Nair - Knowledge

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minimal. Such traders as did exist were mostly concentrated in the port towns and consisted of immigrant Syrians, Muslims, Christians and Jews, with Hindu traders later arriving from other parts of India, as well as the Europeans. The Nairs were the sole members of the village organisations, which existed for such purposes as managing the affairs of the temples and, at one time, organising military training and deployment. A Nair family was considered to be part of the village organisation even if they had moved away from it. There were other castes in these villages, and other religious groups also, but they were excluded from the organisations. This arrangement was different from that found elsewhere in India, and another difference was that each house, whether for Nairs or otherwise, was usually in its own compound. There was no communal land, as existed elsewhere, and no communal plan for the village layout.

1506:

higher status than they actually had, which was a common practice throughout India. Data from the late 19th-century and early 20th-century censuses indicates that ten of these numerous subdivisions accounted for around 90% of all Nairs, that the five highest ranking of these accounted for the majority, and that some of the subdivisions claimed as little as one member. The writer of the official report of the 1891 census, H A Stuart, acknowledged that some of the recorded subdivisions were in fact merely families and not sub-castes, and Fuller has speculated that the single-member subdivisions were "Nayars satisfying their vanity, I suppose, through the medium of the census."

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certain gifts at specified times, but their relationship had little significance beyond the sexual liaison and the provision of legitimacy to children produced in the marriage. Since the men resided separately and were not ranked in any way, Nayar co-husbandship cannot be typified by the hierarchy characteristic of associated marriage or the solidarity of fraternal polyandry. Also in contrast with both fraternal and associated systems, the men who visited a single woman could not be brothers, nor could a man have sexual relations with two women of the same household. That is, fraternal polyandry and sororal polygyny were prohibited.

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the community and this extended as far as each family refusing to admit that they had any peers in rank, although they would acknowledge those above and below them. The membership of these two subgroups was statistically insignificant, being a small fraction of 1 per cent of the regional population, but the example of aspirational behaviour which they set filtered through to the significant ranks below them. These subdivisions might adopt a new name or remove themselves from any association with a ritually demeaning occupation in order to assist their aspirations. Most significantly, they adopted

868:, which were military training schools that all young Nair men from the age of 12 were expected to attend. They ceased attending at the age of 18 but were expected to be available for military duty at a day's notice. The function of these schools became less significant practically, following the introduction of the Arms Act by the British, which limited the right of Nairs to carry arms; however, they continued to exist and provided some training to those Nair men who did not attend English schools. This training became evident at village festivals, during which a martial review would take place. 525:

unite for caste interests. By 1908, the Nairs had not completely lost their dominance; they still held the most land, and had still held a majority of the government posts despite competition from low-castes and Christians. The dominance that Nairs historically held from their ritual status had come under opposition. The land that the Nairs historically had held was gradually lost, for there was a massive rate of wealth transfer to Christians and avarna Hindus. Christian missionaries also found interest in the dissolution of the tharavads as they saw this as an opportunity to convert the Nairs.

605:, a cloth wrapped around the waist and then left to hang down nearly to the ground, rather than tucked in as in other parts of India. The low-hanging fabric was considered as specific to the Nair caste, and at the start of the 20th century it was noted that in more conservative rural areas a non-Nair could be beaten for daring to wear a cloth hanging low to the ground. Wealthy Nairs might use silk for this purpose, and they also would cover their upper body with a piece of laced muslin; the remainder of the community used once to wear a material manufactured in Eraniyal but by the time of 2025:... a caste is a bilateral grouping and a child's place in the caste society cannot be determined by only one parent. Further, the Indian system of status attribution, under most circumstances, proscribes sexual relations between a woman and a man of status lower than herself, and generally denies to any children born of such a union membership of either parent's caste. For these reasons, some recognition of paternity and an assurance that the genitor is of the right status is necessary - even if it is only the minimal one of a man asserting paternity. 2140:". Nossiter cites this as one reason why it was "congruent with the role of a military caste in a feudal society." and explains that the decline in the traditional warrior role, the rise of an economy based on money, together with the ending of agricultural slavery and the effects of western education, all combined to cause the decline of the traditional practices. All of these factors were having an impact during the 19th-century and they caused erosion of the social dominance which the Nairs once held, eventually reaching a point some time between 2099: 1886: 1575:(NSS) was founded in 1914. Nossiter has described its purpose at foundation as being "... to liberate the community from superstition, taboo and otiose custom, to establish a network of educational and welfare institutions, and to defend and advance Nair interests in the political arena." Devika and Varghese believe the year of formation to be 1913 and argue that the perceived denial of 'the natural right' of upper castes to hold elected chairs in Travancore, a Hindu state, had pressured the founding of the NSS. 1497:, that most of the subgroups were not subcastes, arises in large part because of the number of ways in which Nairs classified themselves, which far exceeded the 18 or so groups which had previously been broadly accepted. Dumont took the extreme view that the Nairs as a whole could not be defined as a caste in the traditional sense, but Fuller believed this to be unreasonable as, "since the Nayars live in a caste society, they must evidently fit into the caste system at some level or another." The 1582:

become unreliable on the matter of the subdivisions, in part at least because of the NSS campaign to ensure that respondents did not provide the information requested of them. The NSS also promoted marriage across the various divisions in a further attempt to promote caste cohesion, although in this instance it met with only limited success. Indeed, even in the 1970s, it was likely that cross-subdivision marriage was rare generally, and this was certainly the case in the Central Travancore area.

898:, the villages where the land was owned by a group of Nambudiri families, although they might have access to the outer courtyard area. Sometimes there were no Nairs at all in these villages. In villages where temples existed which were privately owned by a single Nambudiri family, there would be another temple, dedicated to Bhagavati, that was used by the Nairs. It was in villages where the Nairs included the headman that there might be just a single temple, run by their village organisation. 1490:

social structure. From this unsuitable methodology had come the notion that the groups were subcastes rather than subdivisions. He also argued, in 1966, that "Some Nayars "ripened" into Samantans and Kshatriyas. The royal lineages of Calicut, Walluvanad, Palghat and Cochin, for instance, although of Nayar origin, considered themselves superior in ritual rank to their Nayar subjects." That is to say, they assumed a position above the status that they were perceived as being by others.

480: 7079: 646:, who is the patron goddess of war and fertility. Central to all aspects of Nair life and revered as a kind and ferocious virgin mother, Bhagavati identifies with both Sanskritic and regional based aspects of worship. The goddess was worshipped in the temples of the royal Nair matrilineages and also the village Nair matrilineages. The idol would either be placed in the western side of the house or be placed in a room with other deities. The 393:’s ‘Les sex livres de la republique’ (1576). The Nair men are described as being polite and well-mannered in old sources, and nearly all historical descriptions describe them as arrogant. Sources on Nair women are scant and were written by men, and these primarily comment on their beauty. The martial society of the Nairs was something that was covered by nearly all visitors, and their characteristic of always being armed is well described. 626:, had later become the traditional dress of the Nair women. The dress consisted of a cloth tied around the waist as well as a cloth covering the breast, and worn without a blouse. The mundum neryathum had become the essence for the set sari, which is considered to be Kerala's specific regional wear. Sonja Thomas describes how this is an example of how “primacy was given to upper caste cultural norms”. The Nair women would also wear 306: 423:. In this they followed the Muslim Arabs, whom they eventually marginalised; and they were in turn followed by the Dutch in 1683. The British and French were also active in the region now known as Kerala, the former from 1615 and the latter from 1725. These various European powers combined with one or another of the Nair rulers, fighting for control. One notable alliance was that of the Portuguese with the Kingdom of 554:

16th century and onwards, the Nairs contributed increasingly to literature and drama. Nairs from the lowest subsections of the community had also partaken in these artistic traditions. By the 19th century, novels written by Nairs had dealt with themes of social change. These themes would primarily relate to the rise of the nuclear family in replacement of the old matrilineal system. Novels such as, for example,

1688:) for the boys as well as the girls of the family. He had till lately full power (at least in practice) of alienating anything that belonged to them. His will was undisputed law. This is, perhaps, what is intended to be conveyed by the term Matri-potestas in communities of female descent. But it should be remembered that among the Nayars the autocrat of the family is not the mother, but the mother's brother. 661:, and could feature various types of idols. Naga worship was significant to the entire tharavad since, as Gough says, they "... could inflict or avert sickness in general but were especially believed to be responsible for the fertility or barrenness of tharavad women". Gough speculates that the Nagas were seen as phallic symbols representing the procreative powers of the ancestors. 369:—contained major seaports, and they expanded by taking over the inland territory of neighbouring chieftains. Although trade with China once more went into decline in the 14th-century, it was replaced by trade with Muslim Arabs. These traders had been visiting the area for several hundred years but their activities increased to the point that a third Nair kingdom, based on the port of 509:, while Cochin and Travancore were left as native states under the control of their own rulers but with advice from the British. Velu Thampi's rebellion had made the British wary of Nair leaders, and the Travancore sarkar was mainly under control of British residents although the rest of the administration had been handled for the most part by non-Malayali Brahmins and Nairs. 1632: 540:

there is the most information; that available for North Malabar is the most scant. Two former Travancore State Army divisions, the 1st Travancore Nayar Infantry and the 2nd Travancore Nayar Infantry were converted into 9th and 16th Battalions of Madras Regiment respectively after the independence. The Nayar Army from Cochin was incorporated into the 17th Battalion.

582:. As Kathakali developed as an art form, the need for specialization and detail grew. Those who had become masters of the art would pass their traditions on to their families. These families were the source of the next generations of Kathakali students, and it was often the nephew of the master that would be chosen as the disciple. 536:. Growing up in poverty and witnessing widespread domestic disarray and land alienation amongst the Nairs had facilitated Padmanabhan to create the NSS. The organization aimed to respond to these issues by creating educational institutions, welfare programs, and to replace cumbersome customs such as the matrilineal system. 1950:, provided that he was not otherwise restricted by the rules that women were not permitted to marry a man from a lower caste or subdivision, nor to marry anyone in the direct matrilineal line of descent (however far back that may be) or close relatives in the patrilineal line, nor a man less than two years her senior. 50: 1478:... embodies, so to speak, a caste system within a caste system. Except for high-ranking priests, the Nayar subdivisions mirror all the main caste categories: high-status aristocrats, military and landed; artisans and servants; and untouchables. But ... this structure is ideal rather than real. 1589:... the question of what the Nayar caste is (or was): it is a large, named social group (or, perhaps preferably, category) with a stable status, vis-a-vis other castes in Kerala. It is not, however, a solidary group, and, the efforts of the N.S.S. notwithstanding, it is never likely to become one. 999:

The Nairs identify themselves as being in many subgroups and there has been debate regarding whether these groups should be considered as subcastes or a mixture both of those and of subdivisions. There have been several attempts to identify these various groups; most of these were prior to the end of

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owned most of the land in the region; after it, they turned increasingly to administrative service. By this time there were nine small Nair kingdoms and several chiefdoms which were loosely affiliated to them; the British amalgamated seven of those kingdoms (Calicut, Kadattunad, Kolattunad, Kottayam,

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The disparity in caste ranking in a relationship between a Brahmin man and a Nair woman meant that the woman was unable to live with her husband(s) in the Brahmin family and so remained in her own family. The children resulting from such marriages always became Nairs. Panikkar argues that it is this

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relationships with Brahmins and Kshatriyas, as well as other Nairs. He is of the opinion that the system existed principally to facilitate the wedding of Nair women to Nambudiri Brahmins. In the Malabar region, only the eldest male member of a Brahmin family was usually allowed to marry within their

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From its early years, when it was contending that the Nairs needed to join together if they were to become a political force, it argued that the caste members should cease referring to their traditional subdivisions and instead see themselves as a whole. Census information thereafter appears to have

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An elaborate fourteen-day period of mourning followed the cremation, during which the family performed various symbolic acts around the pyre and were regarded to be highly polluted in ritual terms, thus necessitating not only that they took regular baths, but also that any other Nair who might touch

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juice, dripped along the blade of a sword. The woman would also select a grain, from which it was believed possible to determine the gender of the child. This ritual was performed in front of the community and contained many symbolic references; for example, the use of the sword was believed to make

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that housed descendants of one common female ancestor. These family units along with their unusual marriage customs, which are no longer practiced, have been much studied. Although the detail varied from one region to the next, the main points of interest to researchers of Nair marriage customs were

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Gough has gone further than Fuller with regard to the interpretation of events in the north, believing that there is no evidence of polyandry in that area at all. She argues that all European travelogues describing polyandry came from the region of Central Kerala. Gough notes the differing personal

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Even the highest ranked of the Nairs, being the kings and chiefs, were no more than "supereminent" subdivisions of the caste, rather than the Kshatriyas and Samantans that they claimed to be. Their claims illustrated that the desires and aspirations of self-promotion applied even at the very top of

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Although birth was considered to be ritually polluting, a death in the family was thought to be much more so. In the case of the death of the oldest member of the family, whether male or female, the body would be cremated on a pyre; for all other family members, burial was the norm. In either case,

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in 1818–1819. The Nair unit, 1st Battalion of HH Rani's Troops, was likewise incorporated into this brigade, but the Brigade served only in a police capacity until the withdrawal of the East India Company troops in 1836. In 1901, the unit was relieved of its police duties and placed under a British

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In 1729, Marthanda Varma became the Raja of Venad and inherited a state facing war and refractory Nair chiefs. Varma curtailed the power of the Nair chiefs and introduced Tamil Brahmins to form a core component of his administration. Under Marthanda Varma's reign, the Travancore Nair Infantry (also

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had split into three even smaller kingdoms; and the ruler of Venad had conceded considerable powers to local chiefs within his kingdom. By the time of European arrival, the title Nair was used to refer to all military castes. The Portuguese used the term Nair for all soldiers, and prior to 1498 the

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during the 1930s reflected a concern among Hindus that the Christian population of Travancore was rising and that there was a consequent danger of the region becoming a Christian state. The 1931 census recorded over 31 per cent of the population as being Christian, compared to around 4 per cent in

2164:. The role of the Nair Service Society in successfully campaigning for continued changes in practices and legislation relating to marriage and inheritance also played its part. This collapse of the rural society facilitated the rise of the socialist and communist political movements in the region. 2155:

adopted a pro-Nair stance and an oppressive attitude towards communities such as the Syrian Christians. The main beneficiaries in the shifting balance of social influence were the Syrian Christians and the Ezhavas. The former, in particular, were in a position to acquire, often by subdivision, the

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declined during the nineteenth century, as did that of hypergamy. Monogamy and small nuclear family units became the norm, as they were elsewhere in the country. This process occurred more rapidly in some areas than in others, and in Central Kerala the traditional systems still lingered as late as

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area but outside Malabar. There were 44 listed in Travancore in the census of 1901. These designations were, however, somewhat fluid: the numbers tended to rise and fall, dependent upon which source and which research was employed; it is likely also that the figures were skewed by Nairs claiming a

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did not itself distinguish any particular subgroups as ranking higher, subsequent attempts at classification did do so, claiming the various occupations to be traditional ones and stating that only the higher ranked groups were soldiers. Anthropologists, ethnologists and other authors believe that

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Historically most Nairs were literate in Malayalam, and many in Sanskrit. The explanation for this literacy was attributed to the general needs of administration, as many Nairs served as scribes and bailiffs for the royal courts. Many Nairs had become prominent philosophers and poets, and from the

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Subsequent to Indian independence from British rule, the regions of Travancore, Malabar District and Cochin became the present-day state of Kerala. It is with regard to the Nairs living in the former areas of Cochin and South Malabar, which are sometimes jointly referred to as Central Kerala, that

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The British imposed the next limitation on Nair dominance. After signing the treaty of subsidiary alliance with Travancore in 1795, British residents were sent to the Travancore administration; the interference from the British had caused two rebellions in 1804 and 1809, the latter of which was to

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Although it is certain that in theory hypergamy can cause a shortage of marriageable women in the lowest ranks of a caste and promote upwards social movement from the lower Nair subdivisions, the numbers involved would have been very small. It was not a common practice outside the higher subcaste

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partners if she was to avoid being out-caste, sold into slavery or even executed. There was a presumption that unclaimed children were the consequence of her having a relationship with a man from a lower caste, which could not be the case if the child was claimed because of the caste restrictions

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in Central Kerala appear to have been usually Samantans, who were of higher rank, or occasionally the Kshatriyas, who were still higher. The Nambudiri Brahmins of Central Kerala acted in that role for the royal house of Cochin (who were Kshatriyas), but whether they did so for other Kshatriyas is

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The changes in the economy and the legal system from the late 1800s had ruined many Nair tharavads. Nair leaders noted the decay of their community and struggled to deal with issues regarding widespread infighting, disunity, and feuds. This was in contrast with other communities who were quick to

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Quote:The nature of the Nayar system was that just as a woman was involved in marital relationships with a number of men, a man was married to a number of women. Nayar women and their husbands traditionally did not live together in the same household. Husbands were obliged to present their wives

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These hypergamous unions were regarded by Brahmans as socially acceptable concubinage, for the union was not initiated with Vedic rites, the children were not legitimized as Brahmans, and neither the woman nor her child was accorded the rights of kin. By the matrilineal castes, however, the same

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Fuller has commented that "The Nayars' marriage system has made them one of the most famous of all communities in anthropological circles", and Amitav Ghosh says that, although matrilineal systems are not uncommon in communities of the south Indian coast, the Nairs "have achieved an unparalleled

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consisting of 50 to 80 members were not uncommon and some with membership as high as 200 have been reported. Only the women lived in the main house; men lived in separate rooms and, on some occasions, lived in a separate house nearby. The families split on instances when they became unwieldy and

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A re-evaluation of the broad system of classification took place from the late 1950s. Fuller, writing in 1975, claims that the approach to classification by use of titular names was a misconception. People could and did award themselves the titles; and on those occasions when a title was in fact

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Nancy Levine and Walter Sangree state that while Nair women were maritally involved with a number of men, the men were also married to more than one woman. The women and their husbands did not live together and their relationship had no meaning other than "sexual liaison" and legitimacy for the

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has been the model to which observed facts have been fitted, and this is true not only of educated Indians, but also of sociologists to some extent." Instead of analysing the structure of the subgroups independently, commentators had explained them inappropriately by using an existing but alien

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The villages were historically mostly self-sufficient, with craft trades such as pottery and metalwork present in each of them. This meant that there was little need for close central control by the higher levels in the organisational hierarchy, and it also meant that trade between villages was

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In the months subsequent to the birth there followed other rituals, including those of purification and the adornment of the child with a symbolic belt to ward off illness, as well as a name-giving ceremony at which an astrologer again played a significant role. There were also various dietary

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Certainly by the 13th-century, some Nairs were the rulers of small kingdoms and the Perumals had disappeared. Trade with China, which had declined for some time, began to increase once more in the 13th-century and it was during this period that two small Nair kingdoms were established. Both of

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who had not previously been the subject of it. Higher-ranked groups within the caste, however, would perform the ritual more frequently than this and in consequence the age range at which it occurred was narrower, being roughly between age 10 and 13. This increased frequency would reduce the

1593:

The influence of the NSS, both within the community and in the wider political sphere, is no longer as significant as once it was. It did attempt to reassert its influence in 1973, when it established its own political party—the National Democratic Party—but this lasted only until 1977.

882:. These landlords were from the lineages of the royal families or feudatory chiefs; or were patrilineal Nambudiri families or the estates of temples operated by groups of those families. They were also from the lineages of the matrilineal vassal Samantan chiefs and, finally, the lowest 1513:, proposes a mixed system. The larger divisions were indeed subcastes, as they demonstrated a stability of status, longevity and geographic spread; however, the smaller divisions were fluid, often relatively short-lived and narrow in geographic placement. These divisions, such as the 411:

military or retainer Nairs are believed to have been called 'Lokar'. Gough states that the title Nair existed prior to that time referring to only those families that were involved in the military. The Portuguese had many involvements in South India, including their support of the

329:. There is no evidence of Nairs in the area during this period. Inscriptions on copper-plate regarding grants of land and rights to settlements of Jewish and Christian traders, dated approximately between the 7th- and 9th-centuries AD, refer to Nair chiefs and soldiers from the 380:

The large influx of travelers and traders to Kerala had left many early accounts of the Nairs. These descriptions were initially idealized by Europeans for its martial society, productivity, spirituality, and for its marriage practices. Some early examples of these works being

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Reclining Nayar Woman (1902) by Raja Ravi Varma shows a Nair lady, identified as the character Indulekha, a main character from a Malayalam novel of the same name. The novel had criticized the Nair matrilocal and matrilineal system; notably the relationships with Nambudiri

766:, during which time he had to maintain a pure life. This involved him living with a Brahmin, bathing twice daily and desisting from cutting either his hair or his fingernails, as well as being prevented from speaking with or indeed even seeing women. In some cases, the 980:, were ranked between the Brahmins and the Nairs, as were several other members of the Ambalavasi group. She also believes that some Nairs adopted the title of Samantan in order to emphasise their superiority over others in their caste. The unwillingness of the higher 2082:

and hypergamy were most common in Central Kerala. In northern Travancore there appears not to have been as great a prevalence of hypergamy because of a relative scarcity of Brahmins living there. Fuller believes that in the relatively undocumented southern Travancore

1878:, although he also calls it a "mock marriage". He believes that it may have come into existence to serve as a religious demarcation point. Sexual morality was lax, especially outside the higher ranks, and both relationship break-ups and realignments were common; the 2319:

Fuller names the five highest subdivisions as Kiriyam, Illam, Svarupam, Purattu Charna and Akattu Charna. Of the other five main subdivisions, the Chakkala and Itasseri were to be found in Travancore and the Pallicchan, Vattakkatan and Asthikkuracchi in Cochin and

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plays were written by a Nair from a ruling family, and Kathakali had foundations in Nair military training and religious customs. The first Kathakali actors were most likely Nair soldiers who performed the dance-drama part-time, influenced by the techniques of

906:

By the late 19th-century, the caste system of Kerala had evolved to be the most complex to be found anywhere in India. There were over 500 groups represented in an elaborate structure of relationships and the concept of ritual pollution extended not merely to

444:(1741). The Nair army was re-organized in the European style and had transformed from a feudal-based force into a standing army. Though this army was still made up of Nairs, this had checked the power of local chiefs and was the first limit on Nair dominance. 427:, with whom they sided in order to work against the power of the Zamorins of Calicut. Although Calicut remained the most significant of the kingdoms until the 1730s, its power was eroded and the rulers of Cochin were freed from being vassals of the Zamorins. 2052:... among the higher-ranking Nayars (and Kshatriyas and Samantans) in contradistinction to the "commoner" Nayars, no two subdivisions admitted to equal status. Thus the relations set up by the tall-rite and the sambandham union were always hypergamous. 1533:

in order to boost their social status, as was also the practice with other castes elsewhere, although they were often not recognised as caste members by the higher ranks and other Nairs would not marry with them. It has also been postulated that some

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as "not a unitary group but a named category of castes". The Nair include several castes and many subdivisions, not all of whom historically bore the name 'Nair'. These people lived, and continue to live, in the area which is now the Indian state of

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is a dance-drama which portrays scenes from Sanskrit epics or stories. The dance drama was historically performed exclusively by Nairs and had always traditionally been associated with them; Nair rulers and chiefs had patronized the art, the first

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would be tied on a piece of string around the neck of a Nair girl. If the girl should reach puberty before the ceremony took place then she would in theory have been out-caste, although it is probable that this stricture was not in fact observed.

1824:

was constructed for the ceremony and the girls wore ornaments specifically used only on those occasions, as well as taking a ritual bath in oil. The ornaments were often loaned as only a few villagers would possess them. The person who tied the

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caste. There were some circumstances in which a younger male was permitted to do so, these being with the consent of the elder son or when he was incapable of marriage. This system was designed to protect their traditions of patrilineality and

871:

According to Gough, the villages were generally between one and four square miles in area and their lands were usually owned by one landlord family, who claimed a higher ritual rank than its other inhabitants. The landlord was also usually the

294:, dating from 77 AD. That work describes what is probably the Malabar coast area wherein could be found the "Nareae, who are shut in by the Capitalis range, the highest of all the mountains in India". Fuller believes it probable that the 2133:

the 1960s, although hypergamy had largely disappeared everywhere by the 1920s. A possible reason for the various rates of change across the region lies in the extent to which the various agrarian local economies were dominated by the Nairs.

406:(King) of Calicut had come to the fore. Arab traders had firmly established themselves at his port and although trade still went to the ports of the other two small kingdoms, it was in relatively small amounts. Indeed, the kingdom based at 613:, England, and wore nothing above the waist. Nair men eschewed turbans or other head coverings, but would carry an umbrella against the sun's rays. They also eschewed footwear, although some of the wealthy would wear elaborate sandals. 459:

had become Sultan. The Nairs of Calicut and South Malabar had recaptured Calicut and defeated an army sent by Tipu to break the siege. This had caused the Sultan himself to intervene in 1789 during which many Hindus, especially Nairs,

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since some people probably would refuse to act as tier in order to disassociate themselves from a group and thereby bolster their claims to be members of a higher group. Although information is far from complete, those who tied the

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in terms of ritual ranking were Nairs who had inherited from matrilineal ancestors to whom land and the concomitant headmanship had been granted by a king. In all cases, the landholdings could not be sold without royal permission.

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when required. All fighting was usually suspended during the monsoon period of May to September, when movement around the country was almost impossible. Roads did not exist, nor wheeled vehicles or pack animals, until after 1766.

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was the most significant to them. This involved rubbing coconut oil onto the pregnant woman, followed by bathing, formal dressing, consultation with an astrologer regarding the expected date of birth and a ceremonial drinking of

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them must also take a bath. The period was followed by a feast and by participation in sports events, which also involved Nairs from nearby villages. Subsequently, the family stayed in mourning while one male member undertook a

500:. After a few months, the rebellion was defeated and Velu Thampi had committed suicide. Afterwards, the Nairs were disbanded and disarmed. Up to this time the Nairs had been historically a military community, who along with the 1563:, which constituted their traditional version of a marriage ceremony, in order to advance themselves by association with higher-ranked participants and also to disassociate themselves from their existing rank and those below. 1542:

subdivision, in a similar manner to developments of subdivisions in other castes elsewhere. The more subdivisions that were created, the more opportunity there was for social mobility within the Nair community as a whole.

1969:

partner was a Brahmin man or the woman's father's sister's son (which was considered a proper marriage because it was outside the direct line of female descent) then the presentation was a low-key affair. However,

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experiences of earlier Nair commentators and that this could go some way to explaining the varied pronouncement: Panikkar, who queries the existence of polyandry, comes from the northern Travancore region; that

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Three Nayar Girls of Travancore (1872) by Ramaswami Naidu. Nair children in tharavads typically played with each other, ran small errands and tasks, and would likely later undergo the thali tying ceremony

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loved his sister's son more than his own and he believes it was due mainly to the instability of Nair marriages. Divorce rate was very high as both man and woman had equal right to terminate the marriage.

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maintained criminal and civil order and could demand military service from all Nairs below him. There was usually a permanent force of between 500 and 1000 men available and these were called upon by the

1898:

might be a close female relative, such as the girl's mother or aunt, and that the ceremony conducted by such people might take place outside a temple or as a small ceremony at the side of a more lavish

1911:

tier, rather than one being used to perform the ritual for several girls at the same ceremony, then this presented the possibility of a subsequent divergence of status with the matrilineal line of the

987:

Keralite traditions included that certain communities were not allowed within a given distance of other castes on the grounds that they would "pollute" the relatively higher-ranked group. For example,

1004:, a Malayalam work that enumerated 18 main subgroups according to occupation, including drummers, traders, coppersmiths, palanquin bearers, servants, potters and barbers, as well as ranks such as the 166:

behaviours and systems are markedly different between the people in the northern and southern sections of the area, although there is not very much reliable information on those inhabiting the north.

455:

in 1766. The Nairs of Kottayam and Kadathanad led the resistance, and the Nairs managed to defeat all Mysorean garrisons except for those in Palakkad. Shortly afterwards, Haider Ali died and his son

2136:

V. K. S. Nayar has said that, "the matrilineal system tends to produce a society at once hierarchical and authoritarian in outlook. The system is built round family pride as well as loyalty to the

1639:

reproduced from Panikkar's article published in 1918. Capital and small letters represent females and males respectively. Supposing that the females A, B and C were dead and the oldest male member

5670:

Wade, Bonnie C.; Jones, Betty True; Zile, Judy Van; Higgins, Jon B.; Qureshi, Regula Burckhardt; Owens, Naomi; Flora, Reis (1987). "Performing Arts in India: Essays on Music, Dance, and Drama".

2075:

partner at the same time, that "both men and women could have several partners at once, and either party was free to break the relationship, for any reason or for none, whenever they wished."

2039:

unions were regarded as marriage, for they fulfilled the conditions of ordinary Nayar marriage and served to legitimize the child as an acceptable member of his matrilineal lineage and caste.

1974:

rituals were more elaborate, sometimes including feasts, when a "stranger" from within the Nair caste married the woman. The ceremony took place on a day deemed to be auspicious by priests.

1791:

is an emblem shaped like a leaf and which is worn as a necklace. The wearing of it has been compared to a wedding ring as for most women in south India it denotes that they are married. The

592:(1893) by Raja Ravi Varma depicts a Nair woman in the traditional mundum neryathum. The painting has also been noted by several critics due its symbolism of the decline of Nair matrilinity. 984:

to engage in what they considered to be the polluting activities of industrial and commercial activity has been cited as a reason for the region's relatively limited economic development.

377:

and Palghat, away from the coastline. This period was characterized by continuous war between these various kingdoms, and most able bodied Nair men were assigned to fight in these wars.

207:

The Nair were historically involved in military conflicts in the region. Following hostilities between the Nair and the British in 1809, the British limited Nair participation in the

468:. Many Nairs had fled to the protection of Travancore, while others engaged in guerilla warfare. However the Nairs of Travancore were able to defeat the Muslim forces in 1792 at the 2178:

The 1968 Socio-Economic Survey by the Government of Kerala gave the population of the Nair community as approximately 14.5% (2.9 million) of the total population of the state.

4175: 1946:. A consequence of it was that the younger sons were allowed to marry women from the highest subdivisions of the Nair caste. The Nair women could marry the man who had tied their 1965:) to the bride in front of some family members of both parties to the arrangement. There might also be other gifts, presented at the time of the main Malayalam festivals. If the 2044:

type of relationship that resulted in the matrilineal and matrilocal system. It has also been argued that the practice, along with judicious selection of the man who tied the

756:

subgroup of the community and they utilised both elements of superstition and of Hinduism. The occasions involving cremation were more ritualised than those involving burial.

1700:. In Nair families, young men and women about the same age were not allowed to talk to each other, unless the young man's sister was considerably older than him. The wife of 1538:

families came together to form small divisions as a consequence of shared work experiences with, for example, a local Nambudiri or Nair chief. These groups then became an

947:

were not present at all. The roles left empty by the absence of these two ritual ranks were taken to some extent by a few Nairs and by non-Hindu immigrants, respectively.

1738:

eminence in the anthropological literature on matrilineality". None of the rituals survive in any significant way today. Two forms of ritual marriage were traditional:

833:

were feudatory chiefs, former kings whose territory had been taken over by, for example, the Zamorins of Calicut. In these instances, although they were obeisant to the

823:. It was an inherited role, originally bestowed by a king, and of a lower ritual rank than the royal lineages. Although Nair families, they generally used the title of 706:

to be wandering around the place of death, they warned people to stay away from those areas between 9 am and 3 pm. They also believed in a comic elf called

317:

portrait. The majority of Nair men were trained in arms, and the traditional role of the Nairs was to fight in the continuous wars which characterized Kerala history.

2329:

There are differences in the form of hypergamy common to south India and that which existed in north India, and these have been subject to much academic discussion.

2112:, who acknowledges its existence, comes from Central Kerala; and that both have based their writings on customs they grew up with in their very different environs. 250:

notes: "In no part of the world is snake worship more general than in Kerala." Serpent groves were found in the southwestern corner of nearly every Nair compound.

2001:

was neither legally recognised nor binding. The relationship could end at will and the participants could remarry without any ramifications. Attempts to regulate

672:

Nairs believed in spirits, which on some occasions they attempted to tame by performing various rituals. According to Panikkar, they believed in spirits such as

6155: 837:

they held a higher ritual rank than the Zamorin as a consequence of their longer history of government; they also had more power than the vassal chiefs. The

657:

were revered by the Nairs, and these deities would be placed in a grove in the family property. The groves would portray a miniature forest made to resemble

1777:

could lay claim to it. Thomas Nossiter has commented that the system "was so loosely arranged as to raise doubts as to whether 'marriage' existed at all."

1721:

remained closely related; a few such related families formed a social group whose members participated in all social activities. Nakane wrote in 1956 that

2865: 1578:

As late as 1975, the NSS still had most of its support in the Central Travancore region, although it also has numerous satellite groups around the world.

912: 1882:

legitimised the marital status of the woman in the eyes of her faith prior to her becoming involved in the amoral activities that were common practice.

483:

Members of the Travancore Nair Brigade, drawn in 1855. The Nair brigade was the remnant of the Travancore Nair army after the takeover of the British.

1907:. These variations were probably exceptional and would have applied to the poorest families. Fuller has also remarked that if each girl had her own 1989:

of a man was deemed to be momentous and his ability to engage in a large number of such relationships increased his reputation in his community.

1021:) to which that person belonged and indicated the occupation the person pursued or was bestowed on them by a chief or king. These names included 2034:

The Nambudiri Brahmin tradition which limited the extent of marriage within their own caste led to the practice of hypergamy. Gough notes that

1510: 517:

officer. In 1935, the Travancore Nair Regiment and the Maharaja's bodyguard were fused and renamed the Travancore State Force, as part of the

2087:

may have been predominant, and that although the matrilineal joint family still applied it was usually the case that the wife lived with the

950:

The Nambudiri Brahmins were at the top of the ritual caste hierarchy and in that system outranked even the kings. They regarded all Nairs as

1754:

was the point at which the woman might take one or more partners and bear children by them, giving rise to the theories of them engaging in

794:

Prior to the reorganisation of the region by the British, Kerala was divided into around ten feudal states. Each of these was governed by a

321:

There are large gaps in the known early history of the Kerala region, which in the 1st-century AD is thought to have been governed by the

6883: 6758: 4179: 6768: 349:

areas. As these inscriptions show the Nairs as witnesses to the agreements between those traders and the successors to the Cheras, the

7026: 2048:, formed a part of the Nair aspirational culture whereby they would seek to improve their status within the caste. Furthermore, that 634:), a loincloth worn as an undergarment by more conservative women. The undergarment was noted as beautifying and slimming the waist. 5924: 781:

The Nair avoided beef, and many did not eat lamb. In the modern day, alcohol is a component of Nair-dominated festivals in Kerala.

770:

might last for a year rather than the more usual forty-one days, in which case there would be considerable celebration at its end.

6875: 6813: 1602:

Today, the government of India does not treat the Nair community as a single entity. It classifies some, such as the Illathu and

5506: 734:

The Nair traditionally practised certain rituals relating to births, although often only for those of the first-born. Of these,

6855: 6186: 5832: 4695: 1812:

organised the elaborate ritual after taking advice from prominent villagers and also from a traditional astrologer, known as a

6850: 5799: 5775: 5744: 5723: 5653: 5625: 5597: 5569: 5541: 5485: 5423: 5395: 5368: 5335: 5307: 5279: 5251: 5223: 5202: 5135: 5107: 5058: 5030: 4996: 4968: 4940: 4912: 4744: 4291: 4020: 3918: 3715: 3678: 3441: 3379: 3076: 2839: 2800: 2752: 2708: 2491: 1915:, leading to more subdivisions and a greater chance that one or more of the girls might advance their status later in life. 668:

17th century wooden idol of Kali from Kerala. Kali is the warlike manifestation of Bhagavati, the patron deity of the Nairs.

6860: 1985:

but occasionally they would arise from a woman attracting a man in a temple, bathing pool or other public place. The first

1769:

There is much debate about whether the traditional Nair rituals fitted the traditional definition of marriage and which of

698:, Panikkar says, "is seen generally in marshy districts and does not always hurt people unless they go very near him"; and 1829:

would be transported on an elephant. The higher the rank of that person then the greater the prestige reflected on to the

6893: 4235:, International Studies in Sociology and Social Anthropology: 1963: E. J. Brill, Leiden, Netherlands) ed.): 17–28. 7115: 7041: 7021: 7000: 1851:

of each girl tied by a different man was more prestigious than having one tier perform the rite for several girls. The

1501:

listed a total of 128 Nair subgroups in the Malabar region and 55 in the Cochin region, as well as a further 10 in the

1000:

British governance in India but Kathleen Gough also studied the issue in 1961. These analyses bear similarities to the

461: 264:, an honorific meaning "leader of the people", while others believe it stems from the community's association with the 7130: 7005: 6888: 6731: 4826: 4109: 1684:. He has full control of the common property, and manages the income very much as he pleases. He arranges marriages ( 919:, having observed that it represented a "mad house" of castes. The usual four-tier Hindu caste system, involving the 2148:

where that dominance was lost, although there was an attempt to reassert it in Travancore during the 1930s when the

841:

families each saw themselves as a distinct caste in the same manner as did the rajahs; they did not recognise other

7125: 7120: 6753: 1696:

at night and left the following morning and he had no legal obligation to his children which lay entirely with the

497: 1614:. These classifications are for the purpose of determining which groups of people in certain areas are subject to 3869:

Menon, Dilip M. (August 1993). "The Moral Community of the Teyyattam: Popular Culture in Late Colonial Malabar".

1045:

Nair subdivisions in descending order of rank according to standard descriptions, compiled by C J Fuller in 1975

1870:

husband nor became a widow, she did observe certain mourning rituals upon the death of the man who had tied her

1643:

being d, if the male members t, k and others demanded partition, the property would be divided into three parts.

6743: 2873: 228: 1664:

during crisis among its members. When it split, the family property was separated along the female lines. The

1474:

bestowed, it nonetheless did not signify their subgroup. He argues that the broad outline of the subdivisions

778:

Pork was noted as a favourite food of the Nair, and even high-status Nairs were noted as eating buffalo meat.

7036: 6808: 6803: 6287: 325:

and which by the late 3rd-century AD had broken up, possibly as a consequence of a decline in trade with the

1894:

It has been noted that there were variations to the practice. Examples include that the person who tied the

1803:

The ritual was usually conducted approximately every 10–12 years for all girls, including infants, within a

7135: 7031: 6865: 6830: 6781: 6505: 2173: 284:, an anthropologist, has said that it is likely that the first reference to the Nair community was made by 212: 616:

The historical dress of the Nair woman was the mundu, as well as a cloth that covered the upper body. The

6985: 6975: 6842: 6050: 2217: 748:

restrictions, both for the woman during pregnancy and for the child in the first few months of its life.

714:—that compliments from others had a negative effect; they also believed that utterances of a person with 560:

by O.C Menon had themes which dealt with societal constraints on romantic love, while C.V Raman Pillai's

3707:

Kaleidoscopic ethnicity: international migration and the reconstruction of community identities in India

6965: 6304: 5825: 5432:

Neff, Deborah L. (1987). "Aesthetics and Power in Pambin Tullal: A Possession Ritual of Rural Kerala".

2006: 1808:

likelihood of girls from two generations being involved in the same ceremony, which was forbidden. The

533: 6990: 6930: 4828:

To Survive or to flourish? Minority rights and Syrian Christian assertions in 20th century Travancore

4804: 4111:

To Survive or to flourish? Minority rights and Syrian Christian assertions in 20th century Travancore

1997:

forced it due to being pressured by a man of higher rank who desired to marry the woman. Marriage by

452: 2212: 6935: 6925: 6282: 6094: 5502: 5213: 4674:

Levine, Nancy E.; Sangree, Walter H. (1980). "Conclusion: Asian and African Systems of Polyandry".

2071:

Fuller argues that there is overwhelming evidence that Nair women as well as men had more than one

964:. Beyond this, the precise ranking is subject to some difference in opinion. Kodoth has placed the 606: 5050:

There Comes Papa: Colonialism and the Transformation of Matriliny in Kerala, Malabar, C. 1850–1940

7082: 6980: 6915: 5246:. Perverse Modernities: A Series Edited by Jack Halberstam and Lisa Lowe. Duke University Press. 5188: 5145: 2197: 1615: 664: 290: 281: 5022: 447:

There had been Hindu–Muslim clashes during the medieval period, notably when Muslim armies from

7110: 6940: 6569: 6311: 1855:

tying was followed by four days of feasting, and on the fourth day the marriage was dissolved.

562: 469: 5587: 5559: 5385: 5325: 5297: 5269: 5125: 5097: 4986: 4930: 3908: 3705: 3369: 2829: 2792: 6995: 6970: 6960: 6950: 6945: 6798: 5866: 5818: 5765: 5617:

Privileged Minorities: Syrian Christianity, Gender, and Minority Rights in Postcolonial India

5615: 5531: 5241: 4958: 4220: 4010: 3668: 3066: 2787:

An encyclopedia of battles: accounts of over 1,560 battles from 1479 B.C. to the present

2698: 2481: 334: 31: 17: 7056: 7051: 6955: 6825: 6776: 6170: 6136: 6121: 5957: 5904: 3827:

Kodoth, Praveena (2008). "Gender, Caste and Matchmaking in Kerala: A Rationale for Dowry".

2339: 2152: 1572: 1498: 991:

were prohibited within 64 feet. Likewise, a Nair could approach but not touch a Nambudiri.

585: 529: 493: 419:, but in the Nair kingdoms, their principal interest was to obtain control of the trade in 370: 1765:

a form of hypergamy, whereby high-ranked Nairs married Samantans, Kshatriyas and Brahmins.

8: 6440: 6245: 6220: 6200: 6104: 1035: 650:

would also have an area for the worship of Kali, the warlike manifestation of Bhagavati.

518: 208: 1725:

as a functional unit had ceased to exist and large buildings that had once hosted large

6597: 6579: 6574: 6562: 6396: 6215: 6195: 6165: 5947: 5919: 5712: 5695: 5457: 5299:

Liberalization's Children: Gender, Youth, and Consumer Citizenship in Globalizing India

5173: 5165: 5084: 5015: 4889: 4656: 4408: 4367: 4244: 3988: 3886: 2066: 1607: 1423: 501: 489: 473: 441: 401: 137: 722:

from a poor man watching someone eating a delicious food will cause stomach-aches and

258:

The origin of the Nair is disputed. Some people think the name itself is derived from

6602: 6520: 6257: 6210: 6148: 5977: 5771: 5740: 5719: 5687: 5649: 5621: 5593: 5565: 5537: 5481: 5449: 5419: 5391: 5364: 5331: 5303: 5275: 5247: 5219: 5198: 5177: 5131: 5103: 5054: 5026: 4992: 4964: 4936: 4908: 4881: 4740: 4715: 4287: 4248: 4016: 3914: 3890: 3840: 3711: 3674: 3437: 3375: 3072: 2835: 2796: 2785: 2748: 2704: 2487: 2187: 1603: 1139: 1117: 916: 556: 397: 243: 1708:

as she belonged to a different one and her interests lay there. Panikkar wrote that

7046: 6920: 6820: 6650: 6458: 6348: 6299: 6272: 6025: 6020: 5873: 5679: 5441: 5157: 4873: 4707: 4648: 4400: 4359: 4236: 3980: 3878: 3836: 2161: 2149: 2098: 1993:

relationships could be broken, due to differences between the spouses or because a

1672:, had the decision-making authority including the power to manage common property. 1539: 969: 618: 589: 506: 115: 5803: 4404: 1929:

Panikkar says that for Nairs the real marriage, as opposed to a symbolic one, was

1659:, whereby descendant families of one common ancestress lived under a single roof. 6791: 6483: 6294: 6040: 6030: 5734: 5643: 5473: 5469: 5413: 5356: 5192: 5048: 4902: 4734: 4281: 3701: 3646: 3431: 3403: 2937: 2456: 2428: 1649: 1535: 1265: 976:, both of which were the highest ranked in the group of temple servants known as 968:

caste below the Kshatriya rank but above the Nairs, but Gough considers that the

915:. The system was gradually reformed to some degree, with one of those reformers, 382: 366: 285: 6748: 6692: 6531: 6488: 6416: 6160: 6131: 6056: 6010: 5952: 5909: 5352: 4988:

Culture, Creation, and Procreation: Concepts of Kinship in South Asian Practice

4240: 3968: 3882: 1673: 1611: 1553: 1482: 1073: 908: 386: 247: 201: 178: 154: 58: 5645:

Society, economics, and politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: the 7th-8th centuries

4736:

Feminine fables: imaging the Indian woman in painting, photography, and cinema

1885: 1762:

marked the first menstruation and usually took place between these two events.

7105: 7099: 6589: 6386: 6175: 6045: 6035: 5993: 5967: 5962: 5899: 5859: 5707: 5691: 5453: 5161: 4885: 4719: 4391:

Moore, Melinda A. (May 1988). "Symbol and meaning in Nayar marriage ritual".

2192: 1943: 1326: 957: 680: 579: 416: 322: 299: 260: 239: 4834:. Trivandrum: Centre for Development Studies. pp. 19–20. Archived from 4711: 4117:. Trivandrum: Centre for Development Studies. pp. 15–17. Archived from 3552: 1874:. Panikkar argues that this proves that the real, religious marriage is the 479: 61:. Drawn in pencil and watercolor sometime between the 17th and 18th century. 6622: 6549: 6328: 6318: 6237: 5987: 5894: 5844: 5714:

The Decline of Nair Dominance: Society and Politics in Travancore 1847–1908

4277: 2145: 1494: 1095: 707: 513: 420: 326: 216: 4835: 4118: 6786: 6617: 6607: 6557: 6539: 6450: 6411: 6205: 6116: 6099: 5096:

Bald, V.; Chatterji, M.; Reddy, S.; Prashad, V.; Vimalassery, M. (2013).

2479: 2207: 2141: 2109: 1787: 1606:

Nairs, as a forward caste, but other sections, such as the Veluthedathu,

935:(business person, involved in trading, entrepreneurship and finance) and 465: 456: 407: 390: 224: 5088: 4696:"Private Lives and Interior Spaces: Raja Ravi Varma's Scholar Paintings" 3248: 6632: 5972: 5461: 5169: 4893: 4660: 4371: 4350:

Moore, Melinda A. (September 1985). "A New Look at the Nayar Taravad".

3992: 3427: 1924: 1680:

Authority in the family is wielded by the eldest member, who is called

1559: 977: 610: 574: 374: 342: 220: 49: 5699: 4647:. Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 8–11. 4412: 6678: 6673: 6640: 6612: 6500: 6495: 6431: 6406: 6353: 6267: 5982: 5914: 4639:

Gough, Kathleen (January–February 1965). "A Note on Nayar Marriage".

4012:

Social change in modern India (Rabindranath Tagore memorial lectures)

3371:

Female ascetics: hierarchy and purity in an Indian religious movement

1847:

less certain. The Kshatriyas would tie for the Samantans. Having the

1755: 1548: 819: 723: 569: 362: 197: 193: 184: 84: 5445: 4877: 4652: 4363: 3984: 2005:

marriages by the Nayar Regulation Act of 1912 in Travancore and the

6687: 6659: 6645: 6512: 6478: 6436: 6421: 6381: 6126: 5683: 2202: 2084: 1934: 1676:, a well-known writer from the Nair community, wrote in 1918 that, 1655: 965: 825: 740: 686: 189: 171: 100: 88: 4960:

Indian Renaissance: British Romantic Art and the Prospect of India

3200: 476:

established its pre-eminence throughout the entire Kerala region.

6683: 6668: 6664: 6426: 6376: 6368: 6358: 6262: 6250: 6109: 6005: 5999: 5648:. Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies for Unesco, Toyo Bunko. 1814: 973: 412: 350: 346: 305: 5099:

The Sun Never Sets: South Asian Migrants in an Age of U.S. Power

2486:(Reprinted ed.). Asian Educational Services. pp. 15–. 2012:

Any children borne by the woman had to be claimed by one of her

1017:

the last name of a Nair was a title which denoted the subgroup (

894:

Nairs were not permitted to perform rites in the temples of the

654: 265: 6655: 6468: 6401: 6341: 6336: 6143: 5810: 2860: 2858: 1843: 1820: 1502: 1202: 988: 952: 864: 762: 753: 658: 647: 448: 424: 354: 330: 314: 310: 159: 124: 72: 2310:, (ed. D. M. Schneider & E. K. Gough), (1961), pp. 308–312 718:(black-tongue) had a similarly bad effect. They also believed 440:) distinguished themselves in battle against the Dutch at the 238:

is worshipped by Nair families as a guardian of the clan. The

6463: 6391: 5942: 4864:

Ashley, Wayne (1979). "The Teyyam Kettu of Northern Kerala".

4820: 4818: 3670:

Social mobility in Kerala: modernity and identity in conflict

2745:

Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians

2548: 2546: 1937:

and translates as "good and close union". The Nair woman had

878: 798:(king) and was subdivided into organisational units known as 674: 338: 235: 163: 150: 146: 5302:. e-Duke books scholarly collection. Duke University Press. 5148:(Winter 1975). "The Internal Structure of the Nayar Caste". 3005: 2855: 6473: 6015: 4932:

Politics, Women and Well-Being: How Kerala became 'a Model'

4772: 3740: 3738: 3736: 3734: 3104: 2565: 2563: 2561: 643: 623: 609:'s writing were generally using cotton cloth imported from 4815: 3496: 3494: 2966: 2543: 1631: 566:

had dealt with themes relating to the Nair military past.

5767:

The Kathakali Complex: Actor, Performance & Structure

5736:

Kathakali Dance-Drama: Where Gods and Demons Come to Play

5359:, in Schneider, David Murray; Gough, E. Kathleen (eds.), 5243:

Unruly Visions: The Aesthetic Practices of Queer Diaspora

5102:. NYU Series in Social and Cultural Analysis. NYU Press. 5095: 4516: 4221:"The Nayar family in a disintegrating matrilineal system" 4199: 4197: 3481: 3479: 3477: 3254: 3068:

Valour and sacrifice: famous regiments of the Indian Army

2995: 2993: 2700:

Valour and sacrifice: famous regiments of the Indian Army

2677: 2675: 2606: 2604: 2602: 1866:. However, although she neither mourned the death of her 876:(headman) and in all cases, their families were known as 415:

in a trade battle over control of the pearl fisheries of

176:

the existence of two particular rituals—the pre-pubertal

30:

This article is about a Hindu caste. For other uses, see

5387:

India's Dances: Their History, Technique, and Repertoire

4935:. Cambridge Commonwealth Series. Palgrave Macmillan UK. 4559: 4557: 4555: 4089: 3808: 3757: 3755: 3753: 3731: 3506: 3464: 3462: 3460: 3436:. Trans. Gita Krishnankutty. Penguin Books. p. 76. 3116: 2575: 2558: 2443:

The Dravidian people of Kerala were serpent worshippers.

1509:

The revisionist argument, whose supporters also include

373:, became established. There were also small kingdoms at 4494: 4492: 4141: 4139: 3491: 3313: 3267: 3265: 3263: 3140: 2650: 2648: 2646: 2483:

The origin of Saivism and its history in the Tamil land

1618:

policies for the purposes of education and employment.

1493:

The hypothesis, proposed by writers such as Fuller and

169:

Historically, Nairs lived in large family units called

4504: 4194: 3939: 3937: 3786: 3784: 3782: 3474: 3289: 3277: 3236: 3212: 3188: 2990: 2978: 2954: 2919: 2917: 2915: 2672: 2599: 2507: 2380: 2378: 2365: 2363: 2361: 2359: 5218:. Wiley Blackwell Companions to Anthropology. Wiley. 5075:

Arunima, G. (1995). "Matriliny and its Discontents".

4581: 4552: 3906: 3750: 3582: 3457: 3349: 3337: 3176: 3152: 2587: 2480:

K. R. Subramanian; K. R. Subramanian (M.A.) (1985) .

2473: 2426: 2276:

Quoted by Fuller, citing L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer,

2009:

of 1896 in British Malabar were not very successful.

1566: 298:

referred to the Nairs and the Capitalis range is the

121: 5669: 5478:

Communism in Kerala: a study in political adaptation

4617: 4605: 4569: 4540: 4489: 4136: 4065: 4041: 3796: 3767: 3638: 3628: 3626: 3613: 3611: 3609: 3594: 3570: 3535: 3533: 3420: 3401: 3301: 3260: 3224: 3206: 3164: 3128: 2900: 2888: 2766: 2764: 2724: 2660: 2643: 2241:

Gough quotes Ayyar (1938) for the statement on Lokar

784: 702:

is a spirit of bad air causing illnesses. Believing

4307: 4158: 4156: 4154: 3934: 3779: 3662: 3660: 3046: 3017: 2912: 2870:

REPORT OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS COMMITTEE 1958

2823: 2821: 2819: 2375: 2356: 2115: 1862:again and later married a different man during the 118: 5711: 5480:. University of California Press. pp. 12–44. 5014: 4443: 4441: 4439: 4437: 4260: 4258: 3518: 3361: 3036: 3034: 3032: 2935: 2827: 2784: 2454: 2160:buildings and landholdings around the time of the 353:, it is probable that by this time the Nairs were 4805:"Kerala Politics since 1947: Community Attitudes" 4593: 4286:(Third ed.). Orient Blackswan. p. 193. 3623: 3606: 3545: 3530: 3092: 2761: 2293:, (ed. F. B. Evans), volume 1 (1908), pp. 116–120 2250:Quoted by Fuller, citing K. P. Padmanabha Menon, 710:who would be prone to mischief. They believed in 400:arrived in the area from 1498, by which time the 7097: 4422: 4178:. District of Thiruvananthapuram. Archived from 4151: 3657: 2816: 2621: 2619: 2410: 2408: 2395: 2393: 1621: 496:to remove British influence from the Travancore 4784: 4760: 4528: 4465: 4453: 4434: 4319: 4255: 4077: 4053: 3913:. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 150. 3850: 3325: 3029: 2776: 2631: 2531: 2291:Madras District Gazetteers: Malabar and Anjengo 1842:for girls of the aristocratic Nair families of 1585:It has been concluded by Fuller, in 1975, that 5511:Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 4824: 4726: 4689: 4687: 4225:International Journal of Comparative Sociology 4107: 3367: 1858:The girl often never saw the man who tied the 601:The historical attire of the Nair men was the 192:in some areas. Some Nair women also practiced 5826: 4673: 4634: 4632: 4386: 4384: 3979:(4). Association for Asian Studies: 529–548. 3058: 2939:Functions and dysfunctions of social conflict 2696: 2692: 2690: 2616: 2405: 2390: 1729:were occupied by just a few of its remnants. 505:Kurumbranad, Palghat and Walluvanad) to form 246:custom, is so prevalent in the area that one 6730: 6510: 3961: 3666: 2302:Quoted by Fuller, citing E. Kathleen Gough, 5415:Agrarian Relations in Late Medieval Malabar 5211: 5012: 4684: 4477: 4331: 4029: 3835:(2). Institute of Social Studies: 263–283. 3710:. Rutgers University Press. pp. 124–. 3110: 2782: 2552: 2519: 829:and were treated as vassals. However, some 389:’s ‘The mirrour of the wourld’ (1481), and 231:, the oldest battalion in the Indian Army. 5833: 5819: 4991:. ACLS Humanities E-Book. Berghahn Books. 4825:Devika, J.; Varghese, V. J. (March 2010). 4629: 4381: 4343: 4214: 4212: 4108:Devika, J.; Varghese, V. J. (March 2010). 3900: 3820: 3694: 3667:Osella, Filippo; Osella, Caroline (2000). 3395: 2687: 960:and other later immigrants of the Brahmin 729: 694:is the spirit of prematurely dead people; 48: 5585: 5529: 5411: 3512: 3146: 2513: 1981:relationship was usually arranged by the 789: 6718: 5763: 5732: 5474:"Kerala's identity: unity and diversity" 5271:Routledge Handbook of Contemporary India 5267: 5239: 5215:A Companion to the Anthropology of India 4009:Srinivas, Mysore Narasimhachar (1995) . 4008: 3971:(August 1957). "Caste in Modern India". 3967: 3907:Rajendra Kumar Sharma (1 January 2004). 3644: 3500: 3319: 3295: 3242: 3230: 3218: 3194: 2420: 2263:Quoted by Fuller, citing V. Nagam Aiya, 2097: 1884: 1742:the pre-puberty rite for girls known as 1630: 663: 584: 478: 304: 5706: 5641: 5074: 5046: 4984: 4956: 4928: 4778: 4209: 3485: 3307: 3283: 3052: 3023: 3011: 2999: 2984: 2972: 2960: 2929: 2906: 2894: 2791:. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 2783:Eggenberger, David (1 September 1985). 2681: 2610: 2593: 2461:. Book Centre Publications. p. 104 2448: 1961:, being marked by the gift of clothes ( 622:, a garment that roughly resembles the 430: 14: 7098: 5613: 5557: 5383: 5295: 4863: 4693: 4218: 3826: 3700: 3468: 3355: 3271: 3182: 3158: 3064: 2872:. Government of Kerala. Archived from 2289:Quoted by Fuller, citing C. A. Innes, 1780: 1750:when they became sexually mature. The 901: 637: 492:, the Nair dewan of Travancore, led a 6717: 6074: 5814: 5351: 5323: 4900: 4802: 4676:Journal of Comparative Family Studies 4638: 4587: 4522: 4390: 4349: 4283:The Imam and the Indian: prose pieces 4276: 3868: 3814: 3802: 3773: 3744: 3170: 3134: 3122: 3098: 2770: 2730: 2666: 2654: 2581: 2569: 2384: 2369: 845:families as being equal to them. The 752:the ceremonies were conducted by the 136: 5800:"Digital Colonial Documents (India)" 5431: 5077:India International Centre Quarterly 4176:"List of Other Backward Communities" 3524: 2834:. Lancer Publishers. pp. 284–. 2747:. I.J.A. Publications. p. 250. 1957:ceremony was simple compared to the 309:Nair soldiers attending the King of 67:Regions with significant populations 5589:Kinship and Gender: An Introduction 5150:Journal of Anthropological Research 4732: 3426: 3408:. University of Kerala. p. 142 2828:D. P. Ramachandran (October 2008). 2703:. Allied Publishers. pp. 59–. 1704:had an unusual relationship in his 24: 6076: 6075: 5620:. University of Washington Press. 5363:, University of California Press, 4694:Dinkar, Niharika (11 April 2014). 2128:, and also the existence of large 2078:He believes that both polyandrous 1732: 1567:Attempts to achieve caste cohesion 642:The primary deity of the Nairs is 25: 7147: 5792: 5501: 5468: 5327:Literacy in Traditional Societies 4599: 4563: 4510: 4428: 4203: 4162: 3790: 3761: 3600: 3588: 3576: 3374:. Psychology Press. p. 148. 3343: 3071:. Allied Publishers. p. 59. 3040: 2923: 2697:Gautam Sharma (1 December 1990). 2433:. Accent Publications. p. 85 1551:and would utilise the rituals of 939:(service person), did not exist. 785:Social and political organisation 453:gained control of northern Kerala 7078: 7077: 5840: 5123: 4796: 4739:. Mapin Publishing. p. 76. 4667: 4270: 4168: 4101: 4015:. Orient Blackswan. p. 38. 4002: 3841:10.1111/j.1467-7660.2008.00479.x 3433:A childhood in Malabar: a memoir 3331: 2332: 2323: 2313: 2116:Decline of traditional practices 1795:was the ritual during which the 1746:, which was usually followed by 1717:was another family with which a 1668:, the oldest male member in the 1653:) joint family structure called 956:. Below the Nambudiris came the 223:State Force was merged into the 114: 5187: 5144: 4856: 4790: 4766: 4623: 4611: 4575: 4546: 4534: 4498: 4483: 4471: 4459: 4447: 4337: 4325: 4313: 4264: 4145: 4095: 4083: 4071: 4059: 4047: 4035: 3955: 3949: 3943: 3862: 3856: 2942:. Popular Prakashan. p. 18 2736: 2637: 2625: 2537: 2525: 2414: 2399: 2296: 2283: 2270: 2257: 2244: 2235: 2167: 1758:practices. A ritual called the 512:The Travancore army became the 276: 6719: 5586:Stone, L.; King, D.E. (2018). 5330:. Cambridge University Press. 5197:. Cambridge University Press. 5130:. Asian Educational Services. 4811:. Vol. 1965. p. 153. 3969:Srinivas, Mysore Narasimhachar 3368:Sinclair-Brull, Wendy (1997). 2427:K. Balachandran Nayar (1974). 2267:, volume 2 (1906), pp. 348–349 2254:, volume 3 (1933), pp. 192–195 1647:Nairs operated a matrilineal ( 1597: 229:9th Battalion, Madras Regiment 153:, described by anthropologist 13: 1: 4904:Kerala History and its Makers 4405:10.1525/ae.1988.15.2.02a00040 3647:"The Nayar of Central Kerala" 3632: 3617: 3402:University of Kerala (1982). 2743:Prabhu, Alan Machado (1999). 2223: 1918: 1622:Historical matrilineal system 5507:"Some Aspects of Nayar Life" 3973:The Journal of Asian Studies 2350: 2280:, volume 2 (1912), pp. 14–18 2278:The Cochin Tribes and Castes 2174:Demography of Nair community 2060: 2029: 2017:imposed in the selection of 1525:, would take titles such as 994: 813:The person who governed the 488:have lasting repercussions. 253: 7: 5718:. Sussex University Press. 5021:. Encounter Books. p. 2936:G. Ramachandra Raj (1974). 2455:L. A. Krishna Iyer (1968). 2265:The Travancore State Manual 2218:Nair ceremonies and customs 2181: 1626: 1147:Purattu & Akattu Charna 462:were kept captive or killed 10: 7152: 5925:Weberian (three-component) 4985:Bock, M.; Rao, A. (2000). 4807:. In Narain, Iqbal (ed.). 4241:10.1177/002071526200300105 3883:10.1177/025764309300900203 3539: 2171: 2064: 1922: 543: 534:Mannathu Padmanabha Pillai 271: 29: 7116:Surnames of Indian origin 7073: 7014: 6906: 6874: 6841: 6767: 6739: 6726: 6713: 6631: 6588: 6548: 6530: 6449: 6367: 6327: 6236: 6229: 6184: 6087: 6083: 6070: 5933: 5887: 5883: 5854: 5503:Panikkar, Kavalam Madhava 5412:Narayanan, M. T. (2003), 3405:Journal of Kerala studies 1933:, a word that comes from 1044: 862:had the right to operate 653:Serpent deities known as 596: 227:and became a part of the 99: 94: 83: 78: 71: 66: 47: 7131:South Indian communities 7047:Pre-industrial East Asia 5770:. Abhinav Publications. 5739:. Taylor & Francis. 5592:. Taylor & Francis. 5470:Nossiter, Thomas Johnson 5418:, Northern Book Centre, 5390:. Abhinav Publications. 5357:"Nayars: Central Kerala" 5274:. Taylor & Francis. 5212:Clark-Deces, I. (2011). 5189:Fuller, Christopher John 5162:10.1086/jar.31.4.3629883 5146:Fuller, Christopher John 5013:Blankenhorn, D. (2007). 4963:. Taylor & Francis. 4803:Nayar, V. K. S. (1967). 3645:Freeland, J. B. (1965). 3553:"The Hindu Goddess Kali" 2742: 2458:Social history of Kerala 2340:Sir C. P. Ramaswamy Iyer 2228: 2153:Sir C. P. Ramaswamy Iyer 1692:The husband visited the 1485:observed in 1957 that, " 7126:Ethnic groups in Kerala 7121:Social groups of Kerala 6095:Administrative detainee 5268:Jacobsen, K.A. (2015). 5183:(subscription required) 4809:State Politics in India 4712:10.1111/1467-8365.12085 4418:(subscription required) 4377:(subscription required) 3998:(subscription required) 3896:(subscription required) 3846:(subscription required) 3065:Sharma, Gautam (1990). 2831:Empire's First Soldiers 1616:positive discrimination 1356:Asthikkuracchi/Chitikan 1347:Asthikkuracchi/Chitikan 773: 730:Birth and death rituals 548: 514:Travancore Nair Brigade 385:’s ‘’Travels’’ (1356), 6511: 5561:Modern India 1886–1947 5530:Mukherjee, M. (2002). 5505:(July–December 1918). 5017:The Future of Marriage 3958:Reproduced from p. 288 3829:Development and Change 3651:Papers in Anthropology 2213:Onnu Kure Áyiram Yogam 2156:economically unviable 2104: 2054: 2041: 2027: 1891: 1690: 1644: 1612:Other Backward Classes 1591: 1480: 790:Political organization 669: 593: 484: 470:Third Anglo-Mysore War 318: 7052:Pre-industrial Europe 5764:Zarrilli, P. (1984). 5733:Zarrilli, P. (2003). 5533:Early Novels in India 5296:Lukose, R.A. (2009). 5240:Gopinath, G. (2018). 5124:Fawcett, F. (2004) . 4866:The Drama Review: TDR 4219:Nakane, Chie (1962). 3513:Stone & King 2018 3014:, pp. xviii–xix. 2304:Nayar, Central Kerala 2101: 2050: 2036: 2023: 1888: 1678: 1634: 1610:and Andhra Nairs, as 1587: 1476: 911:but even further, to 744:the child a warrior. 667: 588: 532:(NSS) was founded by 482: 308: 268:of serpent worship. 188:—and the practice of 32:Nair (disambiguation) 6909: or countries 6720:By country or region 5958:Class discrimination 5806:on 1 September 2007. 5642:Vickery, M. (1998). 5053:. Orient BlackSwan. 5047:Arunima, G. (2003). 4957:Almeida, H. (2017). 4929:Jeffrey, R. (2016). 4901:Menon, A.S. (2011). 4872:(2). JSTOR: 99–112. 4393:American Ethnologist 2866:"Army of Travancore" 2007:Malabar Marriage Act 1901:thalikettu kalyanam 1573:Nair Service Society 1499:1891 Census of India 1327:Vattakkatan/Chakkala 530:Nair Service Society 431:Decline of dominance 213:India's independence 27:Caste group in India 7136:Hindu ethnic groups 6441:Vanniar (Chieftain) 5614:Thomas, S. (2018). 5558:Sarkar, S. (2014). 5536:. Sahitya Akademi. 5440:(1). JSTOR: 63–71. 5384:Massey, R. (2004). 5361:Matrilineal Kinship 4781:, pp. 161–162. 4233:Family and Marriage 4231:(1) (Reprinted (in 3125:, pp. 147–148. 2975:, pp. 177–181. 2876:on 16 December 2006 2611:Bock & Rao 2000 2308:Matrilineal Kinship 2122:thalikettu kalyanam 1959:thalikettu kalyanam 1903:rather than in the 1876:thalikettu kalyanam 1793:thalikettu kalyanam 1781:Thalikettu kalyanam 1771:thalikettu kalyanam 1744:thalikettu kalyanam 1554:thalikettu kalyanam 902:Social organization 638:Religion and ritual 519:Indian State Forces 209:British Indian Army 179:thalikettu kalyanam 44: 7022:18th-century Spain 6876:Standard of living 6580:Upper middle class 6575:Lower middle class 6166:Political prisoner 5948:Chattering classes 5920:Spoon class theory 5353:Gough, E. Kathleen 5324:Goody, J. (1975). 4525:, pp. 355–356 3871:Studies in History 3817:, pp. 309–311 3747:, pp. 307–308 2584:, pp. 302–304 2572:, pp. 302–303 2430:In quest of Kerala 2124:, the polyandrous 2105: 2067:Polyandry in India 1892: 1645: 1307:Kalamkotti/Anduran 943:were rare and the 806:were divided into 670: 594: 502:Nambudiri Brahmins 485: 474:East India Company 472:. After this, the 442:Battle of Colachel 319: 282:Christopher Fuller 200:Brahmins from the 42: 7091: 7090: 7069: 7068: 7065: 7064: 6902: 6901: 6709: 6708: 6705: 6704: 6701: 6700: 6603:Lumpenproletariat 6105:illegal immigrant 6066: 6065: 5978:Classless society 5777:978-81-7017-187-4 5746:978-1-134-65110-8 5725:978-0-85621-054-9 5655:978-4-89656-110-4 5627:978-0-295-74383-7 5599:978-0-429-87165-8 5571:978-93-325-4085-9 5564:. Pearson India. 5543:978-81-260-1342-5 5487:978-0-520-04667-2 5425:978-81-7211-135-9 5397:978-81-7017-434-9 5370:978-0-520-02529-5 5337:978-0-521-29005-0 5309:978-0-8223-9124-1 5281:978-1-317-40357-9 5253:978-1-4780-0216-1 5225:978-1-4443-9058-2 5204:978-0-521-29091-3 5137:978-81-206-0171-0 5127:Nâyars of Malabar 5109:978-0-8147-8644-4 5060:978-81-250-2514-6 5032:978-1-59403-359-9 4998:978-1-57181-911-6 4970:978-1-351-56296-6 4942:978-1-349-12252-3 4914:978-81-264-3782-5 4746:978-81-85822-88-4 4293:978-81-7530-047-7 4022:978-81-250-0422-6 3920:978-81-7156-671-6 3717:978-0-8135-3089-5 3680:978-0-7453-1693-2 3557:LACMA Collections 3443:978-0-14-303039-3 3381:978-0-7007-0422-4 3078:978-81-7023-140-0 2841:978-0-9796174-7-8 2802:978-0-486-24913-1 2754:978-81-86778-25-8 2710:978-81-7023-140-0 2493:978-81-206-0144-4 2252:History of Kerala 2188:C. Krishna Pillai 2120:The practices of 1471: 1470: 917:Swami Vivekananda 913:unapproachability 817:was known as the 464:by Muslims under 313:: A 16th century 240:worship of snakes 162:. Their internal 145:, are a group of 138:[n̪aːjɐr] 106: 105: 16:(Redirected from 7143: 7081: 7080: 6908: 6809:Mexican-American 6737: 6736: 6728: 6727: 6715: 6714: 6516: 6459:Business magnate 6349:Knowledge worker 6234: 6233: 6122:dual or multiple 6085: 6084: 6072: 6071: 6026:Social exclusion 6021:Social cleansing 5935: 5885: 5884: 5874:Economic classes 5835: 5828: 5821: 5812: 5811: 5807: 5802:. Archived from 5788: 5786: 5784: 5757: 5755: 5753: 5729: 5717: 5703: 5666: 5664: 5662: 5638: 5636: 5634: 5610: 5608: 5606: 5582: 5580: 5578: 5554: 5552: 5550: 5526: 5524: 5522: 5498: 5496: 5494: 5465: 5428: 5408: 5406: 5404: 5380: 5379: 5377: 5348: 5346: 5344: 5320: 5318: 5316: 5292: 5290: 5288: 5264: 5262: 5260: 5236: 5234: 5232: 5208: 5194:The Nayars Today 5184: 5181: 5141: 5120: 5118: 5116: 5092: 5083:(2/3): 157–167. 5071: 5069: 5067: 5043: 5041: 5039: 5020: 5009: 5007: 5005: 4981: 4979: 4977: 4953: 4951: 4949: 4925: 4923: 4921: 4897: 4851: 4850: 4848: 4846: 4840: 4833: 4822: 4813: 4812: 4800: 4794: 4788: 4782: 4776: 4770: 4764: 4758: 4757: 4755: 4753: 4733:Sen, G. (2002). 4730: 4724: 4723: 4706:(3). Wiley: 10. 4691: 4682: 4679: 4671: 4665: 4664: 4636: 4627: 4621: 4615: 4614:pp. 292–293, 302 4609: 4603: 4597: 4591: 4585: 4579: 4573: 4567: 4561: 4550: 4544: 4538: 4532: 4526: 4520: 4514: 4508: 4502: 4496: 4487: 4481: 4475: 4469: 4463: 4457: 4451: 4445: 4432: 4426: 4420: 4419: 4416: 4388: 4379: 4378: 4375: 4347: 4341: 4335: 4329: 4323: 4317: 4311: 4305: 4304: 4302: 4300: 4274: 4268: 4262: 4253: 4252: 4216: 4207: 4201: 4192: 4191: 4189: 4187: 4182:on 22 March 2012 4172: 4166: 4160: 4149: 4143: 4134: 4133: 4131: 4129: 4123: 4116: 4105: 4099: 4098:pp. 293–295, 298 4093: 4087: 4081: 4075: 4074:pp. 291–292, 305 4069: 4063: 4057: 4051: 4045: 4039: 4033: 4027: 4026: 4006: 4000: 3999: 3996: 3965: 3959: 3953: 3947: 3941: 3932: 3931: 3929: 3927: 3904: 3898: 3897: 3894: 3866: 3860: 3854: 3848: 3847: 3844: 3824: 3818: 3812: 3806: 3800: 3794: 3788: 3777: 3771: 3765: 3759: 3748: 3742: 3729: 3728: 3726: 3724: 3702:Kurien, Prema A. 3698: 3692: 3691: 3689: 3687: 3664: 3655: 3654: 3642: 3636: 3630: 3621: 3615: 3604: 3598: 3592: 3586: 3580: 3574: 3568: 3567: 3565: 3563: 3549: 3543: 3537: 3528: 3522: 3516: 3510: 3504: 3498: 3489: 3483: 3472: 3466: 3455: 3454: 3452: 3450: 3424: 3418: 3417: 3415: 3413: 3399: 3393: 3392: 3390: 3388: 3365: 3359: 3353: 3347: 3341: 3335: 3329: 3323: 3317: 3311: 3305: 3299: 3293: 3287: 3281: 3275: 3269: 3258: 3255:Bald et al. 2013 3252: 3246: 3240: 3234: 3228: 3222: 3216: 3210: 3207:Wade et al. 1987 3204: 3198: 3192: 3186: 3180: 3174: 3168: 3162: 3156: 3150: 3144: 3138: 3132: 3126: 3120: 3114: 3111:Clark-Deces 2011 3108: 3102: 3096: 3090: 3089: 3087: 3085: 3062: 3056: 3050: 3044: 3038: 3027: 3021: 3015: 3009: 3003: 2997: 2988: 2982: 2976: 2970: 2964: 2958: 2952: 2951: 2949: 2947: 2933: 2927: 2921: 2910: 2904: 2898: 2892: 2886: 2885: 2883: 2881: 2862: 2853: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2825: 2814: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2790: 2780: 2774: 2768: 2759: 2758: 2740: 2734: 2728: 2722: 2721: 2719: 2717: 2694: 2685: 2679: 2670: 2664: 2658: 2652: 2641: 2635: 2629: 2623: 2614: 2608: 2597: 2591: 2585: 2579: 2573: 2567: 2556: 2553:Blankenhorn 2007 2550: 2541: 2535: 2529: 2523: 2517: 2514:Narayanan (2003) 2511: 2505: 2504: 2502: 2500: 2477: 2471: 2470: 2468: 2466: 2452: 2446: 2445: 2440: 2438: 2424: 2418: 2412: 2403: 2397: 2388: 2382: 2373: 2367: 2344: 2338:The attitude of 2336: 2330: 2327: 2321: 2317: 2311: 2300: 2294: 2287: 2281: 2274: 2268: 2261: 2255: 2248: 2242: 2239: 2162:Great Depression 2091:of her husband. 1299:Vilakkittalavan 1287:Matavan/Puliyath 1042: 1041: 619:mundum neryathum 590:There Comes Papa 507:Malabar District 341:(later known as 141:) also known as 140: 135: 131: 130: 127: 126: 123: 120: 52: 45: 41: 21: 7151: 7150: 7146: 7145: 7144: 7142: 7141: 7140: 7096: 7095: 7092: 7087: 7061: 7010: 6898: 6870: 6837: 6821:Underprivileged 6763: 6722: 6721: 6697: 6627: 6584: 6544: 6526: 6445: 6363: 6323: 6225: 6180: 6079: 6078: 6062: 6041:Social position 6031:Social mobility 5929: 5879: 5850: 5849: 5839: 5798: 5795: 5782: 5780: 5778: 5760: 5751: 5749: 5747: 5726: 5678:(2). JSTOR: 1. 5660: 5658: 5656: 5632: 5630: 5628: 5604: 5602: 5600: 5576: 5574: 5572: 5548: 5546: 5544: 5520: 5518: 5492: 5490: 5488: 5446:10.2307/3773417 5426: 5402: 5400: 5398: 5375: 5373: 5371: 5342: 5340: 5338: 5314: 5312: 5310: 5286: 5284: 5282: 5258: 5256: 5254: 5230: 5228: 5226: 5205: 5182: 5138: 5114: 5112: 5110: 5065: 5063: 5061: 5037: 5035: 5033: 5003: 5001: 4999: 4975: 4973: 4971: 4947: 4945: 4943: 4919: 4917: 4915: 4878:10.2307/1145219 4859: 4854: 4844: 4842: 4838: 4831: 4823: 4816: 4801: 4797: 4789: 4785: 4777: 4773: 4765: 4761: 4751: 4749: 4747: 4731: 4727: 4692: 4685: 4672: 4668: 4653:10.2307/2796033 4637: 4630: 4622: 4618: 4610: 4606: 4600:Panikkar (1918) 4598: 4594: 4586: 4582: 4574: 4570: 4564:Panikkar (1918) 4562: 4553: 4545: 4541: 4533: 4529: 4521: 4517: 4511:Panikkar (1918) 4509: 4505: 4497: 4490: 4482: 4478: 4470: 4466: 4458: 4454: 4446: 4435: 4429:Nossiter (1982) 4427: 4423: 4417: 4389: 4382: 4376: 4364:10.2307/2802444 4348: 4344: 4336: 4332: 4324: 4320: 4312: 4308: 4298: 4296: 4294: 4275: 4271: 4263: 4256: 4217: 4210: 4204:Panikkar (1918) 4202: 4195: 4185: 4183: 4174: 4173: 4169: 4163:Nossiter (1982) 4161: 4152: 4144: 4137: 4127: 4125: 4121: 4114: 4106: 4102: 4094: 4090: 4082: 4078: 4070: 4066: 4058: 4054: 4046: 4042: 4034: 4030: 4023: 4007: 4003: 3997: 3985:10.2307/2941637 3966: 3962: 3954: 3950: 3942: 3935: 3925: 3923: 3921: 3910:Rural Sociology 3905: 3901: 3895: 3867: 3863: 3855: 3851: 3845: 3825: 3821: 3813: 3809: 3801: 3797: 3791:Nossiter (1982) 3789: 3780: 3772: 3768: 3760: 3751: 3743: 3732: 3722: 3720: 3718: 3699: 3695: 3685: 3683: 3681: 3673:. Pluto Press. 3665: 3658: 3643: 3639: 3633:Panikkar (1918) 3631: 3624: 3618:Panikkar (1918) 3616: 3607: 3601:Panikkar (1918) 3599: 3595: 3589:Panikkar (1918) 3587: 3583: 3577:Panikkar (1918) 3575: 3571: 3561: 3559: 3551: 3550: 3546: 3538: 3531: 3523: 3519: 3511: 3507: 3499: 3492: 3484: 3475: 3467: 3458: 3448: 3446: 3444: 3425: 3421: 3411: 3409: 3400: 3396: 3386: 3384: 3382: 3366: 3362: 3354: 3350: 3344:Panikkar (1918) 3342: 3338: 3330: 3326: 3318: 3314: 3306: 3302: 3294: 3290: 3282: 3278: 3270: 3261: 3253: 3249: 3241: 3237: 3229: 3225: 3217: 3213: 3205: 3201: 3193: 3189: 3181: 3177: 3169: 3165: 3157: 3153: 3145: 3141: 3133: 3129: 3121: 3117: 3113:, p. 1976. 3109: 3105: 3097: 3093: 3083: 3081: 3079: 3063: 3059: 3051: 3047: 3041:Nossiter (1982) 3039: 3030: 3022: 3018: 3010: 3006: 2998: 2991: 2983: 2979: 2971: 2967: 2963:, pp. 6–8. 2959: 2955: 2945: 2943: 2934: 2930: 2924:Nossiter (1982) 2922: 2913: 2905: 2901: 2893: 2889: 2879: 2877: 2864: 2863: 2856: 2846: 2844: 2842: 2826: 2817: 2807: 2805: 2803: 2781: 2777: 2769: 2762: 2755: 2741: 2737: 2729: 2725: 2715: 2713: 2711: 2695: 2688: 2684:, pp. 4–5. 2680: 2673: 2665: 2661: 2653: 2644: 2636: 2632: 2624: 2617: 2609: 2600: 2592: 2588: 2580: 2576: 2568: 2559: 2551: 2544: 2536: 2532: 2524: 2520: 2512: 2508: 2498: 2496: 2494: 2478: 2474: 2464: 2462: 2453: 2449: 2436: 2434: 2425: 2421: 2413: 2406: 2398: 2391: 2383: 2376: 2368: 2357: 2353: 2348: 2347: 2337: 2333: 2328: 2324: 2318: 2314: 2301: 2297: 2288: 2284: 2275: 2271: 2262: 2258: 2249: 2245: 2240: 2236: 2231: 2226: 2184: 2176: 2170: 2118: 2069: 2063: 2032: 1927: 1921: 1783: 1735: 1733:Marriage system 1650:marumakkathayam 1629: 1624: 1600: 1569: 1523:Vilakkittalavan 1433:Vilakkittalavan 1424:Vilakkittalavan 1407:Vilakkittalavan 1391:Vilakkittalavan 1257:Asthikkuracchi 1109:Purattu Charna 1012:. Although the 997: 904: 802:. In turn, the 792: 787: 776: 732: 640: 599: 563:Marthanda Varma 551: 546: 433: 383:John Mandeville 291:Natural History 286:Pliny the Elder 279: 274: 256: 133: 117: 113: 62: 40: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7149: 7139: 7138: 7133: 7128: 7123: 7118: 7113: 7108: 7089: 7088: 7086: 7085: 7074: 7071: 7070: 7067: 7066: 7063: 7062: 7060: 7059: 7054: 7049: 7044: 7042:Ottoman Empire 7039: 7034: 7029: 7027:Ancient Greece 7024: 7018: 7016: 7012: 7011: 7009: 7008: 7003: 7001:United Kingdom 6998: 6993: 6988: 6983: 6978: 6973: 6968: 6963: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6912: 6910: 6904: 6903: 6900: 6899: 6897: 6896: 6894:Home-ownership 6891: 6886: 6880: 6878: 6872: 6871: 6869: 6868: 6863: 6858: 6853: 6847: 6845: 6839: 6838: 6836: 6835: 6834: 6833: 6828: 6818: 6817: 6816: 6811: 6806: 6796: 6795: 6794: 6789: 6784: 6773: 6771: 6765: 6764: 6762: 6761: 6756: 6751: 6749:American Dream 6746: 6740: 6734: 6724: 6723: 6711: 6710: 6707: 6706: 6703: 6702: 6699: 6698: 6696: 6695: 6690: 6681: 6676: 6671: 6662: 6653: 6648: 6643: 6637: 6635: 6629: 6628: 6626: 6625: 6620: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6594: 6592: 6586: 6585: 6583: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6566: 6565: 6554: 6552: 6546: 6545: 6543: 6542: 6536: 6534: 6528: 6527: 6525: 6524: 6517: 6508: 6503: 6498: 6493: 6492: 6491: 6486: 6476: 6471: 6466: 6461: 6455: 6453: 6447: 6446: 6444: 6443: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6404: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6373: 6371: 6365: 6364: 6362: 6361: 6356: 6351: 6346: 6345: 6344: 6333: 6331: 6325: 6324: 6322: 6321: 6316: 6315: 6314: 6309: 6308: 6307: 6292: 6291: 6290: 6285: 6277: 6276: 6275: 6265: 6260: 6255: 6254: 6253: 6242: 6240: 6231: 6227: 6226: 6224: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6192: 6190: 6182: 6181: 6179: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6161:Migrant worker 6158: 6153: 6152: 6151: 6141: 6140: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6124: 6114: 6113: 6112: 6107: 6097: 6091: 6089: 6081: 6080: 6077:By demographic 6068: 6067: 6064: 6063: 6061: 6060: 6057:Status Anxiety 6053: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6018: 6013: 6011:Ranked society 6008: 6003: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5953:Class conflict 5950: 5945: 5939: 5937: 5936: topics 5931: 5930: 5928: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5910:Mudsill theory 5907: 5902: 5897: 5891: 5889: 5881: 5880: 5878: 5877: 5870: 5863: 5855: 5852: 5851: 5848: 5847: 5841: 5838: 5837: 5830: 5823: 5815: 5809: 5808: 5794: 5793:External links 5791: 5790: 5789: 5776: 5759: 5758: 5745: 5730: 5724: 5708:Jeffrey, Robin 5704: 5684:10.2307/833942 5667: 5654: 5639: 5626: 5611: 5598: 5583: 5570: 5555: 5542: 5527: 5499: 5486: 5466: 5429: 5424: 5409: 5396: 5381: 5369: 5349: 5336: 5321: 5308: 5293: 5280: 5265: 5252: 5237: 5224: 5209: 5203: 5185: 5156:(4): 283–312. 5142: 5136: 5121: 5108: 5093: 5072: 5059: 5044: 5031: 5010: 4997: 4982: 4969: 4954: 4941: 4926: 4913: 4898: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4852: 4841:on 26 May 2012 4814: 4795: 4783: 4771: 4759: 4745: 4725: 4683: 4678:. XI (3): 399. 4666: 4628: 4616: 4604: 4592: 4580: 4568: 4551: 4539: 4527: 4515: 4503: 4488: 4476: 4464: 4452: 4433: 4421: 4399:(2): 254–273. 4380: 4358:(3): 523–541. 4354:. New series. 4342: 4330: 4318: 4306: 4292: 4269: 4254: 4208: 4193: 4167: 4150: 4135: 4124:on 26 May 2012 4100: 4088: 4076: 4064: 4052: 4040: 4028: 4021: 4001: 3960: 3948: 3933: 3919: 3899: 3877:(2): 187–217. 3861: 3849: 3819: 3807: 3795: 3778: 3766: 3749: 3730: 3716: 3693: 3679: 3656: 3637: 3622: 3605: 3593: 3581: 3569: 3544: 3529: 3517: 3515:, p. 149. 3505: 3503:, p. 131. 3490: 3488:, p. 154. 3473: 3471:, p. 106. 3456: 3442: 3419: 3394: 3380: 3360: 3358:, p. 105. 3348: 3336: 3332:Fawcett (1901) 3324: 3322:, p. 377. 3312: 3300: 3288: 3286:, p. 167. 3276: 3259: 3257:, p. 289. 3247: 3235: 3223: 3211: 3199: 3187: 3185:, p. 100. 3175: 3173:, p. 143. 3163: 3161:, p. 138. 3151: 3147:Mukherjee 2002 3139: 3137:, p. 146. 3127: 3115: 3103: 3091: 3077: 3057: 3045: 3028: 3016: 3004: 3002:, p. 267. 2989: 2987:, p. 234. 2977: 2965: 2953: 2928: 2911: 2899: 2887: 2854: 2840: 2815: 2801: 2775: 2760: 2753: 2735: 2733:, p. 158. 2723: 2709: 2686: 2671: 2659: 2642: 2630: 2615: 2613:, p. 185. 2598: 2586: 2574: 2557: 2555:, p. 106. 2542: 2530: 2518: 2506: 2492: 2472: 2447: 2419: 2404: 2389: 2374: 2372:, p. 132. 2354: 2352: 2349: 2346: 2345: 2331: 2322: 2312: 2295: 2282: 2269: 2256: 2243: 2233: 2232: 2230: 2227: 2225: 2222: 2221: 2220: 2215: 2210: 2205: 2200: 2195: 2190: 2183: 2180: 2172:Main article: 2169: 2166: 2117: 2114: 2062: 2059: 2031: 2028: 1923:Main article: 1920: 1917: 1880:thali kalyanam 1782: 1779: 1767: 1766: 1763: 1734: 1731: 1628: 1625: 1623: 1620: 1599: 1596: 1568: 1565: 1483:M. N. Srinivas 1469: 1468: 1466: 1463: 1461: 1459: 1457: 1453: 1452: 1450: 1447: 1445: 1443: 1441: 1437: 1436: 1434: 1431: 1428: 1426: 1421: 1417: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1408: 1405: 1402: 1398: 1397: 1395: 1392: 1389: 1386: 1383: 1379: 1378: 1376: 1373: 1370: 1367: 1364: 1360: 1359: 1357: 1354: 1353:Asthikkuracchi 1351: 1348: 1345: 1341: 1340: 1338: 1335: 1332: 1331:Asthikkuracchi 1329: 1324: 1320: 1319: 1317: 1314: 1311: 1308: 1305: 1301: 1300: 1297: 1294: 1291: 1288: 1285: 1281: 1280: 1277: 1274: 1271: 1268: 1263: 1259: 1258: 1255: 1252: 1249: 1246: 1243: 1239: 1238: 1235: 1232: 1229: 1226: 1223: 1219: 1218: 1215: 1212: 1209: 1206: 1199: 1195: 1194: 1191: 1188: 1185: 1182: 1179: 1175: 1174: 1171: 1168: 1165: 1162: 1159: 1155: 1154: 1151: 1148: 1145: 1142: 1137: 1133: 1132: 1131:Akattu Charna 1129: 1126: 1123: 1120: 1115: 1111: 1110: 1107: 1106:Purattu Charna 1104: 1101: 1098: 1093: 1089: 1088: 1085: 1082: 1079: 1076: 1071: 1067: 1066: 1063: 1060: 1057: 1054: 1051: 1047: 1046: 996: 993: 958:Tamil Brahmins 909:untouchability 903: 900: 791: 788: 786: 783: 775: 772: 731: 728: 639: 636: 598: 595: 550: 547: 545: 542: 494:revolt in 1809 432: 429: 387:William Caxton 278: 275: 273: 270: 255: 252: 248:anthropologist 202:Malabar region 182:and the later 155:Kathleen Gough 104: 103: 97: 96: 92: 91: 81: 80: 76: 75: 69: 68: 64: 63: 59:Thomas Daniell 53: 38: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7148: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7129: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7119: 7117: 7114: 7112: 7111:Indian castes 7109: 7107: 7104: 7103: 7101: 7094: 7084: 7076: 7075: 7072: 7058: 7055: 7053: 7050: 7048: 7045: 7043: 7040: 7038: 7035: 7033: 7030: 7028: 7025: 7023: 7020: 7019: 7017: 7013: 7007: 7006:United States 7004: 7002: 6999: 6997: 6994: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6972: 6969: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6913: 6911: 6907:Other regions 6905: 6895: 6892: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6881: 6879: 6877: 6873: 6867: 6864: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6852: 6849: 6848: 6846: 6844: 6840: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6823: 6822: 6819: 6815: 6812: 6810: 6807: 6805: 6802: 6801: 6800: 6797: 6793: 6790: 6788: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6779: 6778: 6775: 6774: 6772: 6770: 6766: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6741: 6738: 6735: 6733: 6732:United States 6729: 6725: 6716: 6712: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6672: 6670: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6657: 6654: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6638: 6636: 6634: 6630: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6595: 6593: 6591: 6587: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6564: 6561: 6560: 6559: 6556: 6555: 6553: 6551: 6547: 6541: 6538: 6537: 6535: 6533: 6529: 6523: 6522: 6518: 6515: 6514: 6509: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6481: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6456: 6454: 6452: 6448: 6442: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6374: 6372: 6370: 6366: 6360: 6357: 6355: 6352: 6350: 6347: 6343: 6340: 6339: 6338: 6335: 6334: 6332: 6330: 6326: 6320: 6317: 6313: 6310: 6306: 6303: 6302: 6301: 6298: 6297: 6296: 6293: 6289: 6286: 6284: 6281: 6280: 6278: 6274: 6271: 6270: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6256: 6252: 6249: 6248: 6247: 6244: 6243: 6241: 6239: 6235: 6232: 6228: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6194: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6183: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6171:Socioeconomic 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6150: 6147: 6146: 6145: 6142: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6128: 6125: 6123: 6120: 6119: 6118: 6115: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6102: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6093: 6092: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6073: 6069: 6059: 6058: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6046:Social stigma 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6036:Social orphan 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6022: 6019: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6007: 6004: 6002: 6001: 5996: 5995: 5994:Nouveau riche 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5968:Class traitor 5966: 5964: 5963:Class society 5961: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5941: 5940: 5938: 5932: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5900:Gilbert model 5898: 5896: 5893: 5892: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5876: 5875: 5871: 5869: 5868: 5864: 5862: 5861: 5857: 5856: 5853: 5846: 5843: 5842: 5836: 5831: 5829: 5824: 5822: 5817: 5816: 5813: 5805: 5801: 5797: 5796: 5779: 5773: 5769: 5768: 5762: 5761: 5748: 5742: 5738: 5737: 5731: 5727: 5721: 5716: 5715: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5668: 5657: 5651: 5647: 5646: 5640: 5629: 5623: 5619: 5618: 5612: 5601: 5595: 5591: 5590: 5584: 5573: 5567: 5563: 5562: 5556: 5545: 5539: 5535: 5534: 5528: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5489: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5471: 5467: 5463: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5430: 5427: 5421: 5417: 5416: 5410: 5399: 5393: 5389: 5388: 5382: 5372: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5354: 5350: 5339: 5333: 5329: 5328: 5322: 5311: 5305: 5301: 5300: 5294: 5283: 5277: 5273: 5272: 5266: 5255: 5249: 5245: 5244: 5238: 5227: 5221: 5217: 5216: 5210: 5206: 5200: 5196: 5195: 5190: 5186: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5139: 5133: 5129: 5128: 5122: 5111: 5105: 5101: 5100: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5073: 5062: 5056: 5052: 5051: 5045: 5034: 5028: 5024: 5019: 5018: 5011: 5000: 4994: 4990: 4989: 4983: 4972: 4966: 4962: 4961: 4955: 4944: 4938: 4934: 4933: 4927: 4916: 4910: 4906: 4905: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4862: 4861: 4837: 4830: 4829: 4821: 4819: 4810: 4806: 4799: 4792: 4791:Fuller (1975) 4787: 4780: 4775: 4768: 4767:Fuller (1976) 4763: 4748: 4742: 4738: 4737: 4729: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4690: 4688: 4677: 4670: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4635: 4633: 4625: 4624:Fuller (1975) 4620: 4613: 4612:Fuller (1975) 4608: 4601: 4596: 4590:, p. 320 4589: 4584: 4577: 4576:Fuller (1975) 4572: 4565: 4560: 4558: 4556: 4548: 4547:Fuller (1975) 4543: 4536: 4535:Fuller (1975) 4531: 4524: 4519: 4512: 4507: 4500: 4499:Fuller (1975) 4495: 4493: 4485: 4484:Fuller (1975) 4480: 4473: 4472:Fuller (1975) 4468: 4461: 4460:Fuller (1975) 4456: 4449: 4448:Fuller (1975) 4444: 4442: 4440: 4438: 4430: 4425: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4387: 4385: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4346: 4339: 4338:Fuller (1975) 4334: 4327: 4326:Fuller (1975) 4322: 4315: 4314:Fuller (1975) 4310: 4295: 4289: 4285: 4284: 4279: 4278:Ghosh, Amitav 4273: 4266: 4265:Fuller (1975) 4261: 4259: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4215: 4213: 4205: 4200: 4198: 4181: 4177: 4171: 4164: 4159: 4157: 4155: 4147: 4146:Fuller (1975) 4142: 4140: 4120: 4113: 4112: 4104: 4097: 4096:Fuller (1975) 4092: 4085: 4084:Fuller (1975) 4080: 4073: 4072:Fuller (1975) 4068: 4061: 4060:Fuller (1975) 4056: 4049: 4048:Fuller (1975) 4044: 4037: 4036:Fuller (1975) 4032: 4024: 4018: 4014: 4013: 4005: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3964: 3957: 3956:Fuller (1975) 3952: 3945: 3944:Fuller (1975) 3940: 3938: 3922: 3916: 3912: 3911: 3903: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3865: 3858: 3857:Fuller (1975) 3853: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3823: 3816: 3811: 3805:, p. 306 3804: 3799: 3792: 3787: 3785: 3783: 3776:, p. 310 3775: 3770: 3763: 3758: 3756: 3754: 3746: 3741: 3739: 3737: 3735: 3719: 3713: 3709: 3708: 3703: 3697: 3682: 3676: 3672: 3671: 3663: 3661: 3652: 3648: 3641: 3634: 3629: 3627: 3619: 3614: 3612: 3610: 3602: 3597: 3590: 3585: 3578: 3573: 3558: 3554: 3548: 3541: 3536: 3534: 3527:, p. 63. 3526: 3521: 3514: 3509: 3502: 3501:Zarrilli 2003 3497: 3495: 3487: 3482: 3480: 3478: 3470: 3465: 3463: 3461: 3445: 3439: 3435: 3434: 3429: 3423: 3407: 3406: 3398: 3383: 3377: 3373: 3372: 3364: 3357: 3352: 3345: 3340: 3333: 3328: 3321: 3320:Jacobsen 2015 3316: 3309: 3304: 3298:, p. 41. 3297: 3296:Gopinath 2018 3292: 3285: 3280: 3274:, p. 38. 3273: 3268: 3266: 3264: 3256: 3251: 3245:, p. 40. 3244: 3243:Gopinath 2018 3239: 3232: 3231:Zarrilli 1984 3227: 3221:, p. 74. 3220: 3219:Zarrilli 1984 3215: 3209:, p. 27. 3208: 3203: 3197:, p. 52. 3196: 3195:Zarrilli 1984 3191: 3184: 3179: 3172: 3167: 3160: 3155: 3149:, p. 65. 3148: 3143: 3136: 3131: 3124: 3119: 3112: 3107: 3100: 3095: 3080: 3074: 3070: 3069: 3061: 3054: 3049: 3042: 3037: 3035: 3033: 3025: 3020: 3013: 3008: 3001: 2996: 2994: 2986: 2981: 2974: 2969: 2962: 2957: 2941: 2940: 2932: 2925: 2920: 2918: 2916: 2908: 2903: 2896: 2891: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2861: 2859: 2843: 2837: 2833: 2832: 2824: 2822: 2820: 2804: 2798: 2794: 2789: 2788: 2779: 2772: 2767: 2765: 2756: 2750: 2746: 2739: 2732: 2727: 2712: 2706: 2702: 2701: 2693: 2691: 2683: 2678: 2676: 2669:, p. 305 2668: 2663: 2657:, p. 304 2656: 2651: 2649: 2647: 2639: 2638:Fuller (1976) 2634: 2627: 2626:Fuller (1976) 2622: 2620: 2612: 2607: 2605: 2603: 2596:, p. 92. 2595: 2590: 2583: 2578: 2571: 2566: 2564: 2562: 2554: 2549: 2547: 2539: 2538:Fuller (1976) 2534: 2527: 2526:Fuller (1976) 2522: 2515: 2510: 2495: 2489: 2485: 2484: 2476: 2460: 2459: 2451: 2444: 2432: 2431: 2423: 2416: 2415:Fuller (1975) 2411: 2409: 2401: 2400:Fuller (1975) 2396: 2394: 2387:, p. 312 2386: 2381: 2379: 2371: 2366: 2364: 2362: 2360: 2355: 2341: 2335: 2326: 2316: 2309: 2305: 2299: 2292: 2286: 2279: 2273: 2266: 2260: 2253: 2247: 2238: 2234: 2219: 2216: 2214: 2211: 2209: 2206: 2204: 2201: 2199: 2196: 2194: 2193:List of Nairs 2191: 2189: 2186: 2185: 2179: 2175: 2165: 2163: 2159: 2154: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2134: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2113: 2111: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2090: 2086: 2081: 2076: 2074: 2068: 2058: 2053: 2049: 2047: 2040: 2035: 2026: 2022: 2020: 2015: 2010: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1975: 1973: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1951: 1949: 1945: 1944:primogeniture 1940: 1936: 1932: 1926: 1916: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1897: 1887: 1883: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1856: 1854: 1850: 1845: 1841: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1823: 1822: 1817: 1816: 1811: 1806: 1801: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1789: 1778: 1776: 1772: 1764: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1740: 1739: 1730: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1689: 1687: 1683: 1677: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1662: 1658: 1657: 1652: 1651: 1642: 1638: 1633: 1619: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1595: 1590: 1586: 1583: 1579: 1576: 1574: 1564: 1562: 1561: 1556: 1555: 1550: 1544: 1541: 1537: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1507: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1491: 1488: 1484: 1479: 1475: 1467: 1464: 1462: 1460: 1458: 1455: 1454: 1451: 1448: 1446: 1444: 1442: 1439: 1438: 1435: 1432: 1429: 1427: 1425: 1422: 1419: 1418: 1415: 1412: 1409: 1406: 1403: 1400: 1399: 1396: 1393: 1390: 1387: 1384: 1381: 1380: 1377: 1374: 1371: 1368: 1365: 1362: 1361: 1358: 1355: 1352: 1349: 1346: 1343: 1342: 1339: 1336: 1333: 1330: 1328: 1325: 1322: 1321: 1318: 1315: 1312: 1309: 1306: 1303: 1302: 1298: 1295: 1292: 1289: 1286: 1283: 1282: 1278: 1275: 1272: 1269: 1267: 1264: 1261: 1260: 1256: 1253: 1250: 1247: 1244: 1241: 1240: 1236: 1233: 1230: 1227: 1224: 1221: 1220: 1216: 1213: 1210: 1207: 1204: 1200: 1197: 1196: 1192: 1189: 1186: 1183: 1180: 1177: 1176: 1172: 1169: 1166: 1163: 1160: 1157: 1156: 1152: 1149: 1146: 1143: 1141: 1138: 1135: 1134: 1130: 1128:Akattu Charna 1127: 1124: 1121: 1119: 1116: 1113: 1112: 1108: 1105: 1102: 1099: 1097: 1094: 1091: 1090: 1086: 1083: 1080: 1077: 1075: 1072: 1069: 1068: 1065:Gough (1961) 1064: 1061: 1058: 1055: 1052: 1049: 1048: 1043: 1040: 1038: 1037: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 992: 990: 985: 983: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 954: 948: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 899: 897: 892: 888: 885: 881: 880: 875: 869: 867: 866: 861: 856: 853: 848: 844: 840: 836: 832: 828: 827: 822: 821: 816: 811: 809: 805: 801: 797: 782: 779: 771: 769: 765: 764: 757: 755: 749: 745: 742: 737: 727: 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 688: 683: 682: 677: 676: 666: 662: 660: 656: 651: 649: 645: 635: 633: 629: 625: 621: 620: 614: 612: 608: 604: 591: 587: 583: 581: 580:Kalaripayattu 576: 571: 567: 565: 564: 559: 558: 541: 537: 535: 531: 528:In 1914, the 526: 522: 520: 515: 510: 508: 503: 499: 495: 491: 481: 477: 475: 471: 467: 463: 458: 454: 450: 445: 443: 439: 438:Nair Pattalam 436:known as the 428: 426: 422: 418: 414: 409: 405: 404: 399: 394: 392: 388: 384: 378: 376: 372: 368: 364: 358: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 324: 323:Chera dynasty 316: 312: 307: 303: 301: 300:Western Ghats 297: 293: 292: 287: 283: 269: 267: 263: 262: 251: 249: 245: 241: 237: 232: 230: 226: 222: 218: 214: 210: 205: 203: 199: 195: 191: 187: 186: 181: 180: 174: 173: 167: 165: 161: 156: 152: 148: 144: 139: 129: 111: 102: 98: 93: 90: 86: 82: 77: 74: 70: 65: 60: 56: 51: 46: 37: 33: 19: 7093: 7057:Soviet Union 7032:Ancient Rome 6889:Homelessness 6814:Upper Middle 6686: / 6667: / 6658: / 6623:Working poor 6519: 6506:Robber baron 6329:Intellectual 6319:Royal family 6283:Ancient Rome 6137:second-class 6055: 5998: 5997: / 5992: 5988:High society 5895:Elite theory 5872: 5865: 5858: 5845:Social class 5804:the original 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Retrieved 5766: 5750:. Retrieved 5735: 5713: 5675: 5671: 5659:. Retrieved 5644: 5631:. Retrieved 5616: 5603:. Retrieved 5588: 5575:. Retrieved 5560: 5547:. Retrieved 5532: 5519:. Retrieved 5514: 5510: 5491:. Retrieved 5477: 5437: 5433: 5414: 5401:. Retrieved 5386: 5374:, retrieved 5360: 5341:. Retrieved 5326: 5313:. Retrieved 5298: 5285:. Retrieved 5270: 5257:. Retrieved 5242: 5229:. Retrieved 5214: 5193: 5153: 5149: 5126: 5113:. Retrieved 5098: 5080: 5076: 5064:. Retrieved 5049: 5036:. Retrieved 5016: 5002:. Retrieved 4987: 4974:. Retrieved 4959: 4946:. Retrieved 4931: 4918:. Retrieved 4907:. DC Books. 4903: 4869: 4865: 4857:Bibliography 4843:. Retrieved 4836:the original 4827: 4808: 4798: 4786: 4779:Arunima 1995 4774: 4762: 4750:. Retrieved 4735: 4728: 4703: 4699: 4675: 4669: 4644: 4640: 4619: 4607: 4595: 4588:Gough (1961) 4583: 4571: 4542: 4530: 4523:Gough (1961) 4518: 4506: 4501:pp. 295, 298 4479: 4467: 4455: 4424: 4396: 4392: 4355: 4351: 4345: 4333: 4321: 4316:pp. 284, 297 4309: 4297:. Retrieved 4282: 4272: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4184:. Retrieved 4180:the original 4170: 4148:pp. 303–304. 4126:. Retrieved 4119:the original 4110: 4103: 4091: 4079: 4067: 4055: 4050:pp. 289–291. 4043: 4031: 4011: 4004: 3976: 3972: 3963: 3951: 3924:. Retrieved 3909: 3902: 3874: 3870: 3864: 3852: 3832: 3828: 3822: 3815:Gough (1961) 3810: 3803:Gough (1961) 3798: 3774:Gough (1961) 3769: 3745:Gough (1961) 3721:. Retrieved 3706: 3696: 3684:. Retrieved 3669: 3650: 3640: 3635:pp. 275–276. 3620:pp. 272–275. 3596: 3584: 3572: 3560:. Retrieved 3556: 3547: 3540:Gough (1961) 3520: 3508: 3486:Vickery 1998 3447:. Retrieved 3432: 3422: 3410:. Retrieved 3404: 3397: 3385:. 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Aiyappan 2080:sambandhams 1833:, and also 1760:tirandukuli 1756:polyandrous 1686:sambandhams 1604:Swaroopathu 1598:Present day 1449:Kaduppattam 1337:Vattakkatan 1316:Chempukotti 1290:Vattakkatan 1279:Veluttetan 1273:Chempukotti 1251:Vattakkatan 1228:Chempukotli 1225:Chempukotli 1164:Tamil Padam 1161:Tamil Padam 1153:Pallicchan 1059:Iyer (1912) 1056:Aiya (1906) 978:Ambalavasis 931:(warrior), 490:Velu Thampi 466:Tipu Sultan 391:Jean Boudin 225:Indian Army 7100:Categories 6966:Luxembourg 6856:Inequality 6521:Superclass 6312:Hereditary 6288:Post-Roman 6279:Patrician 6149:adolescent 5973:Classicide 3603:p. 282–283 3591:p. 279-281 3579:p. 279–280 3171:Goody 1975 3135:Goody 1975 3123:Goody 1975 2771:Menon 2011 2731:Menon 2011 2370:Goody 1975 2224:References 2095:children. 2073:sambandham 2065:See also: 2019:sambandham 2014:sambandham 2003:sambandham 1999:sambandham 1991:Sambandham 1987:sambandham 1979:sambandham 1972:sambandham 1967:sambandham 1955:sambandham 1939:sambandham 1931:sambandham 1925:Sambandham 1919:Sambandham 1868:sambandham 1864:sambandham 1835:vice versa 1775:sambandham 1752:sambandham 1748:sambandham 1635:A typical 1560:sambandham 1540:endogamous 1515:Veluttetan 1413:Veluttetan 1410:Veluttetan 1404:Veluttetan 1388:Veluttetan 1310:Pallicchan 1276:Pallicchan 1270:Kalamkotti 1266:Pallicchan 1231:Pallicchan 1201:Maran (or 970:Pushpakans 941:Kshatriyas 927:(priest), 716:kari nakku 611:Lancashire 575:Ramanattam 408:Kolathunad 398:Portuguese 375:Walluvanad 363:Kolattunad 343:Travancore 335:Valluvanad 221:Travancore 134:Malayalam: 6991:Sri Lanka 6884:Education 6851:Household 6744:Affluence 6679:Rat tribe 6641:Ant tribe 6613:Precariat 6598:Lazzaroni 6540:Bohemians 6501:Overclass 6496:Old money 6432:Spartiate 6407:Kshatriya 6397:Hashashin 6354:Professor 6295:Political 6268:Oligarchy 6258:Hanseaten 6176:Stateless 6156:Convicted 6088:By status 6051:Subaltern 5983:Euthenics 5915:New class 5783:7 January 5752:2 January 5710:(1994) . 5692:0044-9202 5577:7 January 5549:7 January 5517:: 254–293 5454:0014-1828 5434:Ethnology 5343:7 January 5231:7 January 5178:163592798 5038:1 January 4948:1 January 4920:1 January 4886:0012-5962 4720:0141-6790 4249:220876041 3891:161804169 3793:pp. 25–27 3562:3 January 3525:Neff 1987 2926:pp. 27–28 2351:Citations 2138:karavanar 2130:tharavads 2103:Brahmins. 2061:Polyandry 2030:Hypergamy 2021:partners: 1995:karavanan 1983:karanavan 1913:tharavadu 1905:tharavadu 1890:together. 1727:tharavads 1723:tharavads 1661:Tharavads 1549:hypergamy 1536:exogamous 1375:Kulangara 995:Subgroups 929:Kshatriya 896:sanketams 874:desavazhi 860:desavazhi 847:naduvazhi 843:naduvazhi 839:naduvazhi 831:naduvazhi 820:naduvazhi 724:dysentery 644:Bhagavati 570:Kathakali 557:Indulekha 361:these—at 266:Naga cult 254:Etymology 244:Dravidian 198:Nambudiri 194:hypergamy 185:sambandam 172:tharavads 85:Malayalam 79:Languages 7083:Category 7015:Historic 6936:Colombia 6926:Cambodia 6861:Personal 6759:Mobility 6688:Freedman 6674:Plebeian 6660:Prisoner 6646:Commoner 6532:Creative 6513:Seigneur 6479:Nobility 6437:Vanniyar 6422:Pendekar 6382:Cossacks 6016:Snobbery 5888:Theories 5472:(1982). 5355:(1961), 5191:(1976). 5091:. JSTOR. 5089:23003943 4845:27 April 4280:(2003). 4128:28 April 3762:Panikkar 3704:(2002). 3430:(2003). 2320:Malabar. 2203:Mamankam 2182:See also 2158:tharavad 2089:tharavad 2085:monogamy 2057:groups. 1935:Sanskrit 1831:tharavad 1810:karnavan 1805:tharavad 1719:tharavad 1710:Karnavan 1706:tharavad 1702:karnavan 1698:karnavan 1694:tharavad 1682:karnavan 1674:Panikkar 1670:tharavad 1666:karnavan 1656:tharavad 1641:karnavan 1637:tharavad 1627:Tharavad 1519:Chakkala 1465:Chaliyan 1430:Chaliyan 1394:Itasseri 1385:Chaliyan 1369:Chaliyan 1313:Itasseri 1237:Anduran 1184:Itasseri 1181:Itasseri 1125:Svarupam 1122:Svarupam 1118:Svarupam 1087:Kiriyam 1025:itself, 1019:vibhagam 974:Chakyars 966:Samantan 945:Vaishyas 826:Samantan 741:tamarind 736:pulicudi 712:evil eye 607:Panikkar 521:system. 413:Paravars 351:Perumals 315:European 211:. After 190:polygamy 101:Hinduism 95:Religion 89:Sanskrit 6986:Romania 6981:Nigeria 6866:Poverty 6769:Classes 6754:History 6665:Peasant 6651:Outcast 6590:Working 6570:Burgher 6427:Samurai 6417:Ocēlōtl 6377:Chhetri 6369:Warrior 6359:Scholar 6273:Russian 6263:Magnate 6251:Aristoi 6230:By type 6117:Citizen 6110:refugee 6006:Poverty 6000:Parvenu 5934:Related 5905:Marxian 5867:Stratum 5462:3773417 5170:3629883 5066:30 June 4894:1145219 4661:2796033 4602:p. 265. 4372:2802444 4186:12 June 4062:p. 294. 4038:p. 290. 3993:2941637 3542:p. 342. 3334:p. 254. 3101:337-338 3055:102-104 2773:158-161 2640:pp. 7-9 2540:pp. 7-8 2198:Nambiar 1815:Kaniyan 1715:Enangar 1372:Tarakan 1334:Anduran 1234:Anduran 1217:Otattu 1167:Menokki 1084:Kiriyam 1081:Kiriyam 1078:Kiriyam 1074:Kiriyam 1050:Ranking 1006:Kiriyam 933:Vaishya 925:Brahmin 865:kalaris 700:Pisachu 687:Pisachu 648:kalaris 544:Culture 417:Malabar 403:Zamorin 371:Calicut 365:and at 347:Palghat 288:in his 272:History 236:serpent 219:of the 6941:France 6921:Belize 6916:Africa 6843:Income 6799:Middle 6792:Gentry 6656:Outlaw 6563:Petite 6550:Middle 6484:Landed 6469:Gentry 6402:Knight 6342:Priest 6337:Clergy 6300:Family 6238:Ruling 6187:collar 6144:Clique 5860:Status 5774: 5743: 5722: 5700:833942 5698: 5690: 5652: 5624: 5596: 5568: 5540: 5521:9 June 5493:9 June 5484: 5460: 5452: 5422: 5394: 5376:9 June 5367: 5334: 5306: 5278: 5250: 5222: 5201: 5176: 5168: 5134: 5106: 5087: 5057: 5029: 4995: 4967: 4939: 4911: 4892: 4884: 4793:p. 285 4752:9 July 4743: 4718: 4659: 4537:p. 301 4486:p. 300 4462:p. 302 4450:p. 296 4413:644756 4411: 4370: 4340:p. 298 4328:p. 297 4290: 4267:p. 283 4247: 4086:p. 303 4019: 3991: 3926:23 May 3917: 3889: 3723:5 June 3714: 3686:5 June 3677: 3449:6 June 3440: 3412:6 June 3387:6 June 3378: 3075: 2946:2 June 2847:6 June 2838: 2808:6 June 2799: 2751: 2716:3 June 2707: 2499:3 June 2490: 2465:3 June 2437:3 June 2417:p. 284 2402:p. 309 1963:pudava 1844:Cochin 1821:pandal 1503:Madras 1366:Chetti 1350:Chetti 1293:Otattu 1254:Otattu 1248:Otattu 1245:Otattu 1214:Ravari 1203:Maarar 1190:Taraka 1173:Illam 1036:Pillai 1033:, and 989:Dalits 982:varnas 953:Shudra 937:Shudra 921:varnas 884:jenmis 879:jenmis 835:rajah, 808:dēsams 768:diksha 763:diksha 704:Pretam 696:Bhutam 692:Pretam 681:Bhutam 675:Pretam 659:Patala 632:onnara 597:Attire 498:sarkar 449:Mysore 425:Cochin 421:pepper 355:vassal 345:) and 331:Eranad 327:Romans 311:Cochin 296:Nareae 261:nayaka 215:, the 160:Kerala 151:castes 149:Hindu 147:Indian 73:Kerala 55:A Nair 7037:Aztec 6996:Tibet 6971:Nepal 6961:Italy 6951:India 6946:Haiti 6931:China 6831:Under 6826:Lower 6804:Black 6787:Donor 6782:Black 6777:Upper 6684:Slave 6633:Under 6489:Petty 6464:Elite 6451:Upper 6392:Harii 6387:Cuāuh 6221:White 6201:Green 6100:Alien 5943:Caste 5696:JSTOR 5458:JSTOR 5174:S2CID 5166:JSTOR 5085:JSTOR 4890:JSTOR 4839:(PDF) 4832:(PDF) 4657:JSTOR 4431:p. 27 4409:JSTOR 4368:JSTOR 4245:S2CID 4165:p. 29 4122:(PDF) 4115:(PDF) 3989:JSTOR 3887:S2CID 3653:: 12. 3233:74-75 3084:4 May 3043:p. 28 2343:1820. 2229:Notes 2150:Diwan 2046:thali 1948:thali 1909:thali 1896:thali 1872:thali 1860:thali 1853:thali 1849:thali 1840:thali 1827:thali 1797:thali 1788:thali 1531:Nayar 1487:Varna 1296:Urali 1208:Maran 1187:Maran 1170:Mutta 1150:Illam 1103:Illam 1100:Illam 1096:Illam 1031:Menon 1027:Kurup 1010:Illam 962:varna 852:rajah 804:nadus 800:nadus 796:rajah 754:Maran 720:kothi 628:onera 603:mundu 367:Venad 339:Venad 196:with 164:caste 143:Nayar 18:Nairs 7106:Nair 6956:Iran 6669:Serf 6474:Lord 6412:Nair 6305:List 6216:Pink 6206:Grey 6196:Blue 6185:By " 5785:2019 5772:ISBN 5754:2019 5741:ISBN 5720:ISBN 5688:ISSN 5663:2018 5650:ISBN 5635:2018 5622:ISBN 5607:2018 5594:ISBN 5579:2019 5566:ISBN 5551:2019 5538:ISBN 5523:2011 5495:2011 5482:ISBN 5450:ISSN 5420:ISBN 5405:2018 5392:ISBN 5378:2011 5365:ISBN 5345:2019 5332:ISBN 5317:2018 5304:ISBN 5289:2018 5276:ISBN 5261:2018 5248:ISBN 5233:2019 5220:ISBN 5199:ISBN 5132:ISBN 5117:2018 5104:ISBN 5068:2018 5055:ISBN 5040:2019 5027:ISBN 5006:2018 4993:ISBN 4978:2018 4965:ISBN 4950:2019 4937:ISBN 4922:2019 4909:ISBN 4882:ISSN 4847:2012 4769:p128 4754:2018 4741:ISBN 4716:ISSN 4301:2011 4288:ISBN 4188:2011 4130:2012 4017:ISBN 3928:2011 3915:ISBN 3725:2011 3712:ISBN 3688:2011 3675:ISBN 3564:2019 3451:2011 3438:ISBN 3414:2011 3389:2011 3376:ISBN 3086:2011 3073:ISBN 2948:2011 2882:2007 2849:2011 2836:ISBN 2810:2011 2797:ISBN 2749:ISBN 2718:2011 2705:ISBN 2628:p.15 2528:p. 1 2501:2011 2488:ISBN 2467:2011 2439:2011 2144:and 1977:The 1953:The 1818:. 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