
1990:
1974:
1932:
1928:
1922:
1904:
1895:
1884:
1864:
1857:
1824:
1821:Modern China
1820:
1814:
1805:
1796:
1787:
1736:
1732:
1722:
1713:
1703:
1694:
1684:
1641:
1637:
1627:
1618:
1609:
1600:
1591:
1575:
1566:
1557:
1545:. Retrieved
1539:
1532:
1499:
1495:
1489:
1456:
1452:
1446:
1413:
1407:
1394:
1387:
1358:
1334:
1319:and western
1302:
1295:
1273:
1259:The nomadic
1258:
1256:in 1950â51.
1221:transhumance
1210:
1184:Central Asia
1165:
1159:and various
1075:, and later
1059:
1039:Saudi Arabia
1019:transhumance
996:
963:
959:transhumance
947:
928:
916:
913:
892:
889:, late 1800s
837:
828:
805:Juris Zarins
798:ethnographic
786:
766:Beqaa valley
721:
698:
650:central Asia
647:
575:transhumance
569:on which to
550:
549:
484:Karl Polanyi
479:Sidney Mintz
474:Marcel Mauss
368:
326:
315:
302:
293:
287:Batek people
272:Provisioning
271:
239:
207:
202:Case studies
174:
119:Limited good
114:Gift economy
89:Embeddedness
55:anthropology
53:development
33:
2007:(1): 7â24.
1739:(1): 5177.
1354:food prices
1261:Sami people
1246:Brahmaputra
1047:Afghanistan
1027:Sami people
835:languages.
731:agriculture
686:overgrazing
670:Middle East
627:arable land
555:pastoralism
281:Aché people
265:Shell money
208:Prestations
170:Pastoralism
94:Reciprocity
2118:Categories
2105:. London:
1380:References
1242:Dhaulagiri
1238:Kham Magar
1234:Rapti zone
1093:Massagetae
1089:Cimmerians
1085:Sarmatians
1070:Bronze Age
1055:Mauritania
1045:(4%), and
991:Somaliland
985:trader in
840:Bronze Age
825:Yarmoukian
459:Keith Hart
2134:Livestock
2062:0892-7537
2023:0960-233X
1983:965342516
1957:157632052
1949:0306-6150
1841:0097-7004
1761:2045-2322
1658:0962-8452
1547:29 August
1524:154397243
1516:0022-0388
1432:cite book
1248:basin in
1230:Annapurna
1101:Pechenegs
1081:Scythians
1066:sedentary
858:from the
852:Silk Road
762:shepherds
694:enclosure
635:agrarians
579:livestock
559:livestock
557:in which
499:Eric Wolf
217:Kula ring
2080:27158190
1912:Archived
1849:83080752
1779:29581431
1676:24695428
1580:Cribb, R
1481:20106474
1368:See also
1350:Djibouti
1340:sold to
1338:Ethiopia
1325:Bedouins
1269:reindeer
1213:Himalaya
1172:Mongolia
1157:Dzungars
1109:Kipchaks
1035:Chukchis
1003:Bedouins
987:Hargeisa
887:Finnmark
854:. Early
809:Harifian
775:A young
747:industry
674:Bedouins
652:and the
607:reindeer
581:include
567:pastures
233:Potlatch
45:Economic
36:a series
34:Part of
2071:4856204
1770:5979964
1741:Bibcode
1714:Science
1697:. AAAS.
1695:Science
1667:3996608
1582:(1991)
1461:Bibcode
1342:Somalia
1305:Zaghawa
1297:cañadas
1226:Pokhara
1206:Algeria
1188:steppes
1168:Mongols
1161:Turkics
1153:Mongols
1137:Xianbei
1133:Xiongnu
1113:Karluks
1013:(where
1011:Somalis
922:season.
910:plains.
864:Yamnaya
862:spread
817:Munhata
801:analogy
764:in the
759:nomadic
751:Lebanon
723:Nomadic
682:Somalia
678:Nigeria
662:Tuaregs
623:Nomadic
615:donkeys
240:Gifting
84:Finance
49:applied
2139:Nomads
2078:
2068:
2060:
2021:
1981:
1955:
1947:
1872:
1847:
1839:
1777:
1767:
1759:
1674:
1664:
1656:
1522:
1514:
1479:
1420:
1323:, the
1311:, and
1202:Tuareg
1176:Tatars
1141:Khitan
1121:Yuezhi
1105:Cumans
908:desert
844:millet
793:kurgan
777:Maasai
715:
666:Toubou
664:, and
658:Fulani
619:camels
611:horses
595:llamas
583:cattle
563:herded
510:Social
109:Wealth
74:Barter
51:, and
2001:PARKS
1953:S2CID
1845:S2CID
1520:S2CID
1399:(PDF)
1346:Kenya
1321:Libya
1317:Egypt
1309:Kreda
1276:Mesta
1250:Tibet
1217:Nepal
1192:China
1125:Wusun
1097:Alans
1051:Libya
1015:camel
983:camel
943:India
848:wheat
781:Kenya
654:Sahel
603:goats
599:sheep
571:graze
104:Value
2076:PMID
2058:ISSN
2019:ISSN
1979:OCLC
1945:ISSN
1870:ISBN
1837:ISSN
1775:PMID
1757:ISSN
1672:PMID
1654:ISSN
1549:2011
1512:ISSN
1477:PMID
1438:link
1418:ISBN
1348:and
1313:Mimi
1282:and
1274:The
1166:The
1149:Huns
1117:Saka
1060:The
1053:and
1043:Iran
1033:and
846:and
680:and
591:yaks
561:are
512:and
79:Debt
2066:PMC
2050:doi
2009:doi
1937:doi
1829:doi
1765:PMC
1749:doi
1662:PMC
1646:doi
1642:281
1504:doi
1469:doi
1457:110
1215:of
1178:or
1129:Jie
838:In
749:of
617:or
2120::
2088:^
2074:.
2064:.
2056:.
2046:28
2044:.
2040:.
2017:.
2005:25
2003:.
1999:.
1977:,
1965:^
1951:.
1943:.
1933:43
1931:.
1843:.
1835:.
1825:26
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