1078:
194:
866:, Doe rose to power and assumed office as the 21st president of Liberia from 1980 until his murder in 1990. In 1983, Doe demoted Quiwonkpa from his position as the commanding general of the Liberian armed forces and subsequently charged him with an attempt to overthrow his presidency, forcing him out of the country. Two years later, Quiwonkpa returned, set on launching a retaliatory coup d'Ă©tat against Doe. With the support of two dozen heavily armed soldiers, Quiwonkpa covertly entered Liberia through
416:
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206:
246:
235:
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25:
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and subsequently allowed the AFL to operate alongside multinational troops, although it retained a separate command structure and controlled certain areas independently. While ECOMOG claimed that ULIMO operated autonomously, it was evident that there was some coordination between the groups. Operation
Octopus and the greater armed conflict in Liberia had ramifications that extended into the neighboring Sierra Leone and its ongoing
1069:(ULIMO) forces. Although the NPFL never maintained long-term control of the capital, the group controlled the neighboring cities and countryside in addition to Liberia's rich natural resource deposits. Only one month after the fighting began, the World Health Organization estimated that up to 3,000 civilians and combatants had been killed. The SBU was composed of children as young as ten and twelve years old who were drugged by
184:
524:
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with a substantial majority, winning 49 of 64 seats in the House of
Representatives and 21 of 26 in the Senate. While international observers deemed the polls administratively free and transparent, they noted that it had taken place in an atmosphere of intimidation because most voters believed that
1112:
Although the formal connections between the AFL and ULIMO remain unclear, it is worth noting that most of ULIMO's key commanders were former AFL leaders, and many AFL soldiers apparently left their barracks to join ULIMO. Initially, ECOMOG supported the AFL's right to defend itself from NPFL attack
1073:
men and trained how to throw grenades and shoot AK-47s overnight. Intense fighting occurred both within the city and its outskirts, with
Gardnersville, Barnersville, New Georgia, and Caldwell suburban regions being particularly hard hit by the rebels. Approximately 200,000 people were displaced due
708:
served as the
Defense Minister and spokesman of the NPLF and worked to justify the rebel group's mission and objectives to high ranking foreign officials. Martina Johnson was one of the NPFL front line commanders and allegedly directly participated in mutilation and mass killing in late 1992 during
813:
regime in
Liberia received substantial financial assistance from the United States. From 1980 to 1985, Liberia received nearly $ 500 million in military and economic aid, which amounted to one-third of its operating budget. At the time, this rendered Liberia the largest recipient of U.S. aid in
1276:
Taylor would resume the war if defeated. Taylor's electoral victory was met with allegations of unjust practices, such as giving handouts to the destitute and illiterate electorate, yet he claimed victory with 75 percent of the total votes cast.
1109:, where it massacred civilians and wreaked havoc in Monrovia. Similarly, ULIMO, which was an offshoot of the AFL, reportedly conducted attacks on civilians, looting, and executions of suspected NPFL sympathizers in the areas it captured in 1992.
992:
The NPFL rapidly expanded from a small force of a few hundred troops to a vast, irregular army that controlled almost 90% of
Liberia within a year due to significant domestic support. NPFL efforts to capture the capital city of
785:
involvement in the war suited his
Francophone fellow leaders who were as eager as France to confront the Anglo-Saxon presence in the region by promoting a rebellion that was certain to dilute American influence in West Africa.
1259:, was signed on 19 August 1995 in Nigeria. As part of this agreement, Taylor consented to the dissolution of the NPFL and its subsequent transformation into a civilian political party, which ultimately became the
512:, including mass murder, rape, sexual slavery, conscription of child soldiers, torture, and political assassinations. Over 60,000 human rights violations committed by the NPFL were formally recorded by the
789:
In the early 1980s, Liberia was also considered one of
America’s most important African allies. During the Reagan administration, Liberia played a pivotal role in the United States' efforts to counteract
2086:
1664:
717:
The rise of NPFL was supported by
African countries and leaders that extended far beyond Liberian borders. In the early stages of the NPFL, the rebel group was backed notably by
968:(RUF) emerged as a collective of Sierra Leonean nationals who endeavored to emulate Charles Taylor's previous triumph in overthrowing the Liberian government. Alongside founder
696:, who served as the 24th president of Liberia from 16 January 2006 – 22 January 2018, was the International Coordinator of the NPFL and helped raise money for the rebel group.
884:, but was later removed following accusations of embezzlement and imprisoned by President Doe. Taylor would escape prison in 1989 and flee to Libya, where he was trained as a
940:
According to estimates, the
National Patriotic Front of Liberia boasted a membership of approximately 25,000 combatants, and its actions were associated with a range of
870:
in an attempt to remove Doe from power. However, Quiwonkpa's coup d'Ă©tat resulted in failure. Quiwonkpa was captured on 15 November 1985 and was killed and mutilated by
1097:
to adopt a new defense strategy by enlisting the aid of other Liberian factions in combatting the NPFL. However, the human rights record of these factions, namely the
1094:
1058:
1054:
1121:(ECOWAS) to undertake a peacekeeping intervention. Subsequently, a peace agreement was signed in 1996, paving the way for democratic elections on 19 July 1997.
469:
from 24 December 1989 – 2 August 1997. The NPFL emerged out of rising ethnic tensions and civil unrest due to the Liberian government that was characterized by
1022:
1010:
42:
1098:
1082:
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1025:
was an opposition response to the leadership of the internationally recognized Interim Government of National Unity (IGNU), headed by interim president
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89:
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and went on to win a Nobel Peace Prize for supporting the non-violent struggle for the safety of women to participate in peace-building work.
513:
68:
1118:
998:
75:
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on 25 July 1993, the Akosombo Agreement on 12 August 1994, and its Accra Clarification. One of the final thirteen peace agreements,
1354:"Liberia: The Cycle of Abuse: Human Rights Violations Since The November Cease-fire (Human Rights Watch Report, October 21, 1991)"
794:
Libya, which had been identified as a state sponsor of terrorism. Liberia served as a staging ground for a CIA task force against
57:
2236:
415:
964:, fomenting unrest against the military government in order to secure control over the local diamond trade in the region. The
2106:
1948:
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1647:
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1105:(AFL), were questionable. The AFL had been discredited due to its heinous abuses during the 1980s and especially during the
1451:
1231:
1070:
545:
527:
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1029:. Taylor's authority as self-proclaimed head of the NPRAG was, however, challenged by a breakaway faction, known as the
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1975:
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1251:. Preceding the elections, there were several treaties ratified to establish peace in Liberia. These include the
1053:, Charles Taylor ordered the NPFL and the Small Boys Unit (SBU), composed of child soldiers, to attack opponents
426:
82:
1077:
859:
1915:"Waging War to Keep the Peace: The ECOMOG Intervention and Human Rights (Human Rights Watch Report, June 1993)"
1866:"Waging War to Keep the Peace: The ECOMOG Intervention and Human Rights (Human Rights Watch Report, June 1993)"
1248:
956:, and political assassinations. In addition to the ongoing civil war in Liberia, the rebel group supported the
928:
took President Doe to his military base where he brutally tortured him until death. Following Doe's execution,
892:
in 1989 to overthrow the Doe government, now leading a group of Libyan-backed rebels, the NPFL, initiating the
409:
334:
46:
1808:
374:
485:. The NPFL invaded Liberia through Ivory Coast’s border with Nimba County in Liberia under the direction of
1169:
944:
violations, including but not limited to massacres, sexual violence, forced recruitment of child soldiers,
932:
gained control of a large portion of the country and became one of the most prominent warlords in Africa.
2179:
The mask of anarchy : the destruction of Liberia and the religious dimension of an African civil war
1743:
The mask of anarchy : the destruction of Liberia and the religious dimension of an African civil war
1708:
The mask of anarchy : the destruction of Liberia and the religious dimension of an African civil war
1041:
troops were estimated to number less than 500, yet rapidly gained control of parts of central Monrovia.
977:
965:
957:
676:
394:
187:
1377:
777:. Journalist Mark Huband, who was kidnapped by the NPFL while reporting in Liberia, notes in his book
2216:
805:, the United States upgraded Roberts Field airport and utilized the Kamina and Kinshasa air bases in
384:
862:
on 12 April 1980, it was not long before these two fell out of step. Following the assassination of
2000:"LIBERIA EMERGING FROM THE DESTRUCTION: Human Rights Challenges Facing the New Liberian Government"
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continued their support for the NPFL by supplying arms and military advisors. Under the orders of
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35:
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1209:
1114:
199:
2093:, New Approaches to African History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 193–226,
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1938:
1671:, New Approaches to African History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 193–226,
1401:
1328:
697:
693:
379:
239:
1999:
1525:"A Dirty War in West Africa: The RUF and the destruction of Sierra Leone, by Lansana Gberie"
2231:
1236:
498:
474:
1049:
On 15 October 1992, the NPFL launched "Operation Octopus" in a bid to overrun the capital
1009:. In response, the NPFL created an alternative national administration in 1991 called the
8:
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1226:
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1296:
The Politics of Peacemaking in Africa: Non-State Actors' Role in the Liberian Civil War
250:
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ethnic group. While Quiwonkpa and Doe initially joined together to overthrow Liberian
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1985:
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1726:
1478:"Liberia's Civil War: Nigeria, ECOMOG, and Regional Security in West Africa"
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served as training grounds and bases for the initial Liberian insurgents.
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Liberia's seven-year civil war was brought to an end by the democratic
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Foreign Intervention in Africa: From the Cold War to the War on Terror
2057:
Foreign Intervention in Africa: From the Cold War to the War on Terror
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Foreign Intervention in Africa: From the Cold War to the War on Terror
1477:
1967:
Postconflict elections, democratization, and international assistance
1563:
1493:
634:
626:
505:
24:
1599:"Combatants, patrons, peacemakers, and the Liberian civil conflict"
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994:
913:
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2130:
The emergence of autocracy in Liberia : tragedy and challenge
1565:
The emergence of autocracy in Liberia : tragedy and challenge
924:, a breakaway faction of the National Patriotic Front of Liberia.
16:
Rebel group which initiated the First Liberian Civil War (1989-96)
1018:
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889:
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658:
642:
573:
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1642:. Internet Archive. London ; Portland, Or. : F. Cass.
688:, who instructed the NPFL to take up arms against the regime of
1006:
920:, one of Liberia's most infamous warlords and former leader of
896:(1989–1996). Most NPFL fighters were originally drawn from the
801:
regime. To facilitate covert aid to the Angolan rebel movement
589:
254:
1841:"RUF Consolidated Indictment - Special Court for Sierra Leone"
1476:
Gerhart, Gail M.; Adebajo, Adekeye; Adebajo, Adekeye (2003).
871:
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806:
802:
746:
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228:
2064:
The Emergence of Autocracy in Liberia: tragedy and challenge
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in developing the leadership positions of the organization.
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as key transit points. In exchange for its cooperation, the
501:
from 2 August 1997 until his resignation on 11 August 2003.
1452:"Belgium/Liberia: War Crimes Arrest Major Step for Justice"
1055:
Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group
976:
background, and allies Abu Kanu and Rashid Mansaray, the
183:
1081:
National Patriotic Liberation Front fighters search for
1891:"Anniversary of Terror: October 12 - Operation Octopus"
1475:
1011:
National Patriotic Reconstruction Assembly Government
2029:"Charles Taylor | President of Liberia | Britannica"
2087:"From the Cold War to the War on Terror, 1991–2010"
1665:"From the Cold War to the War on Terror, 1991–2010"
1099:
United Liberation Movement of Liberia for Democracy
1067:
United Liberation Movement of Liberia for Democracy
850:origin, whereas Doe was a member of the indigenous
465:rebel group that initiated and participated in the
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1093:The urgency of the conflict in Monrovia compelled
773:and assassination of the then Burkinabé President
822:Following a series of coups d'Ă©tats attempted by
2208:
1031:Independent National Patriotic Front of Liberia
709:an NPFL offensive known as Operation Octopus.
1522:
514:Liberian Truth and Reconciliation Commission.
504:The NPLF was responsible for a vast array of
434:
769:, NPFL troops were actively involved in the
2161:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
846:ethnic groups increased. Quiwonkpa was of
814:sub-Saharan Africa on a per capita basis.
537:National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL)
441:
427:
1940:Peace Agreements and Civil Wars in Africa
1889:Dukule, Abdoulaye W. (October 12, 2001).
1119:Economic Community of West African States
999:Economic Community of West African States
684:The military aspects of NPFL were led by
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
1124:
1076:
522:
2084:
1662:
1523:Zack-Williams, Alfred B. (2007-06-25).
1292:
2209:
2126:
1888:
1635:
1561:
912:regime. President Doe was captured in
304:This article is part of a series about
2175:
1963:
1739:
1704:
980:received substantial assistance from
58:"National Patriotic Front of Liberia"
1774:
1596:
1044:
997:were thwarted by the arrival of the
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
1603:Studies in Conflict & Terrorism
1164:National Patriotic Front of Liberia
824:Commanding General Thomas Quiwonkpa
455:National Patriotic Front of Liberia
124:National Patriotic Front of Liberia
13:
2049:
1402:"Trial Monitoring: Thomas Woewiyu"
1329:"Trial Monitoring: Thomas Woewiyu"
712:
14:
2248:
817:
2085:Schmidt, Elizabeth, ed. (2013),
1663:Schmidt, Elizabeth, ed. (2013),
1293:Afolabi, Babatunde Tolu (2017).
908:who were persecuted under Doe's
830:and his ally later turned enemy
414:
370:Exotic Tropic Timber Enterprises
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34:needs additional citations for
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1117:. The spill-over prompted the
1:
2237:1989 establishments in Africa
2133:. San Francisco, California.
1279:
935:
828:Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL)
771:1987 Burkina Faso coup d'Ă©tat
518:
2099:10.1017/CBO9781139021371.010
1843:. 2007-09-27. Archived from
1677:10.1017/CBO9781139021371.010
1378:"The Nobel Peace Prize 2011"
880:worked in the government of
7:
10:
2253:
1775:Akam, Simon (2011-09-28).
1597:Kieh, George Klay (1992).
987:
966:Revolutionary United Front
958:Revolutionary United Front
904:ethnic groups of northern
832:Master Sergeant Samuel Doe
395:Revolutionary United Front
1615:10.1080/10576109208435896
1222:
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856:President William Tolbert
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1299:. Boydell & Brewer.
1261:National Patriotic Party
1134:National Patriotic Party
1107:First Liberian Civil War
916:on 9 September 1990, by
894:First Liberian Civil War
737:by the 2nd president of
467:First Liberian Civil War
390:Sierra Leonean Civil War
355:First Liberian Civil War
279:National Patriotic Party
2222:Rebel groups in Liberia
2176:Ellis, Stephen (1999).
1970:. Boulder: L. Rienner.
1964:Kumar, Krishna (1998).
1740:Ellis, Stephen (1999).
1705:Ellis, Stephen (1999).
1103:Armed Forces of Liberia
1063:Armed Forces of Liberia
874:soldiers loyal to Doe.
834:, tensions between the
510:crimes against humanity
497:who served as the 22nd
1639:The Liberian Civil War
1210:Pan African Parliament
1090:
1013:(NPRAG), based in the
779:The Liberian Civil War
552:Founding location
530:
200:Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
2127:Sawyer, Amos (1992).
1636:Huband, Mark (1998).
1562:Sawyer, Amos (1992).
1271:won the 19 July 1997
1125:Political aspirations
1080:
1035:Prince Yormie Johnson
694:Ellen Johnson Sirleaf
692:on 24 December 1989.
533:Criminal organization
526:
380:1998 Monrovia clashes
1541:10.1093/afraf/adm031
1315:10.7722/j.ctt1t6p5wp
721:, who served as the
499:president of Liberia
362:President of Liberia
43:improve this article
2071:The Mask of Anarchy
2055:Elizabeth Schmidt,
1257:the Abuja Agreement
1227:Politics of Liberia
1182:Seats in the Senate
1021:. The formation of
729:from 1969 to 2011.
623:diamond trafficking
615:Criminal activities
538:
375:Anti-Terrorist Unit
157:Active regions
2033:www.britannica.com
2007:Human Rights Watch
1895:theperspective.org
1809:"Justice at last?"
1456:Human Rights Watch
1196:Seats in the House
1091:
1005:monitoring group,
733:was introduced to
536:
531:
266:Liberian Civil War
140:Dates of operation
2182:. London: Hurst.
2108:978-0-521-88238-5
1950:978-1-62196-854-2
1943:. Cambria Press.
1746:. London: Hurst.
1711:. London: Hurst.
1686:978-0-521-88238-5
1649:978-0-7146-4340-3
1427:"Martina Johnson"
1306:978-1-84701-158-9
1249:elections of 1997
1245:
1244:
1232:Political parties
1074:to the conflict.
1045:Operation Octopus
926:Prince Y. Johnson
918:Prince Y. Johnson
888:. He returned to
886:guerrilla fighter
682:
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562:Years active
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275:Succeeded by
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700:later disavowed
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2009:. November 1997
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820:
743:Blaise Compaoré
719:Muammar Gaddafi
715:
713:External actors
534:
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493:politician and
481:towards ethnic
471:totalitarianism
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1777:"The Comeback"
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1609:(2): 125–143.
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819:
818:Ethnic divides
816:
775:Thomas Sankara
714:
711:
686:Charles Taylor
680:
679:
674:
670:
669:
647:sexual slavery
619:Illegal mining
616:
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603:Predominantly
601:
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59:
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54:Find sources:
48:
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38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
2178:
2171:
2129:
2122:
2112:, retrieved
2090:
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2063:
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2036:. Retrieved
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2011:. Retrieved
2006:
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1939:
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1922:. Retrieved
1918:
1909:
1898:. Retrieved
1894:
1884:
1873:. Retrieved
1869:
1860:
1849:. Retrieved
1845:the original
1835:
1824:. Retrieved
1812:
1803:
1792:. Retrieved
1780:
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1735:
1707:
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1690:, retrieved
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1460:. Retrieved
1458:. 2014-09-19
1455:
1446:
1435:. Retrieved
1433:. 2020-10-16
1430:
1421:
1410:. Retrieved
1408:. 2020-10-29
1405:
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1385:. Retrieved
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1335:. 2020-10-29
1332:
1323:
1295:
1288:
1246:
1111:
1092:
1085:soldiers in
1048:
991:
970:Foday Sankoh
962:Sierra Leone
942:human rights
939:
876:
868:Sierra Leone
821:
788:
778:
751:Burkina Faso
739:Burkina Faso
722:
716:
683:
639:prostitution
582:Burkina Faso
578:Sierra Leone
503:
458:
454:
452:
401:
400:
361:
360:
349:
342:Rebel leader
341:
340:
274:
212:Burkina Faso
165:Sierra Leone
149:Headquarters
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
2232:Mano people
1919:www.hrw.org
1870:www.hrw.org
1358:www.hrw.org
1175:Nationalism
1027:Amos Sawyer
1015:Bong County
706:Tom Woewiyu
663:amputations
631:mass murder
594:Ivory Coast
489:, a former
364:(1997–2003)
344:(1989–1997)
2227:Dan people
2211:Categories
2114:2023-05-01
2038:2023-04-29
1924:2023-04-28
1900:2023-04-28
1875:2023-04-28
1851:2023-04-29
1826:2023-04-16
1794:2023-04-16
1692:2023-05-01
1488:(1): 179.
1462:2023-04-28
1437:2023-04-18
1412:2023-04-28
1387:2023-04-18
1363:2023-04-28
1339:2023-04-28
1280:References
1003:cease-fire
954:kidnapping
946:mutilation
936:Membership
882:Samuel Doe
783:Compaoré's
725:leader of
690:Samuel Doe
565:1980s–1996
542:Founded by
519:Leadership
506:war crimes
479:favoritism
475:corruption
144:1980s–1996
69:newspapers
2157:cite book
1821:0013-0613
1789:0028-6583
1623:1057-610X
1584:230835016
1549:1468-2621
1502:0015-7120
1237:Elections
1115:civil war
1001:(ECOWAS)
960:(RUF) in
799:socialist
796:Gaddafi's
792:Gaddafi's
635:mass rape
627:terrorism
600:Ethnicity
570:Territory
218:Opponents
99:June 2016
2198:43070924
2149:24701327
1986:38270637
1762:43070924
1727:43070924
1510:20033486
1273:election
1267:and the
1170:Ideology
1087:Monrovia
1071:Taylor's
1051:Monrovia
1017:town of
995:Monrovia
914:Monrovia
767:Compaoré
759:Compaoré
723:de facto
655:genocide
491:Liberian
463:Liberian
461:) was a
1263:(NPP).
1153:Founded
1061:), the
1019:Gbarnga
988:Support
950:torture
906:Liberia
890:Liberia
826:of the
755:Gaddafi
745:. Both
731:Gaddafi
698:Sirleaf
667:torture
659:pillage
643:slavery
574:Liberia
174:+25,000
161:Liberia
129:Leaders
83:scholar
2196:
2186:
2147:
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2105:
2073:, 2001
2066:, 1992
2059:, 2013
2013:May 1,
1984:
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1313:
1303:
1202:3 / 73
1188:1 / 30
1142:Leader
1095:ECOMOG
1059:ECOMOG
1037:. The
1007:ECOMOG
930:Taylor
842:, and
763:Taylor
735:Taylor
702:Taylor
673:Allies
590:Guinea
483:Krahns
477:, and
255:ECOWAS
209:
197:
179:Allies
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
2003:(PDF)
1506:JSTOR
1311:JSTOR
1216:0 / 5
1083:ULIMO
1039:INPFL
1023:NPRAG
974:Temne
972:, of
922:INPFL
910:Krahn
872:Krahn
858:in a
852:Krahn
844:Krahn
807:Zaire
803:UNITA
781:that
747:Libya
727:Libya
586:Libya
410:Trial
229:ULIMO
90:JSTOR
76:books
2194:OCLC
2184:ISBN
2163:link
2145:OCLC
2135:ISBN
2103:ISBN
2015:2023
1982:OCLC
1972:ISBN
1945:ISBN
1817:ISSN
1785:ISSN
1758:OCLC
1748:ISBN
1723:OCLC
1713:ISBN
1681:ISBN
1644:ISBN
1619:ISSN
1580:OCLC
1570:ISBN
1545:ISSN
1498:ISSN
1301:ISBN
1156:1997
902:Mano
900:and
840:Mano
765:and
757:and
749:and
609:mano
607:and
508:and
459:NPFL
453:The
350:NPFL
335:1997
264:the
171:Size
163:and
62:news
2095:doi
1673:doi
1611:doi
1537:doi
1533:106
1490:doi
1269:NPP
978:RUF
898:Dan
848:Dan
836:Dan
811:Doe
677:RUF
605:dan
330:NPP
251:LDF
240:LPC
188:RUF
45:by
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