29:
715:
Due to the comparative rarity of NMS, it is often overlooked. Immediate treatment for the syndrome should not be delayed as it has a high mortality of between 10-20%. Differentiating NMS from other neurological disorders can be very difficult. It requires expert judgement to separate symptoms of NMS
838:
Pooled data suggest the incidence of NMS is between 0.2%–3.23%. However, greater physician awareness coupled with increased use of atypical anti-psychotics have likely reduced the prevalence of NMS. Additionally, young males are particularly susceptible and the male:female ratio has been reported to
823:
is best when identified early and treated aggressively. In these cases NMS is not usually fatal. In earlier studies the mortality rates from NMS ranged from 20%–38%, but by 2009 mortality rates were reported to have fallen below 10% over the previous two decades due to early recognition and improved
378:
Symptoms are sometimes misinterpreted by doctors as symptoms of mental illness which can result in delayed treatment. NMS is less likely if a person has previously been stable for a period of time on antipsychotics, especially in situations where the dose has not been changed and there are no issues
527:
Demographically, it appears that males, especially those under forty, are at greatest risk for developing NMS, although it is unclear if the increased incidence is a result of greater antipsychotic use in men under forty. It has also been suggested that postpartum women may be at a greater risk for
496:
One of the clearest risk factors in the development of NMS is the course of drug therapy chosen to treat a condition. Use of high-potency antipsychotics, a rapid increase in the dosage of antipsychotics, and use of long-acting forms of antipsychotics (such as haloperidol) are all known to increase
627:
dopamine receptors, was thought to have reduced the incidence of NMS. However, recent studies suggest that the decrease in mortality may be the result of increased physician awareness and earlier initiation of treatment rather than the action of the drugs themselves. NMS induced by atypical drugs
647:) as a mechanism for NMS. Release of calcium is increased from the sarcoplasmic reticulum with antipsychotic usage. This can result in increased muscle contractility, which can play a role in the breakdown of muscle, muscle rigidity, and hyperthermia. Some antipsychotic drugs, such as
316:
on antipsychotics about 15 per 100,000 are affected per year (0.015%). In the second half of the 20th century rates were over 100 times higher at about 2% (2,000 per 100,000). Males appear to be more often affected than females. The condition was first described in 1956.
654:
In support of the sympathoadrenal hyperactivity model, it has been hypothesized that a defect in calcium regulatory proteins within the sympathetic neurons may bring about the onset of NMS. This model of NMS strengthens its suspected association with
693:
The fever seen with NMS is believed to be caused by hypothalamic dopamine receptor blockade. The peripheral problems (the high white blood cell and CPK count) are caused by the antipsychotic drugs. They cause an increased calcium release from the
775:
aggressively, such as with cooling blankets or ice packs to the axillae and groin. Supportive care in an intensive care unit capable of circulatory and ventilatory support is crucial. The best pharmacological treatment is still unclear.
2332:
2785:
2770:
1886:
Mihara K, Kondo T, Suzuki A, Yasui-Furukori N, Ono S, Sano A, et al. (February 2003). "Relationship between functional dopamine D2 and D3 receptors gene polymorphisms and neuroleptic malignant syndrome".
662:
There is also thought to be considerable overlap between malignant catatonia and NMS in their pathophysiology, the former being idiopathic and the latter being the drug-induced form of the same syndrome.
851:. NMS was first described in 1960 by French clinicians who had been working on a study involving haloperidol. They characterized the condition that was associated with the side effects of haloperidol "
524:
It has been purported that there is a genetic risk factor for NMS. In one study, identical twins presented with NMS, and a mother and two of her daughters have presented with NMS in another case.
309:. The risk of death among those affected is about 10%. Rapid diagnosis and treatment is required to improve outcomes. Many people can eventually be restarted on a lower dose of antipsychotic.
1010:
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808:
damage, therefore aggressive intravenous hydration with diuresis may be required. When recognized early NMS can be successfully managed; however, up to 10% of cases can be fatal.
2312:
488:
At the molecular level, NMS is caused by a sudden, marked reduction in dopamine activity, either from withdrawal of dopaminergic agents or from blockade of dopamine receptors.
3728:
3723:
3740:
3718:
375:). Once symptoms appear, they may progress rapidly and reach peak intensity in as little as three days. These symptoms can last anywhere from eight hours to forty days.
1286:
635:
dopamine receptor antagonism, or dopamine receptor dysfunction, do not fully explain the presenting symptoms and signs of NMS, as well as the occurrence of NMS with
719:
The diagnosis is suggested on patients with an accurate history of drug exposure to the most common inducing agents such as strong antidopaminergic medication. The
2891:
651:, are known to block dopamine receptors; other studies have shown that when drugs supplying dopamine are withdrawn, symptoms similar to NMS present themselves.
1930:
Kornhuber J, Weller M, Riederer P (1993). "Glutamate receptor antagonists for neuroleptic malignant syndrome and akinetic hyperthermic parkinsonian crisis".
1182:
Sahin, Aynur; Cicek, Mustafa; Cekic, Ozgen Gonenc; Gunaydin, Mucahit; Aykut, Demet Saglam; Tatli, Ozgur; Karaca, Yunus; Arici, Mualla Aylin (December 2017).
1334:
Khaldi S, Kornreich C, Choubani Z, Gourevitch R (December 2008). "" [Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and atypical antipsychotics: A brief review].
1133:
Troller, Julian N.; Chen, Xiaohua; Sachdev, Perminder S. (February 2009). "Neuroleptic malignant syndrome associated with atypical antipsychotic drugs".
485:
can cause NMS is unclear. However, concomitant use of lithium is associated with a higher risk of NMS when the patient starts on a antipsychotic drug.
1369:
Keyser DL, Rodnitzky RL (April 1991). "Neuroleptic malignant syndrome in
Parkinson's disease after withdrawal or alteration of dopaminergic therapy".
446:) for Parkinson's disease, most often when the drug dosage is abruptly reduced. In addition, other drugs with anti-dopaminergic activity, such as the
1753:
Otani K, Horiuchi M, Kondo T, Kaneko S, Fukushima Y (June 1991). "Is the predisposition to neuroleptic malignant syndrome genetically transmitted?".
979:
3087:
1006:
824:
management. Re-introduction to the drug that originally caused NMS to develop may also trigger a recurrence, although in most cases it does not.
3829:
3814:
3082:
1619:
Keck PE, Pope HG, Cohen BM, McElroy SL, Nierenberg AA (October 1989). "Risk factors for neuroleptic malignant syndrome. A case-control study".
2094:
Ananth J, Parameswaran S, Gunatilake S, Burgoyne K, Sidhom T (April 2004). "Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and atypical antipsychotic drugs".
811:
Should the affected person subsequently require an antipsychotic, trialing a low dose of a low-potency atypical antipsychotic is recommended.
628:
also resembles "classical" NMS (induced by "typical" antipsychotic drugs), further casting doubt on the overall superiority of these drugs.
535:. These patients are extremely sensitive to antipsychotics. As a result, antipsychotics should be used cautiously in all cases of dementia.
2884:
698:
of muscle cells which can result in rigidity and eventual cell breakdown. No major studies have reported an explanation for the abnormal
3710:
2742:
2024:
Odagaki Y (January 2009). "Atypical neuroleptic malignant syndrome or serotonin toxicity associated with atypical antipsychotics?".
771:
NMS is a medical emergency and can lead to death if untreated. The first step is to stop the antipsychotic medication and treat the
643:
dopamine activity. This has led to the hypothesis of sympathoadrenal hyperactivity (results from removing tonic inhibition from the
2525:
Dhib-Jalbut S, Hesselbrock R, Mouradian MM, Means ED (February 1987). "Bromocriptine treatment of neuroleptic malignant syndrome".
659:
in which NMS may be regarded as a neurogenic form of this condition which itself is linked to defective calcium-related proteins.
3700:
2877:
297:
Management includes stopping the triggering medication, rapid cooling, and starting other medications. Medications used include
3680:
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623:
receptors associated with this neurotransmitter. The introduction of atypical antipsychotic drugs, with lower affinity to the D
619:
receptor blockade theory in which antipsychotic drugs were thought to significantly reduce dopamine activity by blocking the D
3705:
3337:
2388:
2359:
1694:
1667:
1603:
1502:
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and myotoxicity. Additionally, the blockade of diverse serotonin receptors by atypical antipsychotics and activation of 5-HT
267:. Onset is often within a few weeks of starting the medication but can occur at any time. Risk factors include dehydration,
3543:
3531:
2993:
1089:
New, Andrea M.; Nelson, Sarah; Leung, Jonathan G. (October 1, 2015). "Psychiatric
Emergencies in the Intensive Care Unit".
2347:
2137:
Hasan S, Buckley P (August 1998). "Novel antipsychotics and the neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a review and critique".
1684:
1655:
1593:
1269:
497:
the risk of developing NMS. There appears to be no relationship between duration of therapy and the development of NMS.
3762:
3695:
3250:
2376:
1184:"A retrospective analysis of cases with neuroleptic malignant syndrome and an evaluation of risk factors for mortality"
1051:
2714:
1294:
3465:
3268:
594:
receptors by certain of them reduces GABA release and indirectly induces glutamate release, worsening this syndrome.
830:
is a consistent feature of recovery from NMS, and is usually temporary though in some cases may become persistent.
3584:
2258:
Northoff G (December 2002). "Catatonia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome: psychopathology and pathophysiology".
1683:
Butterworth IV JF, Mackey DC, Wasnick JD (2022). "Thermoregulation, hypothermia, & malignant hyperthermia.".
2172:
Gurrera RJ (February 1999). "Sympathoadrenal hyperactivity and the etiology of neuroleptic malignant syndrome".
391:
NMS is usually caused by antipsychotic drug use, and a wide range of drugs can result in NMS. Individuals using
3099:
2905:
1592:
Miller CS, Wiese JG (2017). "Hyperthermia and fever.". In McKean SC, Ross JJ, Dressler DD, Scheurer DB (eds.).
260:
232:, confusion, rigid muscles, variable blood pressure, sweating, and fast heart rate. Complications may include
3778:
3663:
3579:
3521:
3291:
3070:
1404:
Friedman LS, Weinrauch LA, D'Elia JA (August 1987). "Metoclopramide-induced neuroleptic malignant syndrome".
780:
has been used when needed to reduce muscle rigidity, and more recently dopamine pathway medications such as
3819:
3747:
3121:
3257:
1494:
Meyler's Side
Effects of Drugs: The International Encyclopedia of Adverse Drug Reactions and Interactions
1091:
975:
3735:
3285:
2957:
644:
2629:
Pelonero AL, Levenson JL, Pandurangi AK (September 1998). "Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a review".
3685:
3653:
3627:
3605:
3454:
3033:
2215:
Gurrera RJ (2002). "Is neuroleptic malignant syndrome a neurogenic form of malignant hyperthermia?".
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1567:
3752:
3526:
2940:
2800:
2073:
2038:
1710:
Velamoor VR (July 1998). "Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Recognition, prevention and management".
702:, but it is likely also attributable to dopamine blockage leading to changes in neuronal pathways.
360:
112:
1492:
759:
may also produce similar symptoms. Features which distinguish NMS from serotonin syndrome include
3824:
3809:
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77:
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748:
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609:
252:
155:
146:
49:
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Hernández JL, Palacios-Araus L, EchevarrĂa S, Herrán A, Campo JF, Riancho JA (December 1997).
3637:
3511:
3329:
3307:
3222:
3145:
3055:
3042:
2967:
2857:
313:
268:
125:
2313:"Clinical inquiries. How much can exercise raise creatine kinase level--and does it matter?"
674:(CPK) plasma concentration seen in those with NMS is due to increased muscular activity and
3574:
3391:
3280:
732:
699:
598:
558:
482:
237:
86:
8:
3503:
3150:
3005:
2945:
2789:
1632:
1317:
679:
415:) are reported to be at greatest risk. However, various atypical antipsychotics such as
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3658:
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2001:
1974:
1955:
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683:
532:
291:
159:
64:
2502:
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3402:
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3297:
3273:
3140:
2988:
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2695:
2646:
2608:
2587:"Persistent amnesia as a sequel of olanzapine-induced neuroleptic malignant syndrome"
2534:
2507:
2458:
2413:
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2355:
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1099:(4). Aliso Viejo, California: American Association of Critical-Care Nurses: 285–293.
1068:
938:
916:
551:
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Use of the following agents is most commonly associated with the development of NMS:
457:
with anti-dopaminergic activity have been linked to NMS in case reports, such as the
136:
44:
2840:
2470:
2297:
2244:
2201:
2123:
1959:
1916:
1782:
1739:
1168:
251:
Any medications within the family of antipsychotics can cause the condition, though
141:
Based on symptoms in someone who has started on antipsychotics within the last month
3559:
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3425:
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2685:
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2638:
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2181:
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2043:
1996:
1986:
1975:"Glutamate-based magnetic resonance spectroscopy in neuroleptic malignant syndrome"
1939:
1896:
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1854:
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1809:
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1628:
1539:
1531:
1463:
1455:
1413:
1378:
1343:
1240:
Simon LV, Hashmi MF, Callahan AL (August 2022). "Neuroleptic
Malignant Syndrome.".
1203:
1195:
1148:
1100:
1060:
928:
920:
283:
163:
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NMS was known about as early as 1956, shortly after the introduction of the first
3481:
3172:
2805:
2453:
1144:
1104:
788:
is another treatment option due to its dopaminergic and anticholinergic effects.
1839:"Atypical antipsychotic use in patients with dementia: managing safety concerns"
1417:
1347:
1241:
290:, may also trigger the condition. The underlying mechanism involves blockage of
3538:
3487:
3315:
3024:
2901:
2846:
2843:
2047:
1798:"Is risk of neuroleptic malignant syndrome increased in the postpartum period?"
1382:
1199:
1064:
1009:. Bethesda, Maryland: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke.
793:
675:
450:
412:
364:
241:
233:
90:
82:
2816:
2779:
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2586:
2570:
2553:
2281:
797:
3803:
3564:
3516:
3386:
3155:
3111:
2962:
2431:
Sachdev PS (June 2005). "A rating scale for neuroleptic malignant syndrome".
1991:
1049:
Strawn JR, Keck PE, Caroff SN (June 2007). "Neuroleptic malignant syndrome".
924:
848:
781:
605:
587:
474:
404:
392:
302:
225:
187:
2681:
2072:
Wijdicks EF (26 May 2022). Aminoff MJ, Rabinstein AA, Wilterdink JL (eds.).
173:
Stopping the offending medication, rapid cooling, starting other medications
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2913:
2718:
2612:
2511:
2462:
2417:
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2010:
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942:
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760:
728:
667:
439:
408:
379:
of noncompliance or consumption of psychoactive substances known to worsen
348:
229:
69:
2699:
2666:"Neuroleptic malignant syndrome in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome"
2650:
2538:
2193:
2185:
2158:
1951:
1823:
1814:
1797:
1774:
1766:
1731:
1660:
Huppert's Notes: Pathophysiology and
Clinical Pearls for Internal Medicine
1640:
1553:
1535:
1477:
1459:
1425:
1390:
3019:
2980:
2922:
2642:
2352:
Basic
Concepts in Pharmacology: What You Need to Know for Each Drug Class
2107:
1900:
789:
756:
740:
462:
454:
432:
424:
396:
335:
287:
264:
151:
119:
36:
2762:
1932:
Journal of Neural
Transmission. Parkinson's Disease and Dementia Section
1194:(4). Ankara, Turkey: Emergency Medicine Association of Turkey: 141–145.
224:) is a rare but life-threatening reaction that can occur in response to
3130:
3000:
2852:
2663:
1943:
1889:
American
Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics
785:
777:
518:
470:
447:
428:
420:
400:
298:
183:
178:
57:
28:
615:
In the past, research and clinical studies seemed to corroborate the D
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3191:
3179:
3162:
3094:
2835:
1322:
1135:
820:
801:
744:
478:
466:
458:
416:
380:
272:
198:
129:
53:
2524:
2093:
586:) receptors induce massive glutamate release, generating catatonia,
3715:
Spinal muscular atrophy with lower extremity predominance (SMALED)
3420:
3412:
3378:
3232:
3135:
1268:
Papadakis MA, McPhee SJ (2023). "Neuroleptic malignant syndrome.".
544:
543:
The mechanism is commonly thought to depend on decreased levels of
514:
443:
368:
306:
279:
245:
191:
94:
2899:
1333:
827:
752:
347:
The first symptoms of neuroleptic malignant syndrome are usually
329:
Increased body temperature >38 °C (>100.4 °F), or
905:"Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a review for neurohospitalists"
597:
The muscular symptoms are most likely caused by blockade of the
507:
Atypical antipsychotics: e.g. olanzapine, clozapine, risperidone
3459:
3200:
3167:
2774:
1885:
805:
352:
792:
may be used however its use is supported by little evidence.
356:
72:, confusion, rigid muscles, variable blood pressure, sweating
1682:
1403:
855:", which was translated to neuroleptic malignant syndrome.
678:(destruction of muscle tissue). The patient may experience
372:
2628:
2746:
2591:
The
Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences
2483:
2310:
978:. NORD (National Organization for Rare Disorders). 2004.
687:
504:
Typical antipsychotics: e.g. haloperidol, chlorpromazine.
1752:
2311:
Latham J, Campbell D, Nichols W, Mott T (August 2008).
1929:
1181:
566:
Sympathoadrenal hyperactivity and autonomic dysfunction
763:, muscle rigidity, and a high white blood cell count.
2743:
NINDS Neuroleptic
Malignant Syndrome Information Page
2752:
2484:
Birmes P, Coppin D, Schmitt L, Lauque D (May 2003).
1656:"Key medications & interventions in psychiatry."
1618:
2403:
1239:
1795:
1524:Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry
1448:Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry
1132:
1084:
1082:
557:Genetically reduced function of dopamine receptor
367:, and sudden changes in mental status (agitation,
2374:
1836:
1517:
1441:
1007:"Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome Information Page"
3801:
1048:
2584:
2404:Christensen V, Glenthøj BY (January 2001). "".
2089:
2087:
2067:
2065:
1368:
1267:
1263:
1261:
1246:. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing.
1079:
531:An important risk factor for this condition is
1686:Morgan & Mikhail's Clinical Anesthesiology
1128:
1126:
1124:
1122:
1088:
510:Anti-dopaminergic antiemetics: e.g. droperidol
2885:
1653:
2339:
2136:
2084:
2062:
1879:
1595:Principles and Practice of Hospital Medicine
1258:
228:(neuroleptic) medications. Symptoms include
3604:
2379:. In Hall JB, Schmidt GA, Kress JP (eds.).
2165:
1837:Steinberg M, Lyketsos CG (September 2012).
1796:Alexander PJ, Thomas RM, Das A (May 1998).
1591:
1327:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1227:
1119:
2892:
2878:
1972:
1437:
1435:
970:
968:
966:
964:
962:
960:
958:
956:
954:
952:
898:
896:
894:
892:
890:
888:
27:
2689:
2624:
2622:
2602:
2569:
2551:
2501:
2452:
2271:
2037:
2000:
1990:
1862:
1813:
1543:
1467:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1304:
1207:
1044:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1034:
1032:
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1028:
1001:
999:
997:
932:
886:
884:
882:
880:
878:
876:
874:
872:
870:
868:
710:
211:15 per 100,000 per year (on neuroleptics)
2345:
2257:
2071:
1709:
1224:
513:Withdrawal of dopaminergic agents: e.g.
481:have been known to trigger NMS. Whether
2430:
2214:
2171:
2023:
1518:Buckley PF, Hutchinson M (March 1995).
1490:
1442:Buckley PF, Hutchinson M (March 1995).
1432:
1271:Quick Medical Diagnosis & Treatment
949:
570:It has been proposed that blockade of D
3802:
3681:Distal hereditary motor neuronopathies
3354:Template:Demyelinating diseases of CNS
2619:
2554:"Hyperthermia syndromes in psychiatry"
1301:
1025:
994:
902:
865:
604:, leading to abnormal function of the
3830:Adverse effects of psychoactive drugs
3815:Extrapyramidal and movement disorders
2873:
2712:
2545:
1979:Annals of Indian Academy of Neurology
1188:Turkish Journal of Emergency Medicine
982:from the original on 19 February 2017
320:
3532:Idiopathic intracranial hypertension
2921:
2486:"Serotonin syndrome: a brief review"
1633:10.1001/archpsyc.1989.01810100056011
1284:
690:is reported in around 50% of cases.
438:NMS may also occur in people taking
435:have also been implicated in cases.
13:
3763:Infantile progressive bulbar palsy
2527:The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
2174:The American Journal of Psychiatry
2139:The American Journal of Psychiatry
2096:The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
1843:The American Journal of Psychiatry
1802:The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
1052:The American Journal of Psychiatry
686:. A non-generalized slowing on an
538:
294:. Diagnosis is based on symptoms.
255:appear to have a higher risk than
14:
3841:
3466:Template:Cerebrovascular diseases
3269:Frontotemporal lobar degeneration
2736:
2558:Advances in Psychiatric Treatment
2375:Yandle G, deBoisblanc BP (2014).
2348:"Antipsychotics or neuroleptics."
1755:The British Journal of Psychiatry
903:Berman, Brian D. (January 2011).
853:syndrome malin des neuroleptiques
332:Confused or altered consciousness
3486:For more detailed coverage, see
3464:For more detailed coverage, see
3435:For more detailed coverage, see
3401:For more detailed coverage, see
3352:For more detailed coverage, see
2715:"Neuroleptic malignant syndrome"
2585:Mendhekar DN, Duggal HS (2006).
2335:from the original on 2016-06-01.
2229:10.1097/00002826-200207000-00001
2074:"Neuroleptic malignant syndrome"
1724:10.2165/00002018-199819010-00006
1520:"Neuroleptic malignant syndrome"
1444:"Neuroleptic malignant syndrome"
1153:10.2165/00023210-200923060-00003
1013:from the original on 4 July 2017
976:"Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome"
2706:
2657:
2578:
2518:
2477:
2424:
2397:
2368:
2304:
2251:
2208:
2130:
2017:
1966:
1923:
1830:
1789:
1746:
1703:
1676:
1647:
1612:
1585:
1560:
1511:
1484:
1397:
1362:
1278:
833:
491:
261:first generation antipsychotics
2858:Neuroleptic malignant syndrome
2445:10.1016/j.psychres.2005.05.003
2317:The Journal of Family Practice
2260:Journal of Neural Transmission
1855:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12030342
1654:Huppert LA, Dyster TG (2021).
1621:Archives of General Psychiatry
1318:Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome
1175:
278:Rapidly decreasing the use of
218:Neuroleptic malignant syndrome
22:Neuroleptic malignant syndrome
1:
3779:Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
3664:Hereditary spastic paraplegia
3522:Normal pressure hydrocephalus
2383:(4th ed.). McGraw Hill.
2354:(5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
1973:Chatterjee A (January 2014).
1689:(7th ed.). McGraw Hill.
1598:(2nd ed.). McGraw Hill.
1572:TMedWeb: Medical Pharmacology
1406:Archives of Internal Medicine
1371:Archives of Internal Medicine
1243:StatPearls [Internet]
858:
668:raised white blood cell count
363:instability such as unstable
3748:Progressive muscular atrophy
2670:Postgraduate Medical Journal
1568:"Treatment of Schizophrenia"
1105:10.4037/NCI.0000000000000104
814:
766:
705:
7:
3258:Primary progressive aphasia
2381:Principles of Critical Care
1418:10.1001/archinte.147.8.1495
1348:10.1016/j.encep.2007.11.007
1092:AACN Advanced Critical Care
312:As of 2011, among those in
10:
3846:
3580:Hashimoto's encephalopathy
3286:Posterior cortical atrophy
3107:Striatonigral degeneration
2958:Cavernous sinus thrombosis
2217:Clinical Neuropharmacology
2048:10.2174/157488609787354387
1383:10.1001/archinte.151.4.794
1200:10.1016/j.tjem.2017.10.001
1065:10.1176/ajp.2007.164.6.870
842:
645:sympathetic nervous system
104:Within a few weeks or days
3686:Spinal muscular atrophies
3654:Primary lateral sclerosis
3636:
3613:
3597:
3552:
3512:Intracranial hypertension
3502:
3474:
3445:
3411:
3373:
3362:
3328:
3306:
3292:Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
3231:
3041:
3032:
3018:
2978:
2912:
2826:
2756:
2604:10.1176/jnp.2006.18.4.552
2571:10.1192/apt.bp.107.005090
2552:Ahuja N, Cole AJ (2009).
2346:Stringer JL, ed. (2017).
2282:10.1007/s00702-002-0762-z
1497:. Elsevier. p. 607.
631:However, the failure of D
386:
207:
197:
177:
169:
145:
135:
118:
108:
100:
76:
63:
43:
35:
26:
21:
3753:Progressive bulbar palsy
3544:Intracranial hypotension
3527:Choroid plexus papilloma
2941:Herpesviral encephalitis
1992:10.4103/0972-2327.128579
925:10.1177/1941875210386491
800:. Highly elevated blood
608:similar to that seen in
361:autonomic nervous system
113:Antipsychotic medication
3265:Frontotemporal dementia
2951:Encephalitis lethargica
2682:10.1136/pgmj.73.866.779
796:may be used to control
3570:Hepatic encephalopathy
2151:10.1176/ajp.155.8.1113
749:malignant hyperthermia
721:differential diagnosis
716:from other diseases.
711:Differential diagnosis
696:sarcoplasmic reticulum
672:creatine phosphokinase
657:malignant hyperthermia
649:typical antipsychotics
637:atypical antipsychotic
325:NMS symptoms include:
253:typical antipsychotics
156:malignant hyperthermia
147:Differential diagnosis
50:Critical care medicine
39:, a known cause of NMS
3628:Ataxia–telangiectasia
3585:Static encephalopathy
3308:Mitochondrial disease
3146:Spasmodic torticollis
3056:Basal ganglia disease
2454:1959.4/unsworks_46263
2186:10.1176/ajp.156.2.169
1815:10.4088/JCP.v59n0509a
1767:10.1192/bjp.158.6.850
1536:10.1136/jnnp.58.3.271
1460:10.1136/jnnp.58.3.271
1287:"Quest for the truth"
804:levels can result in
314:psychiatric hospitals
3575:Toxic encephalopathy
3281:Lewy bodies dementia
2643:10.1176/ps.49.9.1163
2631:Psychiatric Services
2406:Ugeskrift for Laeger
2108:10.4088/JCP.v65n0403
1901:10.1002/ajmg.b.10025
1143:(6). New York City:
915:(1). New York City:
909:The Neurohospitalist
784:have shown benefit.
733:toxic encephalopathy
238:high blood potassium
203:10–15% risk of death
87:high blood potassium
3820:Medical emergencies
3623:Friedreich's ataxia
3006:Meningoencephalitis
2946:Limbic encephalitis
2721:on October 16, 2006
2433:Psychiatry Research
2026:Current Drug Safety
1574:. Tulane University
1491:Aronson JK (2015).
839:be as high as 2:1.
680:hypertensive crisis
610:Parkinson's disease
599:dopamine receptor D
343:Autonomic imbalance
3659:Pseudobulbar palsy
3397:Status epilepticus
3348:Multiple sclerosis
3185:Myoclonic epilepsy
3048:movement disorders
2994:Acute disseminated
2936:Viral encephalitis
2827:External resources
2377:"Persistent fever"
1944:10.1007/bf02252624
737:status epilepticus
725:serotonin syndrome
684:metabolic acidosis
639:drugs with lower D
533:Lewy body dementia
453:, can induce NMS.
336:Excessive sweating
321:Signs and symptoms
292:dopamine receptors
160:serotonin syndrome
3797:
3796:
3793:
3792:
3789:
3788:
3593:
3592:
3498:
3497:
3437:Template:Headache
3403:Template:Epilepsy
3324:
3323:
3298:Vascular dementia
3141:Status dystonicus
3014:
3013:
2989:Encephalomyelitis
2867:
2866:
2496:(11): 1439–1442.
2390:978-0-07-173881-1
2361:978-1-259-86107-9
2266:(12): 1453–1467.
1696:978-1-260-47379-7
1669:978-1-260-47007-9
1605:978-0-07-184313-3
1504:978-0-444-53716-4
917:SAGE Publications
828:Memory impairment
552:Dopamine receptor
547:activity due to:
284:dopamine agonists
215:
214:
137:Diagnostic method
16:Medical condition
3837:
3611:
3610:
3602:
3601:
3560:Brain herniation
3371:
3370:
3211:Intention tremor
3206:Essential tremor
3071:Postencephalitic
3039:
3038:
3030:
3029:
2919:
2918:
2900:Diseases of the
2894:
2887:
2880:
2871:
2870:
2754:
2753:
2730:
2729:
2727:
2726:
2717:. Archived from
2710:
2704:
2703:
2693:
2676:(866): 779–784.
2661:
2655:
2654:
2637:(9): 1163–1172.
2626:
2617:
2616:
2606:
2582:
2576:
2575:
2573:
2549:
2543:
2542:
2522:
2516:
2515:
2505:
2481:
2475:
2474:
2456:
2428:
2422:
2421:
2401:
2395:
2394:
2372:
2366:
2365:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2275:
2255:
2249:
2248:
2212:
2206:
2205:
2169:
2163:
2162:
2145:(8): 1113–1116.
2134:
2128:
2127:
2091:
2082:
2081:
2069:
2060:
2059:
2041:
2021:
2015:
2014:
2004:
1994:
1970:
1964:
1963:
1927:
1921:
1920:
1883:
1877:
1876:
1866:
1834:
1828:
1827:
1817:
1793:
1787:
1786:
1750:
1744:
1743:
1707:
1701:
1700:
1680:
1674:
1673:
1651:
1645:
1644:
1616:
1610:
1609:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1580:
1579:
1564:
1558:
1557:
1547:
1515:
1509:
1508:
1488:
1482:
1481:
1471:
1439:
1430:
1429:
1412:(8): 1495–1497.
1401:
1395:
1394:
1366:
1360:
1359:
1331:
1325:
1314:
1299:
1298:
1293:. Archived from
1291:Nashua Telegraph
1282:
1276:
1275:
1265:
1256:
1255:
1237:
1222:
1221:
1211:
1179:
1173:
1172:
1130:
1117:
1116:
1086:
1077:
1076:
1046:
1023:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1003:
992:
991:
989:
987:
972:
947:
946:
936:
900:
751:. Drugs such as
461:. Additionally,
164:lethal catatonia
31:
19:
18:
3845:
3844:
3840:
3839:
3838:
3836:
3835:
3834:
3800:
3799:
3798:
3785:
3711:Congenital DSMA
3632:
3589:
3548:
3494:
3482:Sleep disorders
3470:
3447:Cerebrovascular
3441:
3407:
3364:
3358:
3320:
3302:
3227:
3173:Choreoathetosis
3046:
3023:
3010:
2974:
2908:
2898:
2868:
2863:
2862:
2822:
2821:
2765:
2739:
2734:
2733:
2724:
2722:
2711:
2707:
2662:
2658:
2627:
2620:
2583:
2579:
2550:
2546:
2523:
2519:
2482:
2478:
2429:
2425:
2402:
2398:
2391:
2373:
2369:
2362:
2344:
2340:
2309:
2305:
2273:10.1.1.464.9266
2256:
2252:
2213:
2209:
2170:
2166:
2135:
2131:
2092:
2085:
2070:
2063:
2022:
2018:
1971:
1967:
1928:
1924:
1884:
1880:
1835:
1831:
1794:
1790:
1751:
1747:
1708:
1704:
1697:
1681:
1677:
1670:
1662:. McGraw Hill.
1652:
1648:
1627:(10): 914–918.
1617:
1613:
1606:
1590:
1586:
1577:
1575:
1566:
1565:
1561:
1516:
1512:
1505:
1489:
1485:
1440:
1433:
1402:
1398:
1367:
1363:
1332:
1328:
1315:
1302:
1283:
1279:
1266:
1259:
1238:
1225:
1180:
1176:
1145:Springer Nature
1131:
1120:
1087:
1080:
1047:
1026:
1016:
1014:
1005:
1004:
995:
985:
983:
974:
973:
950:
901:
866:
861:
845:
836:
817:
794:Benzodiazepines
769:
713:
708:
642:
634:
626:
622:
618:
602:
593:
585:
581:
577:
573:
562:
541:
539:Pathophysiology
494:
442:drugs (such as
389:
323:
259:, specifically
17:
12:
11:
5:
3843:
3833:
3832:
3827:
3825:Rare syndromes
3822:
3817:
3812:
3810:Antipsychotics
3795:
3794:
3791:
3790:
3787:
3786:
3784:
3783:
3782:
3781:
3770:
3769:
3768:
3767:
3766:
3765:
3760:
3750:
3745:
3744:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3732:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3683:
3669:
3668:
3667:
3666:
3661:
3656:
3642:
3640:
3634:
3633:
3631:
3630:
3625:
3619:
3617:
3608:
3599:
3595:
3594:
3591:
3590:
3588:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3556:
3554:
3550:
3549:
3547:
3546:
3541:
3539:Cerebral edema
3536:
3535:
3534:
3529:
3524:
3519:
3508:
3506:
3500:
3499:
3496:
3495:
3493:
3492:
3491:
3490:
3488:Template:Sleep
3478:
3476:
3472:
3471:
3469:
3468:
3462:
3457:
3451:
3449:
3443:
3442:
3440:
3439:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3417:
3415:
3409:
3408:
3406:
3405:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3383:
3381:
3368:
3360:
3359:
3357:
3356:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3334:
3332:
3326:
3325:
3322:
3321:
3319:
3318:
3316:Leigh syndrome
3312:
3310:
3304:
3303:
3301:
3300:
3289:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3277:
3276:
3262:
3261:
3260:
3255:
3254:
3253:
3237:
3235:
3229:
3228:
3226:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3214:
3213:
3208:
3197:
3196:
3195:
3194:
3189:
3188:
3187:
3177:
3176:
3175:
3165:
3160:
3159:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3127:
3126:
3125:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3103:
3102:
3092:
3091:
3090:
3080:
3079:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3052:
3050:
3043:Extrapyramidal
3036:
3027:
3025:encephalopathy
3016:
3015:
3012:
3011:
3009:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2997:
2996:
2985:
2983:
2976:
2975:
2973:
2972:
2971:
2970:
2960:
2955:
2954:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2927:
2925:
2916:
2910:
2909:
2902:nervous system
2897:
2896:
2889:
2882:
2874:
2865:
2864:
2861:
2860:
2849:
2831:
2830:
2828:
2824:
2823:
2820:
2819:
2808:
2797:
2782:
2766:
2761:
2760:
2758:
2757:Classification
2751:
2750:
2738:
2737:External links
2735:
2732:
2731:
2713:Friedberg JM.
2705:
2656:
2618:
2597:(4): 552–553.
2577:
2544:
2517:
2476:
2439:(3): 249–256.
2423:
2412:(3): 301–302.
2396:
2389:
2367:
2360:
2338:
2323:(8): 545–547.
2303:
2250:
2223:(4): 183–193.
2207:
2180:(2): 169–180.
2164:
2129:
2102:(4): 464–470.
2083:
2061:
2039:10.1.1.334.241
2016:
1985:(1): 123–124.
1965:
1922:
1878:
1849:(9): 900–906.
1829:
1808:(5): 254–255.
1788:
1761:(6): 850–853.
1745:
1702:
1695:
1675:
1668:
1646:
1611:
1604:
1584:
1559:
1530:(3): 271–273.
1510:
1503:
1483:
1454:(3): 271–273.
1431:
1396:
1377:(4): 794–796.
1361:
1342:(6): 618–624.
1326:
1300:
1297:on 2007-09-27.
1277:
1274:. McGraw Hill.
1257:
1223:
1174:
1118:
1078:
1059:(6): 870–876.
1024:
993:
948:
863:
862:
860:
857:
849:phenothiazines
844:
841:
835:
832:
816:
813:
768:
765:
712:
709:
707:
704:
676:rhabdomyolysis
640:
632:
624:
620:
616:
600:
591:
583:
579:
575:
571:
568:
567:
564:
560:
555:
540:
537:
522:
521:
511:
508:
505:
493:
490:
451:metoclopramide
413:chlorpromazine
405:phenothiazines
393:butyrophenones
388:
385:
365:blood pressure
359:, symptoms of
345:
344:
341:
338:
333:
330:
322:
319:
242:kidney failure
234:rhabdomyolysis
213:
212:
209:
205:
204:
201:
195:
194:
181:
175:
174:
171:
167:
166:
149:
143:
142:
139:
133:
132:
122:
116:
115:
110:
106:
105:
102:
98:
97:
91:kidney failure
83:Rhabdomyolysis
80:
74:
73:
67:
61:
60:
47:
41:
40:
33:
32:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3842:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3807:
3805:
3780:
3777:
3776:
3775:
3772:
3771:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3755:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3716:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3688:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3678:
3677:
3675:
3671:
3670:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3651:
3650:
3648:
3644:
3643:
3641:
3639:
3635:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3620:
3618:
3616:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3603:
3600:
3596:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3565:Reye syndrome
3563:
3561:
3558:
3557:
3555:
3551:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3517:Hydrocephalus
3515:
3514:
3513:
3510:
3509:
3507:
3505:
3501:
3489:
3485:
3484:
3483:
3480:
3479:
3477:
3473:
3467:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3452:
3450:
3448:
3444:
3438:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3418:
3416:
3414:
3410:
3404:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3384:
3382:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3361:
3355:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3335:
3333:
3331:
3330:Demyelinating
3327:
3317:
3314:
3313:
3311:
3309:
3305:
3299:
3296:
3295:
3294:
3293:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3275:
3272:
3271:
3270:
3266:
3263:
3259:
3256:
3252:
3249:
3248:
3247:
3244:
3243:
3242:
3239:
3238:
3236:
3234:
3230:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3218:Restless legs
3216:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3204:
3203:
3202:
3199:
3198:
3193:
3190:
3186:
3183:
3182:
3181:
3178:
3174:
3171:
3170:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3157:
3156:Blepharospasm
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3138:
3137:
3134:
3133:
3132:
3129:
3128:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3112:Hemiballismus
3110:
3108:
3105:
3101:
3098:
3097:
3096:
3093:
3089:
3086:
3085:
3084:
3081:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3063:
3062:
3059:
3058:
3057:
3054:
3053:
3051:
3049:
3044:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3031:
3028:
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3017:
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2999:
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2990:
2987:
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2964:
2963:Brain abscess
2961:
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2614:
2610:
2605:
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2596:
2592:
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2572:
2567:
2564:(3): 181–91.
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2540:
2536:
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2035:
2031:
2027:
2020:
2012:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
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1961:
1957:
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1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1926:
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1338:(in French).
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782:bromocriptine
779:
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764:
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746:
742:
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730:
726:
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717:
703:
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677:
673:
669:
664:
660:
658:
652:
650:
646:
638:
629:
613:
611:
607:
606:basal ganglia
603:
595:
589:
588:neurotoxicity
565:
563:
556:
553:
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536:
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520:
516:
512:
509:
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489:
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475:tetrabenazine
472:
468:
464:
460:
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410:
406:
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398:
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384:
382:
376:
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370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
349:muscle cramps
342:
340:Rigid muscles
339:
337:
334:
331:
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327:
326:
318:
315:
310:
308:
304:
303:bromocriptine
300:
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281:
276:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
249:
247:
243:
239:
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231:
227:
226:antipsychotic
223:
219:
210:
206:
202:
200:
196:
193:
189:
188:bromocriptine
185:
182:
180:
176:
172:
168:
165:
161:
157:
153:
150:
148:
144:
140:
138:
134:
131:
127:
124:Dehydration,
123:
121:
117:
114:
111:
107:
103:
99:
96:
92:
88:
84:
81:
79:
78:Complications
75:
71:
68:
66:
62:
59:
55:
51:
48:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
25:
20:
3773:
3672:
3645:
3606:Degenerative
3343:Inflammatory
3290:
3223:Stiff-person
3075:
3061:Parkinsonism
3034:Degenerative
2931:Encephalitis
2914:Inflammation
2904:, primarily
2851:
2834:
2810:
2799:
2784:
2769:
2723:. Retrieved
2719:the original
2708:
2673:
2669:
2659:
2634:
2630:
2594:
2590:
2580:
2561:
2557:
2547:
2533:(2): 69–73.
2530:
2526:
2520:
2493:
2489:
2479:
2436:
2432:
2426:
2409:
2405:
2399:
2380:
2370:
2351:
2341:
2320:
2316:
2306:
2263:
2259:
2253:
2220:
2216:
2210:
2177:
2173:
2167:
2142:
2138:
2132:
2099:
2095:
2077:
2032:(1): 84–93.
2029:
2025:
2019:
1982:
1978:
1968:
1938:(1): 63–72.
1935:
1931:
1925:
1895:(1): 57–60.
1892:
1888:
1881:
1846:
1842:
1832:
1805:
1801:
1791:
1758:
1754:
1748:
1718:(1): 73–82.
1715:
1711:
1705:
1685:
1678:
1659:
1649:
1624:
1620:
1614:
1594:
1587:
1576:. Retrieved
1571:
1562:
1527:
1523:
1513:
1493:
1486:
1451:
1447:
1409:
1405:
1399:
1374:
1370:
1364:
1339:
1335:
1329:
1316:
1295:the original
1290:
1285:Milbouer S.
1280:
1270:
1242:
1191:
1187:
1177:
1140:
1134:
1096:
1090:
1056:
1050:
1015:. Retrieved
984:. Retrieved
912:
908:
852:
846:
837:
834:Epidemiology
826:
818:
810:
773:hyperthermia
770:
761:bradykinesia
729:encephalitis
718:
714:
692:
665:
661:
653:
630:
614:
596:
569:
542:
530:
526:
523:
499:
495:
492:Risk factors
487:
455:Tetracyclics
440:dopaminergic
437:
409:promethazine
390:
377:
346:
324:
311:
296:
277:
250:
221:
217:
216:
120:Risk factors
3758:Fazio–Londe
3598:Both/either
3392:Generalised
3251:Early-onset
3246:Alzheimer's
2981:spinal cord
1712:Drug Safety
1336:L'Encephale
790:Apomorphine
757:amphetamine
741:heat stroke
463:desipramine
433:ziprasidone
425:risperidone
397:haloperidol
288:pramipexole
265:haloperidol
152:Heat stroke
101:Usual onset
37:Haloperidol
3804:Categories
3366:paroxysmal
3338:Autoimmune
3131:Dyskinesia
3001:Meningitis
2979:Brain and
2853:Patient UK
2812:DiseasesDB
2725:2006-07-03
1578:2021-06-19
1147:: 477–92.
859:References
786:Amantadine
778:Dantrolene
519:amantadine
471:phenelzine
459:amoxapines
448:antiemetic
429:quetiapine
421:olanzapine
401:droperidol
299:dantrolene
286:, such as
230:high fever
184:Dantrolene
179:Medication
70:High fever
58:psychiatry
3363:Episodic/
3241:Tauopathy
3192:Akathisia
3180:Myoclonus
3163:Athetosis
3095:Tauopathy
2841:emerg/339
2836:eMedicine
2268:CiteSeerX
2034:CiteSeerX
1323:eMedicine
1136:CNS Drugs
919:: 41–47.
821:prognosis
815:Prognosis
802:myoglobin
798:agitation
767:Treatment
745:catatonia
723:includes
706:Diagnosis
479:reserpine
467:dothiepin
417:clozapine
407:(such as
395:(such as
381:psychosis
282:or other
273:catatonia
269:agitation
257:atypicals
208:Frequency
199:Prognosis
170:Treatment
130:catatonia
126:agitation
54:neurology
45:Specialty
3729:SMALED2B
3724:SMALED2A
3421:Migraine
3413:Headache
3379:epilepsy
3375:Seizures
3233:Dementia
3136:Dystonia
2847:ped/1581
2844:med/2614
2613:17135384
2512:12771076
2471:25728796
2463:15996751
2418:11219110
2333:Archived
2329:18687233
2298:12971112
2290:12486486
2245:29010904
2237:12151905
2202:31276121
2124:32752143
2116:15119907
2078:UpToDate
2056:19149529
2011:24753679
1960:45530847
1917:44866985
1909:12555236
1873:22952071
1783:23185221
1740:23303714
1356:19081460
1252:29489248
1218:29464217
1169:43859486
1161:19480467
1113:26484986
1073:17541044
1011:Archived
980:Archived
943:23983836
574:-like (D
554:blockade
545:dopamine
515:levodopa
444:levodopa
369:delirium
307:diazepam
280:levodopa
246:seizures
192:diazepam
95:seizures
65:Symptoms
3741:SMA-PME
3736:SMA-PCH
3719:SMALED1
3431:Tension
3426:Cluster
3151:Meige's
2968:Amoebic
2806:D009459
2700:9497946
2691:2431511
2651:9735957
2539:3804991
2194:9989551
2159:9699705
2002:3992752
1952:8105799
1864:3516138
1824:9632037
1775:1678666
1732:9673859
1641:2572206
1554:7897404
1545:1073359
1478:7897404
1469:1073359
1426:3632154
1391:1672810
1209:5812912
934:3726098
843:History
753:cocaine
483:lithium
353:tremors
3460:Stroke
3274:Pick's
3201:Tremor
3168:Chorea
2795:333.92
2698:
2688:
2649:
2611:
2537:
2510:
2503:155963
2500:
2469:
2461:
2416:
2387:
2358:
2327:
2296:
2288:
2270:
2243:
2235:
2200:
2192:
2157:
2122:
2114:
2054:
2036:
2009:
1999:
1958:
1950:
1915:
1907:
1871:
1861:
1822:
1781:
1773:
1738:
1730:
1693:
1666:
1639:
1602:
1552:
1542:
1501:
1476:
1466:
1424:
1389:
1354:
1250:
1216:
1206:
1167:
1159:
1111:
1071:
1017:1 July
986:1 July
941:
931:
806:kidney
477:, and
431:, and
387:Causes
305:, and
271:, and
109:Causes
3774:both:
3706:DSMA1
3701:SMAX2
3696:SMAX1
3676:only:
3649:only:
3553:Other
3475:Other
3387:Focal
3020:Brain
2923:Brain
2780:G21.0
2467:S2CID
2294:S2CID
2241:S2CID
2198:S2CID
2120:S2CID
1956:S2CID
1913:S2CID
1779:S2CID
1736:S2CID
1165:S2CID
582:and D
528:NMS.
403:) or
371:, or
357:fever
263:like
244:, or
3377:and
3088:PKAN
3083:NBIA
2817:8968
2801:MeSH
2790:9-CM
2696:PMID
2647:PMID
2609:PMID
2535:PMID
2508:PMID
2490:CMAJ
2459:PMID
2414:PMID
2385:ISBN
2356:ISBN
2325:PMID
2286:PMID
2233:PMID
2190:PMID
2155:PMID
2112:PMID
2052:PMID
2007:PMID
1948:PMID
1905:PMID
1893:117B
1869:PMID
1820:PMID
1771:PMID
1728:PMID
1691:ISBN
1664:ISBN
1637:PMID
1600:ISBN
1550:PMID
1499:ISBN
1474:PMID
1422:PMID
1387:PMID
1352:PMID
1248:PMID
1214:PMID
1157:PMID
1109:PMID
1069:PMID
1019:2017
988:2017
939:PMID
819:The
755:and
747:and
682:and
670:and
666:The
411:and
399:and
373:coma
351:and
3691:SMA
3674:LMN
3647:UMN
3638:MND
3504:CSF
3455:TIA
3100:PSP
3076:NMS
3045:and
2906:CNS
2786:ICD
2771:ICD
2747:NIH
2686:PMC
2678:doi
2639:doi
2599:doi
2566:doi
2498:PMC
2494:168
2449:hdl
2441:doi
2437:135
2410:163
2278:doi
2264:109
2225:doi
2182:doi
2178:156
2147:doi
2143:155
2104:doi
2044:doi
1997:PMC
1987:doi
1940:doi
1897:doi
1859:PMC
1851:doi
1847:169
1810:doi
1763:doi
1759:158
1720:doi
1629:doi
1540:PMC
1532:doi
1464:PMC
1456:doi
1414:doi
1410:147
1379:doi
1375:151
1344:doi
1321:at
1204:PMC
1196:doi
1149:doi
1101:doi
1061:doi
1057:164
929:PMC
921:doi
700:EEG
688:EEG
578:, D
222:NMS
3806::
3615:SA
3122:OA
3117:HD
3066:PD
2856::
2839::
2815::
2804::
2793::
2778::
2775:10
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2684:.
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2100:65
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1983:17
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