252:(AP) is defined as the ability to identify the pitch of a musical tone or to produce a musical tone at a given pitch without the use of an external reference pitch. Neuroscientific research has not discovered a distinct activation pattern common for possessors of AP. Zatorre, Perry, Beckett, Westbury and Evans (1998) examined the neural foundations of AP using functional and structural brain imaging techniques. Positron emission tomography (PET) was utilized to measure cerebral blood flow (CBF) in musicians possessing AP and musicians lacking AP. When presented with musical tones, similar patterns of increased CBF in auditory cortical areas emerged in both groups. AP possessors and non-AP subjects demonstrated similar patterns of left dorsolateral frontal activity when they performed relative pitch judgments. However, in non-AP subjects activation in the right inferior frontal cortex was present whereas AP possessors showed no such activity. This finding suggests that musicians with AP do not need access to working memory devices for such tasks. These findings imply that there is no specific regional activation pattern unique to AP. Rather, the availability of specific processing mechanisms and task demands determine the recruited neural areas.
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found that the professional piano players showed lower levels of cortical activation in motor areas of the brain. It was concluded that a lesser amount of neurons needed to be activated for the piano players due to long-term motor practice which results in the different cortical activation patterns. Koeneke, Lutz, Wustenberg and Jancke (2004) reported similar findings in keyboard players. Skilled keyboard players and a control group performed complex tasks involving unimanual and bimanual finger movements. During task conditions, strong hemodynamic responses in the cerebellum were shown by both non-musicians and keyboard players, but non-musicians showed the stronger response. This finding indicates that different cortical activation patterns emerge from long-term motor practice. This evidence supports previous data showing that musicians require fewer neurons to perform the same movements.
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tune than that which was out of key. Ratings of musical incongruity were higher for out of tune pitch melodies than for out of key pitch. In the focused attention condition, out of key and out of tune pitches produced late parietal positivity. The findings of
Brattico et al. (2006) suggest that there is automatic and rapid processing of melodic properties in the secondary auditory cortex. The findings that pitch incongruities were detected automatically, even in processing unfamiliar melodies, suggests that there is an automatic comparison of incoming information with long term knowledge of musical scale properties, such as culturally influenced rules of musical properties (common chord progressions, scale patterns, etc.) and individual expectations of how the melody should proceed.
716:(MMN) can be based solely on imagery of sounds. The task involved participants listening to the beginning of a melody, continuation of the melody in his/her head and finally hearing a correct/incorrect tone as further continuation of the melody. The imagery of these melodies was strong enough to obtain an early preattentive brain response to unanticipated violations of the imagined melodies in the musicians. These results indicate similar neural correlates are relied upon for trained musicians imagery and perception. Additionally, the findings suggest that modification of the imagery mismatch negativity (iMMN) through intense musical training results in achievement of a superior ability for imagery and preattentive processing of music.
944:, is a syndrome of selective impairment in music recognition. Three cases of music agnosia are examined by Dalla Bella and Peretz (1999); C.N., G.L., and I.R.. All three of these patients suffered bilateral damage to the auditory cortex which resulted in musical difficulties while speech understanding remained intact. Their impairment is specific to the recognition of once familiar melodies. They are spared in recognizing environmental sounds and in recognizing lyrics. Peretz (1996) has studied C.N.'s music agnosia further and reports an initial impairment of pitch processing and spared temporal processing. C.N. later recovered in pitch processing abilities but remained impaired in tune recognition and familiarity judgments.
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bilaterally and males process music with a right-hemispheric predominance. However, the early negativity of males was also present over the left hemisphere. This indicates that males do not exclusively utilize the right hemisphere for musical information processing. In a follow-up study, Koelsch, Grossman, Gunter, Hahne, Schroger and
Friederici (2003) found that boys show lateralization of the early anterior negativity in the left hemisphere but found a bilateral effect in girls. This indicates a developmental effect as early negativity is lateralized in the right hemisphere in men and in the left hemisphere in boys.
723:(CBF) changes related to auditory imagery and perceptual tasks. These tasks examined the involvement of particular anatomical regions as well as functional commonalities between perceptual processes and imagery. Similar patterns of CBF changes provided evidence supporting the notion that imagery processes share a substantial neural substrate with related perceptual processes. Bilateral neural activity in the secondary auditory cortex was associated with both perceiving and imagining songs. This implies that within the secondary auditory cortex, processes underlie the phenomenological impression of imagined sounds. The
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small right occipitotemporal lesion. After sustaining damage to these regions, P.K.C. was selectively impaired in the areas of reading, writing and understanding musical notation but maintained other musical skills. The ability to read aloud letters, words, numbers and symbols (including musical ones) was retained. However, P.K.C. was unable to read aloud musical notes on the staff regardless of whether the task involved naming with the conventional letter or by singing or playing. Yet despite this specific deficit, P.K.C. retained the ability to remember and play familiar and new melodies.
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study reproduced task-specific hand dystonia by having guitarists use a real guitar neck inside the scanner as well as performing a guitar exercise to trigger abnormal hand movement. The dystonic guitarists showed significantly more activation of the contralateral primary sensorimotor cortex as well as a bilateral underactivation of premotor areas. This activation pattern represents abnormal recruitment of the cortical areas involved in motor control. Even in professional musicians, widespread bilateral cortical region involvement is necessary to produce complex hand movements such as
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representational system which disrupts music recognition. Many of the cases of music agnosia have resulted from surgery involving the middle cerebral artery. Patient studies have surmounted a large amount of evidence demonstrating that the left side of the brain is more suitable for holding long-term memory representations of music and that the right side is important for controlling access to these representations. Associative music agnosias tend to be produced by damage to the left hemisphere, while apperceptive music agnosia reflects damage to the right hemisphere.
610:, though the roles played by the two sides of the brain in processing different aspects of language are still unclear. Music is also processed by both the left and the right sides of the brain. Recent evidence further suggest shared processing between language and music at the conceptual level. It has also been found that, among music conservatory students, the prevalence of absolute pitch is much higher for speakers of tone language, even controlling for ethnic background, showing that language influences how musical tones are perceived.
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one or several notes deviating from an otherwise repetitive pattern. Contrasting attended versus unattended instruments, ERP analysis shows subject- and instrument-specific responses including P300 and early auditory components. The attended instrument could be classified offline with high accuracy. This indicates that attention paid to a particular instrument in polyphonic music can be inferred from ongoing EEG, a finding that is potentially relevant for building more ergonomic music-listing based brain-computer interfaces.
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ganglia, the SMA and the pre-SMA, the cerebellum, and the premotor and prefrontal cortices, all involved in the production and learning of motor sequences but without explicit evidence of their specific contributions or interactions amongst one another. In animals, neurophysiological studies have demonstrated an interaction between the frontal cortex and the basal ganglia during the learning of movement sequences. Human neuroimaging studies have also emphasized the contribution of the basal ganglia for well-learned sequences.
866:. Altenmuller et al. studied the difference between active and passive musical instruction and found both that over a longer (but not short) period of time, the actively taught students retained much more information than the passively taught students. The actively taught students were also found to have greater cerebral cortex activation. The passively taught students weren't wasting their time; they, along with the active group, displayed greater left hemisphere activity, which is typical in trained musicians.
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musical exposure before the age of seven, and a great increase in the size of the corpus callosum. These fibers join together the left and right hemispheres and indicate an increased relaying between both sides of the brain. This suggests the merging between the spatial- emotiono-tonal processing of the right brain and the linguistical processing of the left brain. This large relaying across many different areas of the brain might contribute to music's ability to aid in memory function.
445:(SMA). Specifically the basal ganglia and possibly the SMA have been implicated in interval timing at longer timescales (1 second and above), while the cerebellum may be more important for controlling motor timing at shorter timescales (milliseconds). Furthermore, these results indicate that motor timing is not controlled by a single brain region, but by a network of regions that control specific parameters of movement and that depend on the relevant timescale of the rhythmic sequence.
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The ability to process information musically supports the idea of an implicit musical ability in the human brain. In a follow-up study, Koelsch, Schroger, and Gunter (2002) investigated whether ERAN and N5 could be evoked preattentively in non-musicians. Findings showed that both ERAN and N5 can be elicited even in a situation where the musical stimulus is ignored by the listener indicating that there is a highly differentiated preattentive musicality in the human brain.
964:, is a term for lifelong musical problems which are not attributable to mental retardation, lack of exposure to music or deafness, or brain damage after birth. Amusic brains have been found in fMRI studies to have less white matter and thicker cortex than controls in the right inferior frontal cortex. These differences suggest abnormal neuronal development in the auditory cortex and inferior frontal gyrus, two areas which are important in musical-pitch processing.
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performance scores in a pitch memory task resulted in a significant correlation between good task performance and the supramarginal gyrus (SMG) as well as the dorsolateral cerebellum. Findings indicate that the dorsolateral cerebellum may act as a pitch discrimination processor and the SMG may act as a short-term pitch information storage site. The left hemisphere was found to be more prominent in the pitch memory task than the right hemispheric regions.
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the middle temporal gyri. These patterns support the functional asymmetry favouring the left hemisphere for semantic memory. Left anterior temporal and inferior frontal regions that were activated in the musical semantic memory task produced activation peaks specifically during the presentation of musical material, suggestion that these regions are somewhat functionally specialized for musical semantic representations.
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affected. When auditory feedback is experimentally manipulated by delays or distortions, motor performance is significantly altered: asynchronous feedback disrupts the timing of events, whereas alteration of pitch information disrupts the selection of appropriate actions, but not their timing. This suggests that disruptions occur because both actions and percepts depend on a single underlying mental representation.
236:
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Patient H.J., who acquired arrhythmia after sustaining a right temporoparietal infarct. Damage to this region impaired H.J.'s central timing system which is essentially the basis of his global rhythmic impairment. H.J. was unable to generate steady pulses in a tapping task. These findings suggest that keeping a musical beat relies on functioning in the right temporal auditory cortex.
989:
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associated with increases in left frontal EEG activity whereas fearful and sad musical segments were associated with increases in right frontal EEG activity. Additionally, the intensity of emotions was differentiated by the pattern of overall frontal EEG activity. Overall frontal region activity increased as affective musical stimuli became more intense.
383:(which has a skew towards the right hemisphere). Hemispheric asymmetries in the processing of dissonant/consonant sounds have been demonstrated. ERP studies have shown larger evoked responses over the left temporal area in response to dissonant chords, and over the right one, in response to consonant chords.
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Episodic memory of musical information involves the ability to recall the former context associated with a musical excerpt. In the condition invoking episodic memory for music, activations were found bilaterally in the middle and superior frontal gyri and precuneus, with activation predominant in the
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activates, which indicates a sense of conflict or emotional pain. The right hemisphere has also been found to be correlated with emotion, which can also activate areas in the cingulate in times of emotional pain, specifically social rejection (Eisenberger). This evidence, along with observations, has
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Musicians have been shown to have significantly more developed left planum temporales, and have also shown to have a greater word memory. Chan's study controlled for age, grade point average and years of education and found that when given a 16 word memory test, the musicians averaged one to two more
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activity, which was not found to be phase-locked, was also found to correspond with each beat. However, induced gamma activity did not subside when a gap was present in the rhythm, indicating that induced gamma activity may possibly serve as a sort of internal metronome independent of auditory input.
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independent of where attention was directed. This negativity originated in the auditory cortex, more precisely in the supratemporal lobe (which corresponds with the secondary auditory cortex) with greater activity from the right hemisphere. The negativity response was larger for pitch that was out of
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Musical imagery refers to the experience of replaying music by imagining it inside the head. Musicians show a superior ability for musical imagery due to intense musical training. Herholz, Lappe, Knief and Pantev (2008) investigated the differences in neural processing of a musical imagery task in
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bilaterally. This strong association between musician status and gray matter differences supports the notion that musicians' brains show use-dependent structural changes. Due to the distinct differences in several brain regions, it is unlikely that these differences are innate but rather due to the
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However, production of melody and production of speech may be subserved by different neural networks. Stewart, Walsh, Frith and
Rothwell (2001) studied the differences between speech production and song production using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Stewart et al. found that TMS applied
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Syntactical information mechanisms in both music and language have been shown to be processed similarly in the brain. Jentschke, Koelsch, Sallat and
Friederici (2008) conducted a study investigating the processing of music in children with specific language impairments (SLI). Children with typical
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system has an important role in neural models of sensory–motor integration. There is considerable evidence that neurons respond to both actions and the accumulated observation of actions. A system proposed to explain this understanding of actions is that visual representations of actions are mapped
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Several models of auditory–motor interactions have been advanced. The model of Hickok and
Poeppel, which is specific for speech processing, proposes that a ventral auditory stream maps sounds onto meaning, whereas a dorsal stream maps sounds onto articulatory representations. They and others suggest
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Many neuroimaging studies have found evidence of the importance of right secondary auditory regions in aspects of musical pitch processing, such as melody. Many of these studies such as one by
Patterson, Uppenkamp, Johnsrude and Griffiths (2002) also find evidence of a hierarchy of pitch processing.
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The right secondary auditory cortex has finer pitch resolution than the left. Hyde, Peretz and
Zatorre (2008) used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in their study to test the involvement of right and left auditory cortical regions in the frequency processing of melodic sequences. As well
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in a study by Cowell et al. in 1992. This was confirmed by a study by
Schlaug et al. in 1995 that found that classical musicians between the ages of 21 and 36 have significantly greater anterior corpora callosa than the non-musical control. Schlaug also found that there was a strong correlation of
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involves both explicit and implicit memory systems. Explicit musical memory is further differentiated between episodic (where, when and what of the musical experience) and semantic (memory for music knowledge including facts and emotional concepts). Implicit memory centers on the 'how' of music and
727:(SMA) was active in both imagery and perceptual tasks suggesting covert vocalization as an element of musical imagery. CBF increases in the inferior frontal polar cortex and right thalamus suggest that these regions may be related to retrieval and/or generation of auditory information from memory.
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Brains of musicians also show functional differences from those of non-musicians. Krings, Topper, Foltys, Erberich, Sparing, Willmes and Thron (2000) utilized fMRI to study brain area involvement of professional pianists and a control group while performing complex finger movements. Krings et al.
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and the vPMC, as of 2011, experiments have begun to shed light on how these interactions are needed for musical performance. Results point to a broader involvement of the dPMC and other motor areas. The literature has shown a highly specialized cortical network in the skilled musician's brain that
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with the rest of the temporal lobe undamaged and found that S.M. was impaired in recognition of scary and sad music. S.M.'s perception of happy music was normal, as was her ability to use cues such as tempo to distinguish between happy and sad music. It appears that damage specific to the amygdala
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Treder et al. identified neural correlates of attention when listening to simplified polyphonic music patterns. In a musical oddball experiment, they had participants shift selective attention to one out of three different instruments in music audio clips, with each instrument occasionally playing
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found distinct activation patterns. Semantic musical memory involves the sense of familiarity of songs. The semantic memory for music condition resulted in bilateral activation in the medial and orbital frontal cortex, as well as activation in the left angular gyrus and the left anterior region of
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induced by music activate similar frontal brain regions compared to emotions elicited by other stimuli. Schmidt and
Trainor (2001) discovered that valence (i.e. positive vs. negative) of musical segments was distinguished by patterns of frontal EEG activity. Joyful and happy musical segments were
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According to the
National Institute of Health, children and adults who are suffering from emotional trauma have been able to benefit from the use of music in a variety of ways. The use of music has been essential in helping children who struggle with focus, anxiety, and cognitive function by using
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and the degree of probability of violation on music processing in both musicians and non-musicians. Findings showed that the human brain unintentionally extrapolates expectations about impending auditory input. Even in non-musicians, the extrapolated expectations are consistent with music theory.
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and melody have been shown to be processed in near identical functional brain areas. Brown, Martinez and Parsons (2006) examined the neurological structural similarities between music and language. Utilizing positron emission tomography (PET), the findings showed that both linguistic and melodic
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Some mirror neurons are activated both by the observation of goal-directed actions, and by the associated sounds produced during the action. This suggests that the auditory modality can access the motor system. While these auditory–motor interactions have mainly been studied for speech processes,
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Motor sequencing has been explored in terms of either the ordering of individual movements, such as finger sequences for key presses, or the coordination of subcomponents of complex multi-joint movements. Implicated in this process are various cortical and sub-cortical regions, including the basal
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of the inner ear. Different frequencies of sound will cause vibrations in different locations of the basilar membrane. We are able to hear different pitches because each sound wave with a unique frequency is correlated to a different location along the basilar membrane. This spatial arrangement of
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is defined as a disturbance of rhythmic sense; and includes deficits such as the inability to rhythmically perform music, the inability to keep time to music and the inability to discriminate between or reproduce rhythmic patterns. A study investigating the elements of rhythmic function examined
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Specific musical impairments may result from brain damage leaving other musical abilities intact. Cappelletti, Waley-Cohen, Butterworth and Kopelman (2000) studied a single case study of patient P.K.C., a professional musician who sustained damage to the left posterior temporal lobe as well as a
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is a task-related movement disorder associated with occupational activities that require repetitive hand movements. Focal hand dystonia is associated with abnormal processing in the premotor and primary sensorimotor cortices. An fMRI study examined five guitarists with focal hand dystonia. The
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It has been found that subjects who are lefthanded, particularly those who are also ambidextrous, perform better than righthanders on short term memory for the pitch. It was hypothesized that this handedness advantage is due to the fact that lefthanders have more duplication of storage in the two
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Minor neurological differences regarding hemispheric processing exist between brains of males and females. Koelsch, Maess, Grossmann and Friederici (2003) investigated music processing through EEG and ERPs and discovered gender differences. Findings showed that females process music information
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disturbs speech but not melody supporting the idea that they are subserved by different areas of the brain. The authors suggest that a reason for the difference is that speech generation can be localized well but the underlying mechanisms of melodic production cannot. Alternatively, it was also
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An auditory–motor interaction may be loosely defined as any engagement of or communication between the two systems. Two classes of auditory-motor interaction are "feedforward" and "feedback". In feedforward interactions, it is the auditory system that predominately influences the motor output,
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or clock mechanism where time is represented through oscillations or pulses. An opposing view to this metronome mechanism has also been hypothesized stating that it is an emergent property of the kinematics of movement itself. Kinematics is defined as parameters of movement through space without
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note (the first note in a scale) and the tonic chord (the first note in the scale with the third and fifth note) with the rest of the scale. The tonic is the element which tends to assert its dominance and attraction over all others, and it functions as the ultimate point of attraction, rest and
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and for the integration of individual movements into unified sequences, while the pre-SMA and SMA have been shown to be involved in organizing or chunking of more complex movement sequences. Chunking, defined as the re-organization or re-grouping of movement sequences into smaller sub-sequences
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Patterson et al. (2002) used spectrally matched sounds which produced: no pitch, fixed pitch or melody in an fMRI study and found that all conditions activated HG and PT. Sounds with pitch activated more of these regions than sounds without. When a melody was produced activation spread to the
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Music is able to create an intensely pleasurable experience that can be described as "chills". Blood and Zatorre (2001) used PET to measure changes in cerebral blood flow while participants listened to music that they knew to give them the "chills" or any sort of intensely pleasant emotional
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Feedback interactions are particularly relevant in playing an instrument such as a violin, or in singing, where pitch is variable and must be continuously controlled. If auditory feedback is blocked, musicians can still execute well-rehearsed pieces, but expressive aspects of performance are
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gamma activity. Evoked gamma activity was found after the onset of each tone in the rhythm; this activity was found to be phase-locked (peaks and troughs were directly related to the exact onset of the tone) and did not appear when a gap (missed beat) was present in the rhythm. Induced gamma
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which does not fit with their previous music experience. This automatic processing occurs in the secondary auditory cortex. Brattico, Tervaniemi, Naatanen, and Peretz (2006) performed one such study to determine if the detection of tones that do not fit an individual's expectations can occur
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Musical agnosias may be categorized based on the process which is impaired in the individual. Apperceptive music agnosia involves an impairment at the level of perceptual analysis involving an inability to encode musical information correctly. Associative music agnosia reflects an impaired
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When it comes to memory for pitch, there appears to be a dynamic and distributed brain network subserves pitch memory processes. Gaab, Gaser, Zaehle, Jancke and Schlaug (2003) examined the functional anatomy of pitch memory using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). An analysis of
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amusics lack the ability to distinguish between pitches and so are for example unmoved by dissonance and playing the wrong key on a piano. They also cannot be taught to remember a melody or to recite a song; however, they are still capable of hearing the intonation of speech, for example,
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often in a predictive way. An example is the phenomenon of tapping to the beat, where the listener anticipates the rhythmic accents in a piece of music. Another example is the effect of music on movement disorders: rhythmic auditory stimuli have been shown to improve walking ability in
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hemispheres than do righthanders. Other work has shown that there are pronounced differences between righthanders and lefthanders (on a statistical basis) in how musical patterns are perceived, when sounds come from different regions of space. This has been found, for example, in the
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codes the relationship between musical gestures and their corresponding sounds. The data hint at the existence of an audiomotor mirror network involving the right superior temporal gyrus, the premotor cortex, the inferior frontal and inferior parietal areas, among other areas.
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Musical performance usually involves at least three elementary motor control functions: timing, sequencing, and spatial organization of motor movements. Accuracy in timing of movements is related to musical rhythm. Rhythm, the pattern of temporal intervals within a musical measure or
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Few studies of complex motor control have distinguished between sequential and spatial organization, yet expert musical performances demand not only precise sequencing but also spatial organization of movements. Studies in animals and humans have established the involvement of
347:. These relationships are often characterized as hierarchical, such that one of the elements dominates or attracts another. They occur both within and between every type of element, creating a rich and time-varying perception between tones and their melodic, harmonic, and
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Krings, Timo; Töpper, Rudolf; Foltys, Henrik; Erberich, Stephan; Sparing, Roland; Willmes, Klaus; Thron, Armin (2000). "Cortical activation patterns during complex motor tasks in piano players and control subjects. A functional magnetic resonance imaging study".
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right hemisphere. Other studies have found the precuneus to become activated in successful episodic recall. As it was activated in the familiar memory condition of episodic memory, this activation may be explained by the successful recall of the melody.
479:, sensory–motor and premotor cortices in the control of movements, when the integration of spatial, sensory and motor information is required. Few studies so far have explicitly examined the role of spatial processing in the context of musical tasks.
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musicians and non-musicians. Utilizing magnetoencephalography (MEG), Herholz et al. examined differences in the processing of a musical imagery task with familiar melodies in musicians and non-musicians. Specifically, the study examined whether the
273:(ERPs) in nonmusicians as they were presented unfamiliar melodies with either an out of tune pitch or an out of key pitch while participants were either distracted from the sounds or attending to the melody. Both conditions revealed an early frontal
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These functions and their neural mechanisms have been investigated separately in many studies, but little is known about their combined interaction in producing a complex musical performance. The study of music requires examining them together.
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and motor skill learning – in other words skills critical for playing an instrument. Samson and Baird (2009) found that the ability of musicians with Alzheimer's Disease to play an instrument (implicit procedural memory) may be preserved.
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volume differences in motor, auditory and visual-spatial brain regions. Specifically, positive correlations were discovered between musician status (professional, amateur and non-musician) and gray matter volume in the primary motor and
762:. Many of these areas appear to be linked to reward, motivation, emotion, and arousal, and are also activated in other pleasurable situations. The resulting pleasure responses enable the release dopamine, serotonin, and oxytocin.
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Research suggests we listen to the same songs repeatedly because of musical nostalgia. One major study, published in the journal Memory & Cognition, found that music enables the mind to evoke memories of the past, known as
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Pujol, J.; Roset-Llobet, J.; Rosinés-Cubells, D.; Deus, J.; Narberhaus, B.; Valls-Solé, J.; Capdevila, A.; Pascual-Leone, A. (2000). "Brain Cortical Activation during Guitar-Induced Hand Dystonia Studied by Functional MRI".
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Deutsch, Diana; Henthorn, Trevor; Marvin, Elizabeth; Xu, Hongshuai (2006). "Absolute pitch among American and Chinese conservatory students: Prevalence differences, and evidence for a speech-related critical period".
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Although neural mechanisms involved in timing movement have been studied rigorously over the past 20 years, much remains controversial. The ability to phrase movements in precise time has been accredited to a neural
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recordings have also shown a relationship between brain electrical activity and rhythm perception. Snyder and Large (2005) performed a study examining rhythm perception in human subjects, finding that activity in the
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Studies have shown that the human brain has an implicit musical ability. Koelsch, Gunter, Friederici and Schoger (2000) investigated the influence of preceding musical context, task relevance of unexpected
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language development (TLD) showed ERP patterns different from those of children with SLI, which reflected their challenges in processing music-syntactic regularities. Strong correlations between the ERAN (
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that posterior auditory regions at the parieto-temporal boundary are crucial parts of the auditory–motor interface, mapping auditory representations onto motor representations of speech, and onto melodies.
583:. Differences were found in lateralization tendencies as language tasks favoured the left hemisphere, but the majority of activations were bilateral which produced significant overlap across modalities.
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Kapur, Shitij; Craik, Fergus I. M.; Jones, Corey; Brown, Gregory M.; Houle, Sylvain; Tulving, Endel (1995). "Functional role of the prefrontal cortex in retrieval of memories: A PET study".
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The right auditory cortex is primarily involved in perceiving pitch, and parts of harmony, melody and rhythm. One study by Petr Janata found that there are tonality-sensitive areas in the
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Brain structure within musicians and non-musicians is distinctly different. Gaser and Schlaug (2003) compared brain structures of professional musicians with non-musicians and discovered
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Jentschke, Sebastian; Koelsch, Stefan; Sallat, Stephan; Friederici, Angela D. (2008). "Children with Specific Language Impairment Also Show Impairment of Music-syntactic Processing".
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Damage to the amygdala has selective emotional impairments on musical recognition. Gosselin, Peretz, Johnsen and Adolphs (2007) studied S.M., a patient with bilateral damage of the
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Perceptual musical processes and musical imagery may share a neural substrate in the brain. A PET study conducted by Zatorre, Halpern, Perry, Meyer and Evans (1996) investigated
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scale types – examples of scales whose elements are capable of maintaining a consistent set of functional relationships. The most important functional relationship is that of the
136:. These nuclei are also tonotopically organized, and the process of achieving this tonotopy after the cochlea is not well understood. This tonotopy is in general maintained up to
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Collins, Francis S.; Fleming, Renée; Rutter, Deborah; Iyengar, Sunil; Tottenham, Nim; Patel, Aniruddh D.; Limb, Charles; Johnson, Julene K.; Holochwost, Steven J. (2018-03-21).
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Musical four-year-olds have been found to have one greater left hemisphere intrahemispheric coherence. Musicians have been found to have more developed anterior portions of the
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Deutsch, Diana; Dooley, Kevin; Henthorn, Trevor; Head, Brian (2009). "Absolute pitch among students in an American music conservatory: Association with tone language fluency".
466:. Lastly, the premotor cortex has been shown to be involved in tasks that require the production of relatively complex sequences, and it may contribute to motor prediction.
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Brown, Steven; Martinez, Michael J.; Parsons, Lawrence M. (2006). "Music and language side by side in the brain: A PET study of the generation of melodies and sentences".
591:—a specific ERP measure) amplitude and linguistic and musical abilities provide additional evidence for the relationship of syntactical processing in music and language.
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Gaab, Nadine; Gaser, Christian; Zaehle, Tino; Jancke, Lutz; Schlaug, Gottfried (2003). "Functional anatomy of pitch memory—an fMRI study with sparse temporal sampling".
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Brattico, Elvira; Tervaniemi, Mari; Näätänen, Risto; Peretz, Isabelle (2006). "Musical scale properties are automatically processed in the human auditory cortex".
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Spencer, R. M.; Zelaznik, H. N.; Diedrichson, J.; Ivry, R. B. (2003). "Disrupted timing of discontinuous but not continuous movements by cerebellar lesions".
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Koelsch, Stefan; Maess, Burkhard; Grossmann, Tobias; Friederici, Angela D. (2003). "Electric brain responses reveal gender differences in music processing".
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Hickok, G.; Buchsbaum, B.; Humphries, C.; Muftuler, T. (2003). "Auditory–motor interaction revealed by fMRI: speech, music, and working memory in area SPT".
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Doyon, J.; Penhune, V. B.; Ungerleider, L. G. (2003). "Distinct contribution of the cortico-striatal and corticocerebellar systems to motor skill learning".
290:. Rhythm is a strong repeated pattern of movement or sound. When individuals are preparing to tap out a rhythm of regular intervals (1:2 or 1:3) the left
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Arlinger, S; Elberling, C; Bak, C; Kofoed, B; Lebech, J; Saermark, K (1982). "Cortical magnetic fields evoked by frequency glides of a continuous tone".
4627:; Desgranges, Béatrice; Bernard, Frédéric; Eustache, Francis (2003). "Semantic and episodic memory of music are subserved by distinct neural networks".
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Janata, P.; Birk, JL; Van Horn, JD; Leman, M; Tillmann, B; Bharucha, JJ (2002). "The Cortical Topography of Tonal Structures Underlying Western Music".
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Koeneke, Susan; Lutz, Kai; Wüstenberg, Torsten; Jäncke, Lutz (2004). "Long-term training affects cerebellar processing in skilled keyboard players".
401:, in turn creates the perception of stronger and weaker beats. Sequencing and spatial organization relate to the expression of individual notes on a
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of a song are elongated for a dramatic effect, and it seems as though musical tones are simply exaggerations of the normal verbal tonality.
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music in therapeutic way. Music therapy has also helped children cope with autism, pediatric cancer, and pain from treatments.
155:
of action potentials to frequencies in a stimulus. Phase-locking to stimulus frequencies has been shown in the auditory nerve, the
2803:
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2696:"Cortical networks for visual reaching: physiological and anatomical organization of frontal and parietal lobe arm regions. Cereb"
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are all activated. With more difficult rhythms such as a 1:2.5, more areas in the cerebral cortex and cerebellum are involved.
928:. The abnormal shift from premotor to primary sensorimotor activation directly correlates with guitar-induced hand dystonia.
742:
response. They found that as these chills increase, many changes in cerebral blood flow are seen in brain regions such as the
4761:
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as finding superior pitch resolution in the right secondary auditory cortex, specific areas found to be involved were the
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1315:
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5465:
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4425:"Intensely pleasurable responses to music correlate with activity in brain regions implicated in reward and emotion"
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3994:
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in a simple rhythm. Two types of gamma activity were found by Snyder & Large: induced gamma activity, and
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Sounds consist of waves of air molecules that vibrate at different frequencies. These waves travel to the
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39:, reading, writing, and ancillary activities. It also is increasingly concerned with the brain basis for
1865:"Brain processing of consonance/dissonance in musicians and controls: a hemispheric asymmetry revisited"
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during performance, is thought to facilitate the smooth performance of complex movements and to improve
5644:
5614:
5322:
4862:"Decoding auditory attention to instruments in polyphonic music using single-trial EEG classification"
3996:"Children Processing Music: Electric Brain Responses Reveal Musical Competence and Gender Differences"
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Musicians possessing perfect pitch can identify the pitch of musical tones without external reference.
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Studies suggest that individuals are capable of automatically detecting a difference or anomaly in a
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is a function more of the left side of the brain than the right side, particularly Broca's area and
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1722:
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in its reliance on direct observations of the brain and use of brain imaging techniques like
2848:"Rhythmic auditory-motor facilitation of gait patterns in patients with Parkinson's disease"
2475:"Shared brain areas but not functional connections in controlling movement timing and order"
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sounds and their respective frequencies being processed in the basilar membrane is known as
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distinguishing between "You speak French" and "You speak French?" when spoken.
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3421:"Bach Speaks: A Cortical "Language-Network" Serves the Processing of Music"
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1093:
Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology
1042:Kandler, Karl; Clause, Amanda; Noh, Jihyun (2009).
1005:can selectively impair recognition of scary music.
971:suggest different processes are involved in speech
784:When unpleasant melodies are played, the posterior
518:
Mirror/echo neurons and auditory–motor interactions
386:
70:, and is distinguished from related fields such as
3899:
3897:
3647:
3645:
2650:
4984:
4760:
2929:
2802:
1406:
5885:
4212:The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
3853:
3851:
3559:The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
3516:The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
1279:
1041:
4429:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4116:Deutsch, Diana (1974). "An auditory illusion".
3894:
3642:
215:(PT) in the secondary auditory cortex, and the
4541:
3469:
1938:
1181:
644:, anterior superior parietal areas and in the
482:
219:in the medial section of Heschl's gyrus (HG).
5278:
4756:
4754:
4752:
3848:
2970:
2607:
2176:
1534:
4422:
3789:
3599:
3310:
3308:
2343:
657:words above their non musical counterparts.
5098:Current Directions in Psychological Science
4917:
4576:
3463:
2923:
2769:
2033:
1934:
1751:
1627:
1625:
1498:
5285:
5271:
4920:Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research
4749:
4537:
4535:
4281:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
3370:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
3356:
3354:
2211:
2075:
2073:
1990:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1914:
391:
5207:
5205:
5072:
4855:
4853:
4817:
4618:
4616:
4515:
4458:
4448:
4019:
3970:
3925:
3815:
3679:
3669:
3625:
3446:
3436:
3305:
3240:
2947:
2871:
2787:
2772:"Perceiving temporal regularity in music"
2711:
2558:
2498:
1986:
1984:
1956:
1786:
1605:
1595:
1467:
1383:
1357:
1256:
1207:
1158:
1067:
683:
457:The cerebellum is arguably important for
4418:
4416:
4277:"Cerebral Substrates of Musical Imagery"
3550:
3264:
3262:
3260:
2839:
2644:
2380:
2296:
2294:
2254:
2248:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1622:
1492:
987:
617:
433:and sub-cortical regions, including the
234:
197:
5521:Temporal dynamics of music and language
4532:
4274:
4252:
4246:
4209:
4166:
4115:
4109:
4096:"Handedness and Memory for Tonal Pitch"
4093:
4087:
4050:
3792:"Music training improves verbal memory"
3506:
3351:
3155:
3149:
2930:Pfordresher, P. Q.; Palmer, C. (2006).
2687:
2472:
2466:
2337:
2129:
2127:
2070:
1939:Zatorre, R. J.; Halpern, A. R. (2005).
1911:
1723:10.1126/science.10.1126/science.1056899
862:Musical training has been shown to aid
469:
5886:
5202:
5145:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.07.012
5095:
5054:
5011:
4850:
4613:
4203:
4160:
4044:
3104:
3098:
2737:Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol
2601:
2191:10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144247
1981:
1789:Cognitive Foundations of Musical Pitch
1421:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.09.004
1017:
996:may impair recognition of scary music.
910:
872:music-evoked autobiographical memories
858:Therapeutic effects of music on memory
5266:
4423:Blood, A. J.; Zatorre, R. J. (2001).
4413:
3651:
3257:
3007:
2796:
2763:
2515:
2429:
2423:
2291:
2205:
1791:. New York: Oxford University Press.
1708:
1697:
1128:
824:involves automatic processes such as
674:
539:
509:Models of auditory–motor interactions
488:Feedforward and feedback interactions
311:(20 – 60 Hz) corresponds to the
76:functional magnetic resonance imaging
5292:
2894:
2888:
2170:
2133:
2124:
2027:
1501:The Psychology of Music, 3rd Edition
951:
614:Musician vs. non-musician processing
128:at numerous clusters of neurons, or
85:
3412:
1023:Arrhythmia in the auditory modality
833:Neural correlates of musical memory
13:
4301:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb05733.x
3761:10.1097/01.wnr.0000127463.10147.e7
3618:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-27-09240.2003
3390:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb05762.x
1509:10.1016/B978-0-12-381460-9.00005-5
1151:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.17-09-03312.1997
1009:Selective deficit in music reading
983:
700:
14:
5920:
5466:Music in psychological operations
5251:
5014:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
4379:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
4264:(2nd ed.). pp. 299–348.
4103:Neuropsychology of Lefthandedness
4000:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
3860:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
3472:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
3317:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
2770:Large, E. W.; Palmer, C. (2002).
2473:Garraux, G.; et al. (2005).
1766:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.12.014
1358:Skoe, Erika; Kraus, Nina (2010).
1182:Dreyer, A.; Delgutte, B. (2006).
816:Neuropsychology of musical memory
230:
27:. These behaviours include music
5411:Generative theory of tonal music
5110:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00600.x
4684:10.1097/00001756-199510020-00014
4344:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2008.06515.x
4332:European Journal of Neuroscience
3963:10.1097/00001756-200304150-00010
3283:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.04785.x
3271:European Journal of Neuroscience
2852:J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry
2665:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.014
2358:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.02.041
1869:European Journal of Neuroscience
931:
387:Music production and performance
5421:Hedonic music consumption model
5318:Cognitive neuroscience of music
5167:
5124:
5089:
5048:
5005:
4978:
4934:
4911:
4789:
4706:
4663:
4570:
4475:
4366:
4323:
4268:
3987:
3942:
3783:
3740:
3696:
3593:
3192:
3055:
3020:
2985:10.1016/j.cognition.2003.10.011
2964:
2728:
1856:
1805:
1780:
1745:
1668:
1563:
1528:
1443:
660:
589:Early Right Anterior Negativity
4775:10.1080/00094056.2002.10522714
4255:"Grouping mechanisms in music"
4021:11858/00-001M-0000-0010-A3D0-1
3972:11858/00-001M-0000-0010-B017-B
3927:11858/00-001M-0000-0010-C96E-D
3448:11858/00-001M-0000-0010-9FF9-6
2491:10.1523/jneurosci.0340-05.2005
1646:10.1016/j.brainres.2006.08.023
1400:
1351:
1308:
1273:
1224:
1175:
1084:
1035:
886:
626:
1:
5858:Psychology of Music (journal)
5401:Eye movement in music reading
5226:10.1016/S0028-3932(01)00198-1
4987:Journal of New Music Research
4889:10.1088/1741-2560/11/2/026009
4869:Journal of Neural Engineering
4727:10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00224-6
4641:10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00287-8
4101:. In Herron, Jeannine (ed.).
3718:10.1016/S0304-3940(99)00930-1
3600:Gaser, C; Schlaug, G (2003).
2817:10.1016/s0022-510x(97)00146-9
2749:10.1016/s0013-4694(98)00022-4
2401:10.1016/s0959-4388(02)00307-0
2315:10.1016/s0028-3932(02)00158-6
2226:10.1016/s0959-4388(03)00036-9
1680:Oxford Dictionaries | English
1469:10.1016/S0896-6273(02)01060-7
1029:
899:
448:
269:automatically. They recorded
63:, and other relevant fields.
5426:Illusory continuity of tones
4500:10.1016/j.neuron.2018.02.004
4181:10.1016/0028-3932(83)90047-7
1958:10.1016/j.neuron.2005.06.013
1376:10.1097/AUD.0b013e3181cdb272
1105:10.1016/0013-4694(82)90118-3
877:
379:of both hemispheres and the
80:positron emission tomography
7:
5872:This Is Your Brain on Music
5851:Music, Thought, and Feeling
5837:Musicae Scientiae (journal)
4275:Halpern, Andrea R. (2006).
3606:The Journal of Neuroscience
3064:Nature Reviews Neuroscience
1993:Nature Reviews Neuroscience
1549:10.1037/0033-2909.113.2.345
527:onto our own motor system.
483:Auditory-motor interactions
323:
173:auditory brainstem response
10:
5925:
5645:Neuronal encoding of sound
5615:Melodic intonation therapy
5323:Culture in music cognition
4999:10.1076/jnmr.28.3.209.3108
4012:10.1162/jocn.2003.15.5.683
3041:10.1162/089892903322307393
2789:10.1207/s15516709cog2601_1
2536:10.1016/j.tics.2004.10.005
2269:10.1016/j.conb.2005.10.006
2048:10.1016/j.conb.2004.03.013
1317:Journal of Neurophysiology
1282:Journal of Neurophysiology
1237:Journal of Neurophysiology
1188:Journal of Neurophysiology
903:
808:
734:
730:
704:
543:
364:resolution for the scale.
242:
5821:
5683:
5587:
5539:
5371:Consonance and dissonance
5341:
5300:
5188:10.1080/13554790008402780
5026:10.1162/jocn.1996.8.6.481
4591:10.1007/s11065-009-9085-2
3918:10.1111/1469-8986.3910038
3170:10.1007/s00221-003-1603-5
1787:Krumhansl, Carol (1990).
1129:Köppl, Christine (1997).
804:
758:, and the ventral medial
412:
281:
255:
5660:Psychoanalysis and music
5640:Neurologic music therapy
5574:Music-specific disorders
5386:Embodied music cognition
5376:Deutsch's scale illusion
5074:10.1093/brain/123.9.1926
4391:10.1162/jocn.1996.8.1.29
4260:. In Deutsch, D. (ed.).
3671:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00393
1754:Cognitive Brain Research
906:Music-specific disorders
725:supplementary motor area
565:supplementary motor area
443:supplementary motor area
369:medial prefrontal cortex
275:error-related negativity
271:event-related potentials
90:
5516:Speech-to-song illusion
5328:Evolutionary musicology
4544:Cognition & Emotion
4262:The psychology of music
4094:Deutsch, Diana (1980).
3872:10.1162/089892900562183
3658:Frontiers in Psychology
3652:Croom, Adam M. (2012).
3484:10.1162/jocn.2009.21113
3329:10.1162/jocn.2008.20135
3127:10.1126/science.1070311
2659:(Suppl. 1): S120–S131.
2102:10.1126/science.1083661
1834:10.1126/science.1076262
1139:Journal of Neuroscience
646:inferior temporal gyrus
427:Functional neuroimaging
392:Motor control functions
377:superior temporal sulci
264:such as an out of tune
225:superior temporal gyrus
217:primary auditory cortex
204:primary auditory cortex
138:primary auditory cortex
5899:Cognitive neuroscience
5865:The World in Six Songs
5808:William Forde Thompson
5564:Musical hallucinations
4956:10.1006/nimg.2000.0615
4798:Memory & Cognition
4579:Neuropsychology Review
4556:10.1080/02699930126048
4450:10.1073/pnas.191355898
4073:10.1126/science.622558
3438:10.1006/nimg.2002.1154
2713:10.1093/cercor/6.2.102
2444:10.1006/nlme.1998.3846
2148:10.1006/brcg.2001.1301
1597:10.1073/pnas.95.6.3172
1537:Psychological Bulletin
997:
975:and musical tonality.
967:Studies on those with
684:Handedness differences
623:
381:superior temporal gyri
240:
207:
5670:Systematic musicology
2579:10.1152/jn.00651.2003
2432:Neurobiol. Learn. Mem
2389:Curr. Opin. Neurobiol
2257:Curr. Opin. Neurobiol
2214:Curr. Opin. Neurobiol
2036:Curr. Opin. Neurobiol
1686:on September 27, 2016
1329:10.1152/jn.00697.2007
1294:10.1152/jn.00497.2005
1249:10.1152/jn.00070.2009
1200:10.1152/jn.00326.2006
991:
960:, otherwise known as
621:
238:
201:
195:of pitch perception.
21:neuroscience of music
5894:Cognitive musicology
5476:Music-related memory
5313:Cognitive musicology
4253:Deutsch, D. (1999).
3706:Neuroscience Letters
3017:. 26, 100–107 (2003)
2864:10.1136/jnnp.62.1.22
811:Music-related memory
748:orbitofrontal cortex
561:primary motor cortex
531:and have focused on
470:Spatial organization
72:cognitive musicology
5763:Max Friedrich Meyer
5655:Philosophy of music
5650:Performance science
5595:Aesthetics of music
5569:Musician's dystonia
5554:Auditory arrhythmia
5441:Melodic expectation
5055:Ayotte, J. (2000).
4881:2014JNEng..11b6009T
4763:Childhood Education
4441:2001PNAS...9811818B
4435:(20): 11818–11823.
4293:2001NYASA.930..179H
4224:1975ASAJ...57.1156D
4130:1974Natur.251..307D
4065:1978Sci...199..559D
3808:1998Natur.396..128C
3571:2009ASAJ..125.2398D
3528:2006ASAJ..119..719D
3382:2001NYASA.930..433S
3217:2014NatSR...4E5866M
3119:2002Sci...297..846K
2936:Percept. Psychophys
2610:Nature Neuroscience
2179:Annu. Rev. Neurosci
2094:2003Sci...300.1437S
2088:(5624): 1437–1439.
1826:2002Sci...298.2167J
1588:1998PNAS...95.3172Z
1048:Nature Neuroscience
1018:Auditory arrhythmia
911:Focal hand dystonia
721:cerebral blood flow
714:mismatch negativity
638:somatosensory areas
604:Language processing
554:Certain aspects of
495:Parkinson's disease
161:inferior colliculus
5822:Books and journals
5743:Carol L. Krumhansl
5461:Music and movement
5416:Glissando illusion
5396:Exercise and music
4810:10.3758/BF03201225
4625:Baron, Jean-Claude
4105:. pp. 263–71.
3205:Scientific Reports
2949:10.3758/bf03193683
998:
675:Gender differences
624:
540:Music and language
403:musical instrument
241:
208:
134:auditory brainstem
120:to occur down the
41:musical aesthetics
5881:
5880:
5630:Musical acoustics
5506:Sharawadji effect
5486:Musical semantics
5456:Music and emotion
5356:Auditory illusion
4059:(4328): 559–560.
3579:10.1121/1.3081389
3536:10.1121/1.2151799
3225:10.1038/srep05866
3113:(5582): 846–848.
3029:J. Cogn. Neurosci
2485:(22): 5290–5297.
1881:10.1111/ejn.13330
1820:(5601): 2167–70.
1798:978-0-19-514836-7
952:Congenital amusia
826:procedural memory
764:Nucleus accumbens
760:prefrontal cortex
737:Music and emotion
546:Musical semantics
459:sequence learning
165:auditory thalamus
118:action potentials
114:neurotransmitters
86:Elements of music
5916:
5909:Music psychology
5830:Music Perception
5773:Richard Parncutt
5758:Leonard B. Meyer
5708:Jane W. Davidson
5693:Jamshed Bharucha
5471:Music preference
5366:Background music
5361:Auditory imagery
5294:Music psychology
5287:
5280:
5273:
5264:
5263:
5246:
5245:
5214:Neuropsychologia
5209:
5200:
5199:
5171:
5165:
5164:
5133:Neuropsychologia
5128:
5122:
5121:
5093:
5087:
5086:
5076:
5052:
5046:
5045:
5009:
5003:
5002:
4982:
4976:
4975:
4938:
4932:
4931:
4915:
4909:
4908:
4866:
4857:
4848:
4847:
4821:
4793:
4787:
4786:
4758:
4747:
4746:
4710:
4704:
4703:
4667:
4661:
4660:
4620:
4611:
4610:
4574:
4568:
4567:
4539:
4530:
4529:
4519:
4494:(6): 1214–1218.
4479:
4473:
4472:
4462:
4452:
4420:
4411:
4410:
4370:
4364:
4363:
4327:
4321:
4320:
4272:
4266:
4265:
4259:
4250:
4244:
4243:
4232:10.1121/1.380573
4207:
4201:
4200:
4169:Neuropsychologia
4164:
4158:
4157:
4138:10.1038/251307a0
4113:
4107:
4106:
4100:
4091:
4085:
4084:
4048:
4042:
4041:
4023:
3991:
3985:
3984:
3974:
3946:
3940:
3939:
3929:
3906:Psychophysiology
3901:
3892:
3891:
3855:
3846:
3845:
3819:
3787:
3781:
3780:
3744:
3738:
3737:
3700:
3694:
3693:
3683:
3673:
3649:
3640:
3639:
3629:
3597:
3591:
3590:
3554:
3548:
3547:
3510:
3504:
3503:
3467:
3461:
3460:
3450:
3440:
3416:
3410:
3409:
3367:
3358:
3349:
3348:
3312:
3303:
3302:
3277:(10): 2791–803.
3266:
3255:
3254:
3244:
3196:
3190:
3189:
3153:
3147:
3146:
3102:
3096:
3095:
3076:10.1038/35090060
3059:
3053:
3052:
3024:
3018:
3011:
3005:
3004:
2968:
2962:
2961:
2951:
2927:
2921:
2920:
2909:10.2307/40285802
2897:Music Perception
2892:
2886:
2885:
2875:
2843:
2837:
2836:
2800:
2794:
2793:
2791:
2767:
2761:
2760:
2732:
2726:
2725:
2715:
2691:
2685:
2684:
2648:
2642:
2641:
2605:
2599:
2598:
2562:
2556:
2555:
2524:Trends Cogn. Sci
2519:
2513:
2512:
2502:
2470:
2464:
2463:
2438:(1–2): 177–188.
2427:
2421:
2420:
2384:
2378:
2377:
2341:
2335:
2334:
2303:Neuropsychologia
2298:
2289:
2288:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2209:
2203:
2202:
2174:
2168:
2167:
2131:
2122:
2121:
2077:
2068:
2067:
2031:
2025:
2024:
1988:
1979:
1978:
1960:
1936:
1909:
1908:
1875:(6): 2340–2356.
1860:
1854:
1853:
1809:
1803:
1802:
1784:
1778:
1777:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1706:
1695:
1694:
1692:
1691:
1682:. Archived from
1672:
1666:
1665:
1629:
1620:
1619:
1609:
1599:
1567:
1561:
1560:
1532:
1526:
1522:
1496:
1490:
1489:
1471:
1447:
1441:
1440:
1409:Neuropsychologia
1404:
1398:
1397:
1387:
1355:
1349:
1348:
1312:
1306:
1305:
1277:
1271:
1270:
1260:
1228:
1222:
1221:
1211:
1179:
1173:
1172:
1162:
1126:
1117:
1116:
1088:
1082:
1081:
1071:
1039:
942:auditory agnosia
786:cingulate cortex
752:ventral striatum
213:planum temporale
185:pitch perception
157:cochlear nucleus
97:basilar membrane
68:music psychology
61:computer science
5924:
5923:
5919:
5918:
5917:
5915:
5914:
5913:
5904:Music cognition
5884:
5883:
5882:
5877:
5817:
5703:Robert Cutietta
5679:
5665:Sociomusicology
5620:Music education
5605:Ethnomusicology
5583:
5535:
5531:Tritone paradox
5496:Octave illusion
5481:Musical gesture
5446:Melodic fission
5436:Lipps–Meyer law
5406:Franssen effect
5337:
5333:Psychoacoustics
5296:
5291:
5254:
5249:
5220:(8): 1494–505.
5210:
5203:
5172:
5168:
5129:
5125:
5094:
5090:
5053:
5049:
5010:
5006:
4983:
4979:
4939:
4935:
4916:
4912:
4864:
4858:
4851:
4794:
4790:
4759:
4750:
4711:
4707:
4668:
4664:
4623:Platel, Hervé;
4621:
4614:
4575:
4571:
4540:
4533:
4480:
4476:
4421:
4414:
4371:
4367:
4338:(11): 2352–60.
4328:
4324:
4273:
4269:
4257:
4251:
4247:
4208:
4204:
4165:
4161:
4124:(5473): 307–9.
4114:
4110:
4098:
4092:
4088:
4049:
4045:
3992:
3988:
3947:
3943:
3902:
3895:
3856:
3849:
3788:
3784:
3745:
3741:
3701:
3697:
3650:
3643:
3598:
3594:
3565:(4): 2398–403.
3555:
3551:
3511:
3507:
3478:(10): 1882–92.
3468:
3464:
3417:
3413:
3365:
3359:
3352:
3323:(11): 1940–51.
3313:
3306:
3267:
3258:
3197:
3193:
3154:
3150:
3103:
3099:
3060:
3056:
3025:
3021:
3015:Trends Neurosci
3012:
3008:
2969:
2965:
2928:
2924:
2893:
2889:
2844:
2840:
2801:
2797:
2768:
2764:
2733:
2729:
2692:
2688:
2649:
2645:
2606:
2602:
2567:J. Neurophysiol
2563:
2559:
2530:(12): 547–553.
2520:
2516:
2471:
2467:
2428:
2424:
2385:
2381:
2342:
2338:
2299:
2292:
2253:
2249:
2210:
2206:
2175:
2171:
2132:
2125:
2078:
2071:
2032:
2028:
2005:10.1038/nrn1764
1999:(10): 755–765.
1989:
1982:
1937:
1912:
1861:
1857:
1810:
1806:
1799:
1785:
1781:
1750:
1746:
1707:
1698:
1689:
1687:
1674:
1673:
1669:
1630:
1623:
1568:
1564:
1533:
1529:
1519:
1497:
1493:
1448:
1444:
1405:
1401:
1364:Ear and Hearing
1356:
1352:
1313:
1309:
1278:
1274:
1229:
1225:
1180:
1176:
1127:
1120:
1089:
1085:
1060:10.1038/nn.2332
1040:
1036:
1032:
1020:
1011:
986:
984:Amygdala damage
954:
934:
913:
908:
902:
893:corpus callosum
889:
880:
860:
843:episodic memory
835:
818:
813:
807:
739:
733:
709:
703:
701:Musical imagery
691:Octave illusion
686:
677:
663:
629:
616:
608:Wernicke's area
552:
542:
520:
511:
490:
485:
472:
451:
415:
394:
389:
326:
296:parietal cortex
284:
258:
247:
233:
187:, and to argue
181:temporal theory
93:
88:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5922:
5912:
5911:
5906:
5901:
5896:
5879:
5878:
5876:
5875:
5868:
5861:
5854:
5847:
5840:
5833:
5825:
5823:
5819:
5818:
5816:
5815:
5810:
5805:
5800:
5795:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5775:
5770:
5765:
5760:
5755:
5753:Daniel Levitin
5750:
5745:
5740:
5735:
5730:
5728:Henkjan Honing
5725:
5720:
5715:
5710:
5705:
5700:
5695:
5689:
5687:
5681:
5680:
5678:
5677:
5672:
5667:
5662:
5657:
5652:
5647:
5642:
5637:
5632:
5627:
5622:
5617:
5612:
5607:
5602:
5597:
5591:
5589:
5588:Related fields
5585:
5584:
5582:
5581:
5576:
5571:
5566:
5561:
5556:
5551:
5545:
5543:
5537:
5536:
5534:
5533:
5528:
5523:
5518:
5513:
5508:
5503:
5501:Relative pitch
5498:
5493:
5491:Musical syntax
5488:
5483:
5478:
5473:
5468:
5463:
5458:
5453:
5448:
5443:
5438:
5433:
5431:Levitin effect
5428:
5423:
5418:
5413:
5408:
5403:
5398:
5393:
5388:
5383:
5378:
5373:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5353:
5351:Absolute pitch
5347:
5345:
5339:
5338:
5336:
5335:
5330:
5325:
5320:
5315:
5310:
5304:
5302:
5298:
5297:
5290:
5289:
5282:
5275:
5267:
5261:
5260:
5253:
5252:External links
5250:
5248:
5247:
5201:
5182:(4): 321–332.
5166:
5123:
5104:(5): 329–333.
5088:
5067:(9): 1926–38.
5047:
5004:
4993:(3): 209–216.
4977:
4933:
4922:(351): 102–6.
4910:
4849:
4804:(6): 948–955.
4788:
4769:(2): 100–103.
4748:
4721:(4): 1417–26.
4705:
4678:(14): 1880–4.
4662:
4612:
4569:
4550:(4): 487–500.
4531:
4474:
4412:
4365:
4322:
4267:
4245:
4218:(5): 1156–60.
4202:
4159:
4108:
4086:
4043:
3986:
3941:
3893:
3847:
3782:
3755:(8): 1279–82.
3739:
3695:
3641:
3612:(27): 9240–5.
3592:
3549:
3505:
3462:
3411:
3350:
3304:
3256:
3191:
3164:(4): 628–636.
3148:
3097:
3070:(9): 661–670.
3054:
3035:(5): 673–682.
3019:
3006:
2979:(1–2): 67–99.
2963:
2942:(3): 362–376.
2922:
2903:(4): 409–438.
2887:
2838:
2811:(2): 207–212.
2805:J. Neurol. Sci
2795:
2762:
2743:(4): 283–296.
2727:
2706:(2): 102–119.
2686:
2643:
2622:10.1038/nn1081
2616:(7): 682–687.
2600:
2573:(2): 978–993.
2557:
2514:
2465:
2422:
2395:(2): 217–222.
2379:
2352:(3): 801–812.
2336:
2309:(3): 252–262.
2290:
2263:(6): 638–644.
2247:
2220:(2): 250–255.
2204:
2169:
2123:
2069:
2042:(2): 225–232.
2026:
1980:
1910:
1855:
1804:
1797:
1779:
1744:
1717:(5501): 54–6.
1696:
1667:
1634:Brain Research
1621:
1562:
1527:
1517:
1491:
1442:
1399:
1350:
1323:(4): 1941–52.
1307:
1288:(3): 1926–35.
1272:
1243:(3): 1226–37.
1223:
1194:(5): 2327–41.
1174:
1145:(9): 3312–21.
1118:
1083:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1019:
1016:
1010:
1007:
992:Damage to the
985:
982:
953:
950:
933:
930:
912:
909:
904:Main article:
901:
898:
888:
885:
879:
876:
859:
856:
834:
831:
821:Musical memory
817:
814:
809:Main article:
806:
803:
735:Main article:
732:
729:
702:
699:
695:Scale illusion
685:
682:
676:
673:
662:
659:
642:premotor areas
628:
625:
615:
612:
579:and posterior
550:Musical syntax
541:
538:
519:
516:
510:
507:
489:
486:
484:
481:
471:
468:
450:
447:
414:
411:
393:
390:
388:
385:
325:
322:
292:frontal cortex
283:
280:
257:
254:
250:Absolute pitch
245:Absolute pitch
243:Main article:
232:
231:Absolute pitch
229:
122:auditory nerve
92:
89:
87:
84:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5921:
5910:
5907:
5905:
5902:
5900:
5897:
5895:
5892:
5891:
5889:
5874:
5873:
5869:
5867:
5866:
5862:
5860:
5859:
5855:
5853:
5852:
5848:
5846:
5845:
5841:
5839:
5838:
5834:
5832:
5831:
5827:
5826:
5824:
5820:
5814:
5813:Sandra Trehub
5811:
5809:
5806:
5804:
5801:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5793:Roger Shepard
5791:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5783:Carl Seashore
5781:
5779:
5776:
5774:
5771:
5769:
5768:James Mursell
5766:
5764:
5761:
5759:
5756:
5754:
5751:
5749:
5746:
5744:
5741:
5739:
5736:
5734:
5731:
5729:
5726:
5724:
5723:Tuomas Eerola
5721:
5719:
5718:Diana Deutsch
5716:
5714:
5713:Irène Deliège
5711:
5709:
5706:
5704:
5701:
5699:
5696:
5694:
5691:
5690:
5688:
5686:
5682:
5676:
5675:Zoomusicology
5673:
5671:
5668:
5666:
5663:
5661:
5658:
5656:
5653:
5651:
5648:
5646:
5643:
5641:
5638:
5636:
5633:
5631:
5628:
5626:
5625:Music therapy
5623:
5621:
5618:
5616:
5613:
5611:
5608:
5606:
5603:
5601:
5598:
5596:
5593:
5592:
5590:
5586:
5580:
5579:Tone deafness
5577:
5575:
5572:
5570:
5567:
5565:
5562:
5560:
5559:Beat deafness
5557:
5555:
5552:
5550:
5547:
5546:
5544:
5542:
5538:
5532:
5529:
5527:
5524:
5522:
5519:
5517:
5514:
5512:
5509:
5507:
5504:
5502:
5499:
5497:
5494:
5492:
5489:
5487:
5484:
5482:
5479:
5477:
5474:
5472:
5469:
5467:
5464:
5462:
5459:
5457:
5454:
5452:
5451:Mozart effect
5449:
5447:
5444:
5442:
5439:
5437:
5434:
5432:
5429:
5427:
5424:
5422:
5419:
5417:
5414:
5412:
5409:
5407:
5404:
5402:
5399:
5397:
5394:
5392:
5389:
5387:
5384:
5382:
5379:
5377:
5374:
5372:
5369:
5367:
5364:
5362:
5359:
5357:
5354:
5352:
5349:
5348:
5346:
5344:
5340:
5334:
5331:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5314:
5311:
5309:
5308:Biomusicology
5306:
5305:
5303:
5299:
5295:
5288:
5283:
5281:
5276:
5274:
5269:
5268:
5265:
5259:
5256:
5255:
5243:
5239:
5235:
5231:
5227:
5223:
5219:
5215:
5208:
5206:
5197:
5193:
5189:
5185:
5181:
5177:
5170:
5162:
5158:
5154:
5150:
5146:
5142:
5139:(2): 236–44.
5138:
5134:
5127:
5119:
5115:
5111:
5107:
5103:
5099:
5092:
5084:
5080:
5075:
5070:
5066:
5062:
5058:
5051:
5043:
5039:
5035:
5031:
5027:
5023:
5020:(6): 481–96.
5019:
5015:
5008:
5000:
4996:
4992:
4988:
4981:
4973:
4969:
4965:
4961:
4957:
4953:
4950:(3): 257–67.
4949:
4945:
4937:
4929:
4925:
4921:
4914:
4906:
4902:
4898:
4894:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4878:
4875:(2): 026009.
4874:
4870:
4863:
4856:
4854:
4845:
4841:
4837:
4833:
4829:
4825:
4820:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4803:
4799:
4792:
4784:
4780:
4776:
4772:
4768:
4764:
4757:
4755:
4753:
4744:
4740:
4736:
4732:
4728:
4724:
4720:
4716:
4709:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4689:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4673:
4666:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4635:(1): 244–56.
4634:
4630:
4626:
4619:
4617:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4592:
4588:
4585:(1): 85–101.
4584:
4580:
4573:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4549:
4545:
4538:
4536:
4527:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4485:
4478:
4470:
4466:
4461:
4456:
4451:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4434:
4430:
4426:
4419:
4417:
4408:
4404:
4400:
4396:
4392:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4369:
4361:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4337:
4333:
4326:
4318:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4302:
4298:
4294:
4290:
4287:(1): 179–92.
4286:
4282:
4278:
4271:
4263:
4256:
4249:
4241:
4237:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4217:
4213:
4206:
4198:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4175:(3): 289–93.
4174:
4170:
4163:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4112:
4104:
4097:
4090:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4047:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4006:(5): 683–93.
4005:
4001:
3997:
3990:
3982:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3957:(5): 709–13.
3956:
3952:
3945:
3937:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3900:
3898:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3866:(3): 520–41.
3865:
3861:
3854:
3852:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3818:
3817:10.1038/24075
3813:
3809:
3805:
3802:(6707): 128.
3801:
3797:
3793:
3786:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3743:
3735:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3712:(3): 189–93.
3711:
3707:
3699:
3691:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3655:
3648:
3646:
3637:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3596:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3553:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3522:(2): 719–22.
3521:
3517:
3509:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3466:
3458:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3431:(2): 956–66.
3430:
3426:
3422:
3415:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3364:
3357:
3355:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3311:
3309:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3265:
3263:
3261:
3252:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3195:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3152:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3101:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3058:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3023:
3016:
3010:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2967:
2959:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2926:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2891:
2883:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2842:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2799:
2790:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2766:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2731:
2723:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2690:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2647:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2604:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2561:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2518:
2510:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2469:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2426:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2383:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2340:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2297:
2295:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2251:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2208:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2173:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2130:
2128:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2076:
2074:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2030:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1987:
1985:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1915:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1859:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1808:
1800:
1794:
1790:
1783:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1760:(1): 117–26.
1759:
1755:
1748:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1671:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1640:(1): 162–74.
1639:
1635:
1628:
1626:
1617:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1582:(6): 3172–7.
1581:
1577:
1573:
1566:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1543:(2): 345–61.
1542:
1538:
1531:
1525:
1520:
1518:9780123814609
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1495:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1462:(4): 767–76.
1461:
1457:
1453:
1446:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1403:
1395:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1370:(3): 302–24.
1369:
1365:
1361:
1354:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1311:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1276:
1268:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1227:
1219:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1178:
1170:
1166:
1161:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1134:
1125:
1123:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1099:(6): 642–53.
1098:
1094:
1087:
1079:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1038:
1034:
1027:
1024:
1015:
1006:
1003:
995:
990:
981:
978:
974:
970:
965:
963:
962:tone deafness
959:
949:
945:
943:
939:
932:Music agnosia
929:
927:
923:
918:
907:
897:
894:
884:
875:
873:
867:
865:
855:
851:
847:
844:
840:
830:
827:
822:
812:
802:
800:
796:
792:
787:
782:
779:
775:
771:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
738:
728:
726:
722:
717:
715:
708:
698:
696:
692:
681:
672:
669:
658:
654:
650:
647:
643:
639:
634:
620:
611:
609:
605:
601:
598:
592:
590:
584:
582:
578:
574:
573:basal ganglia
570:
566:
562:
557:
551:
547:
537:
534:
528:
525:
524:mirror neuron
515:
506:
502:
500:
496:
480:
478:
467:
465:
460:
455:
446:
444:
440:
439:basal ganglia
436:
432:
428:
424:
421:
410:
406:
404:
400:
384:
382:
378:
374:
370:
365:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
321:
318:
314:
310:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
279:
276:
272:
267:
263:
253:
251:
246:
237:
228:
226:
220:
218:
214:
205:
200:
196:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
149:phase-locking
145:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
102:
98:
83:
81:
77:
73:
69:
64:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
5870:
5863:
5856:
5849:
5844:Musicophilia
5842:
5835:
5828:
5798:John Sloboda
5778:Oliver Sacks
5748:Fred Lerdahl
5600:Bioacoustics
5526:Tonal memory
5511:Shepard tone
5317:
5217:
5213:
5179:
5175:
5169:
5136:
5132:
5126:
5101:
5097:
5091:
5064:
5060:
5050:
5017:
5013:
5007:
4990:
4986:
4980:
4947:
4943:
4936:
4919:
4913:
4872:
4868:
4801:
4797:
4791:
4766:
4762:
4718:
4714:
4708:
4675:
4671:
4665:
4632:
4628:
4582:
4578:
4572:
4547:
4543:
4491:
4487:
4477:
4432:
4428:
4385:(1): 29–46.
4382:
4378:
4368:
4335:
4331:
4325:
4284:
4280:
4270:
4261:
4248:
4215:
4211:
4205:
4172:
4168:
4162:
4121:
4117:
4111:
4102:
4089:
4056:
4052:
4046:
4003:
3999:
3989:
3954:
3950:
3944:
3912:(1): 38–48.
3909:
3905:
3863:
3859:
3799:
3795:
3785:
3752:
3748:
3742:
3709:
3705:
3698:
3661:
3657:
3609:
3605:
3595:
3562:
3558:
3552:
3519:
3515:
3508:
3475:
3471:
3465:
3428:
3424:
3414:
3376:(1): 433–5.
3373:
3369:
3320:
3316:
3274:
3270:
3208:
3204:
3194:
3161:
3157:
3151:
3110:
3106:
3100:
3067:
3063:
3057:
3032:
3028:
3022:
3014:
3009:
2976:
2972:
2966:
2939:
2935:
2925:
2900:
2896:
2890:
2858:(1): 22–26.
2855:
2851:
2841:
2808:
2804:
2798:
2779:
2775:
2765:
2740:
2736:
2730:
2703:
2699:
2689:
2656:
2652:
2646:
2613:
2609:
2603:
2570:
2566:
2560:
2527:
2523:
2517:
2482:
2478:
2468:
2435:
2431:
2425:
2392:
2388:
2382:
2349:
2345:
2339:
2306:
2302:
2260:
2256:
2250:
2217:
2213:
2207:
2182:
2178:
2172:
2139:
2135:
2085:
2081:
2039:
2035:
2029:
1996:
1992:
1948:
1944:
1872:
1868:
1858:
1817:
1813:
1807:
1788:
1782:
1757:
1753:
1747:
1714:
1710:
1688:. Retrieved
1684:the original
1679:
1670:
1637:
1633:
1579:
1575:
1565:
1540:
1536:
1530:
1524:PDF Document
1500:
1494:
1459:
1455:
1445:
1415:(2): 632–9.
1412:
1408:
1402:
1367:
1363:
1353:
1320:
1316:
1310:
1285:
1281:
1275:
1240:
1236:
1226:
1191:
1187:
1177:
1142:
1138:
1132:
1096:
1092:
1086:
1054:(6): 711–7.
1051:
1047:
1037:
1021:
1012:
999:
966:
955:
946:
935:
914:
890:
881:
868:
861:
852:
848:
836:
819:
790:
783:
776:
772:
740:
718:
710:
687:
678:
664:
661:Similarities
655:
651:
630:
602:
597:frontal lobe
595:to the left
593:
588:
585:
569:Broca's area
553:
533:Broca's area
529:
521:
512:
503:
491:
473:
464:motor memory
456:
452:
425:
416:
407:
395:
366:
327:
298:, and right
285:
259:
248:
221:
209:
193:place theory
191:against the
153:mode-locking
146:
94:
65:
57:music theory
49:neuroanatomy
20:
18:
5803:Carl Stumpf
5733:David Huron
5685:Researchers
5391:Entrainment
4819:10161/10143
4672:NeuroReport
3951:NeuroReport
3749:NeuroReport
2479:J. Neurosci
2185:: 307–340.
2142:(1): 7–30.
1951:(1): 9–12.
1503:: 141–182.
956:Congenital
915:Focal hand
887:Development
766:(a part of
633:gray matter
627:Differences
108:. When the
78:(fMRI) and
5888:Categories
5788:Max Schoen
5738:Nina Kraus
5698:Lola Cuddy
5635:Musicology
4944:NeuroImage
4715:NeuroImage
4629:NeuroImage
3425:NeuroImage
2653:NeuroImage
2346:NeuroImage
2136:Brain Cogn
1690:2019-05-31
1030:References
977:Congenital
900:Impairment
705:See also:
581:cerebellum
575:, ventral
544:See also:
501:patients.
449:Sequencing
435:cerebellum
373:cerebellum
309:gamma band
300:cerebellum
189:indirectly
169:low-passed
163:, and the
116:and cause
110:hair cells
53:psychology
33:performing
5541:Disorders
5196:144572937
5176:Neurocase
4828:1532-5946
4783:219597861
4508:0896-6273
4360:205513912
3826:1476-4687
3233:2045-2322
3158:Brain Res
2973:Cognition
1889:1460-9568
1739:132754452
1133:Tyto alba
926:arpeggios
878:Attention
707:Audiation
420:metronome
349:chromatic
337:intervals
335:– tones,
132:, in the
45:neurology
37:composing
29:listening
5242:16730354
5234:11931954
5161:14537793
5153:16970965
5118:15242461
5083:10960056
5042:25846736
5034:23961980
4972:24205160
4964:10944408
4905:35135614
4897:24608228
4844:34931829
4836:10586571
4735:12948699
4700:21792266
4657:17195548
4649:14527585
4607:14341862
4599:19214750
4526:29566791
4469:11573015
4407:11312311
4399:23972234
4352:19046375
4317:31277594
4309:11458829
4038:10553168
4030:12965042
3981:12692468
3936:12206294
3880:10931776
3777:14517466
3769:15167549
3726:10653025
3690:22232614
3636:14534258
3587:19354413
3544:16521731
3500:10848425
3492:18823240
3457:12377169
3406:31971115
3398:11458860
3337:18416683
3299:15189129
3291:16817882
3251:25070060
3211:: 5866.
3178:12937876
3143:16923101
3135:12161656
3084:11533734
3049:12965041
2993:15037127
2958:16900830
2917:40285802
2782:: 1–37.
2776:Cogn Sci
2681:10198110
2673:14597305
2630:12830159
2587:14573560
2552:18845950
2544:15556024
2509:15930376
2460:29972449
2417:12354147
2409:12015240
2374:14531779
2366:15955490
2323:12457751
2285:12490490
2277:16271465
2234:12744981
2199:15217335
2156:11812030
2118:16390014
2110:12775842
2064:10629859
2056:15082329
2021:29616055
2013:16163383
1967:15996544
1897:27421883
1842:12481131
1774:15922164
1731:11192009
1654:16963000
1478:12441063
1437:12414672
1429:17959204
1394:20084007
1345:10052217
1337:17699690
1302:16339005
1267:20042702
1218:16807349
1078:19471270
1002:amygdala
994:amygdala
973:tonality
917:dystonia
839:semantic
799:phonemes
778:Emotions
768:striatum
756:midbrain
744:amygdala
693:and the
577:thalamus
556:language
477:parietal
431:cortical
329:Tonality
324:Tonality
126:synapses
106:tonotopy
5610:Hearing
5381:Earworm
4928:9646753
4877:Bibcode
4743:1878442
4692:8547589
4564:5557258
4517:6688399
4437:Bibcode
4289:Bibcode
4240:1127169
4220:Bibcode
4197:3063526
4189:6877583
4154:4273134
4146:4427654
4126:Bibcode
4061:Bibcode
4053:Science
3888:6205775
3842:4425221
3834:9823892
3804:Bibcode
3734:6564482
3681:3249389
3664:: 393.
3627:6740845
3567:Bibcode
3524:Bibcode
3378:Bibcode
3345:6678801
3242:5376193
3213:Bibcode
3186:7704309
3115:Bibcode
3107:Science
3092:6792943
2882:9010395
2833:2515325
2825:9349677
2757:9741757
2722:8670643
2638:7605155
2595:7763911
2500:6724991
2452:9753595
2331:1855933
2164:5596590
2090:Bibcode
2082:Science
1975:1613599
1905:3899594
1850:3031759
1822:Bibcode
1814:Science
1711:Science
1662:8401429
1616:9501235
1584:Bibcode
1557:8451339
1486:2429799
1385:2868335
1258:2887620
1209:2013745
1169:9096164
1160:6573645
1113:6183097
1069:2780022
938:agnosia
797:in the
731:Emotion
333:harmony
294:, left
142:mammals
101:cochlea
99:in the
82:(PET).
5549:Amusia
5343:Topics
5240:
5232:
5194:
5159:
5151:
5116:
5081:
5040:
5032:
4970:
4962:
4926:
4903:
4895:
4842:
4834:
4826:
4781:
4741:
4733:
4698:
4690:
4655:
4647:
4605:
4597:
4562:
4524:
4514:
4506:
4488:Neuron
4467:
4457:
4405:
4397:
4358:
4350:
4315:
4307:
4238:
4195:
4187:
4152:
4144:
4118:Nature
4081:622558
4079:
4036:
4028:
3979:
3934:
3886:
3878:
3840:
3832:
3824:
3796:Nature
3775:
3767:
3732:
3724:
3688:
3678:
3634:
3624:
3585:
3542:
3498:
3490:
3455:
3404:
3396:
3343:
3335:
3297:
3289:
3249:
3239:
3231:
3184:
3176:
3141:
3133:
3090:
3082:
3047:
3001:635860
2999:
2991:
2956:
2915:
2880:
2873:486690
2870:
2831:
2823:
2755:
2720:
2700:Cortex
2679:
2671:
2636:
2628:
2593:
2585:
2550:
2542:
2507:
2497:
2458:
2450:
2415:
2407:
2372:
2364:
2329:
2321:
2283:
2275:
2242:328258
2240:
2232:
2197:
2162:
2154:
2116:
2108:
2062:
2054:
2019:
2011:
1973:
1965:
1945:Neuron
1903:
1895:
1887:
1848:
1840:
1795:
1772:
1737:
1729:
1660:
1652:
1614:
1604:
1555:
1515:
1484:
1476:
1456:Neuron
1435:
1427:
1392:
1382:
1343:
1335:
1300:
1265:
1255:
1216:
1206:
1167:
1157:
1111:
1076:
1066:
969:amusia
958:amusia
936:Music
922:scales
864:memory
805:Memory
795:vowels
668:chords
499:stroke
413:Timing
399:phrase
375:, the
371:, the
345:scales
343:, and
341:chords
317:evoked
288:rhythm
282:Rhythm
262:melody
256:Melody
175:using
159:, the
130:nuclei
5301:Areas
5238:S2CID
5192:S2CID
5157:S2CID
5114:S2CID
5061:Brain
5038:S2CID
4968:S2CID
4901:S2CID
4865:(PDF)
4840:S2CID
4779:S2CID
4739:S2CID
4696:S2CID
4653:S2CID
4603:S2CID
4560:S2CID
4460:58814
4403:S2CID
4356:S2CID
4313:S2CID
4258:(PDF)
4193:S2CID
4150:S2CID
4099:(PDF)
4034:S2CID
3884:S2CID
3838:S2CID
3773:S2CID
3730:S2CID
3496:S2CID
3402:S2CID
3366:(PDF)
3341:S2CID
3295:S2CID
3182:S2CID
3139:S2CID
3088:S2CID
2997:S2CID
2913:JSTOR
2829:S2CID
2677:S2CID
2634:S2CID
2591:S2CID
2548:S2CID
2456:S2CID
2413:S2CID
2370:S2CID
2327:S2CID
2281:S2CID
2238:S2CID
2160:S2CID
2114:S2CID
2060:S2CID
2017:S2CID
1971:S2CID
1901:S2CID
1846:S2CID
1735:S2CID
1658:S2CID
1607:19714
1482:S2CID
1433:S2CID
1341:S2CID
940:, an
361:tonic
357:minor
353:major
313:beats
266:pitch
91:Pitch
25:music
5230:PMID
5149:PMID
5079:PMID
5030:PMID
4960:PMID
4924:PMID
4893:PMID
4832:PMID
4824:ISSN
4731:PMID
4688:PMID
4645:PMID
4595:PMID
4522:PMID
4504:ISSN
4465:PMID
4395:PMID
4348:PMID
4305:PMID
4236:PMID
4185:PMID
4142:PMID
4077:PMID
4026:PMID
3977:PMID
3932:PMID
3876:PMID
3830:PMID
3822:ISSN
3765:PMID
3722:PMID
3686:PMID
3632:PMID
3583:PMID
3540:PMID
3488:PMID
3453:PMID
3394:PMID
3333:PMID
3287:PMID
3247:PMID
3229:ISSN
3174:PMID
3131:PMID
3080:PMID
3045:PMID
2989:PMID
2954:PMID
2878:PMID
2821:PMID
2753:PMID
2718:PMID
2669:PMID
2626:PMID
2583:PMID
2540:PMID
2505:PMID
2448:PMID
2405:PMID
2362:PMID
2319:PMID
2273:PMID
2230:PMID
2195:PMID
2152:PMID
2106:PMID
2052:PMID
2009:PMID
1963:PMID
1893:PMID
1885:ISSN
1838:PMID
1793:ISBN
1770:PMID
1727:PMID
1650:PMID
1638:1117
1612:PMID
1553:PMID
1513:ISBN
1474:PMID
1425:PMID
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