Nabataean Kingdom - Knowledge

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Athenaeus himself was killed. The Antigonids had deployed no scouts, a failure that Diodorus ascribes to Athenaeus's failure to anticipate the rapidity of the Nabataean response. After the Nabataeans returned to their rock, they wrote a letter to Antigonus accusing Athenaeus and declaring that they had destroyed the Antigonid army in self-defence. Antigonus replied by blaming Athenaeus for acting unilaterally, intending to lull the Nabataeans into a false sense of security. But the Nabataeans, though pleased with Antigonus response, remained suspicious and established outposts on the edge of the mountains in preparation for future Antigonid attacks.

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Galaad. This peaceful meeting between the Nabataeans and two brothers in the first book of Maccabees seems to contradict a parallel account from the second book where a pastoral Arab tribe launched a surprise attack on the two brothers. Despite open contradiction between the two accounts, scholars tend to identify the plundering Arab tribe of the second book with the Nabataeans in the first book. They were evidently not Nabataeans, for good relations between the Maccabees and their "friends", the Nabataeans, continued to exist. The friendly relations between them is further emphasized by Jonathan decision to send his brother

2162:'s account (whose description of Arabia derives ultimately from reports by 3rd century BC Ptolemaic officials) that the Nabataean kingship was old and traditional. In conclusion, Rachel Barkay states that "the Nabataean economy and political regime were in existence by the third century BC". The Kingship of the Nabataeans, was in the view of Strabo, an effective one, where the Nabataean kingdom was "very well governed" and the king was "a man of the people". For more than four centuries the Nabataean kingdom dominated, politically and commercially, a large territory and was arguably the first Arab kingdom in the area. 2158:, provides further evidence. The relevant part of the Lithika section of the papyrus describes an Arabian cavalry of a certain Nabataean king, providing an early 3rd century BC reference to a Nabataean monarch. The word Nabataean stands alone beside a missing word that start with the letter M; one of the suggested words for filling the gap is the traditional name of Nabataean kings, Malichus. Furthermore, the anonymous Nabataean coins dated by Barkay to the second half of the 3rd century BC, found mainly in Nabataean territory, support such an early date of the Nabataean Kingdom. This is in line with 50: 2066:"the rock" through its "single artificial approach", but the Nabataeans managed to repulse the invading force. A Nabataean called out to Demetrius pointing out that Antigonid aggression made no sense, for the land was semi-barren and the Nabataeans had no desire to be their slaves. Realizing his limited supplies and the determination of the Nabataean fighters, Demetrius eventually was forced to accept peace, and withdraw with hostages and gifts. Demetrius drew Antigonus's displeasure for the peace, but this was ameliorated by Demetrius's reports of 1962: 306: 332: 2192:, mentioned in II Macc as "the tyrant of the Arabs" (169-168 BC), is regarded as the first explicitly named king of the Nabataeans. His first appearance in history is in the II Macc, where the high-priest Jason, driven by his rival Menelaus, sought the protection of Aretas. Upon his arrival at the land of the Nabataeans, Aretas imprisoned Jason. It is not clear why or when that happened; his arrest by Aretas was either after he escaped Jerusalem, where Aretas, fearing the retaliation of 1929:'s generals, who had a first-hand encounter with the Nabataeans. Diodorus relates how the Nabataeans survived in a waterless desert and managed to defeat their enemies by hiding in the desert until the latter surrendered for lack of water. The Nabataeans dug cisterns that were covered and marked by signs known only to themselves. Diodorus wrote about how they were "exceptionally fond of freedom" and includes an account about unsuccessful raids that were initiated by 2046: 1866: 2397: 2257: 2182: 2230:

interpretation of the evidence in the books of Maccabees "illustrates the danger of assuming that any reference to Arabs in areas known to have been settled by the Nabataeans must automatically refer to them". But the picture is different, many Arab tribes in the region continued to be nomadic and moved in and out of the emerging Nabataean kingdom, and the Nabataeans, as well as invading armies and eventually the

2277: 2115: 2081:, to extract bitumen from the Dead Sea. A force of 6000 Arabs sailing on reed rafts approached Hieronymus's troops and killed them with arrows. These Arabs were almost certainly Nabataeans. Antigonus thus lost all hope of generating revenue in that manner. The event is described as the first conflict caused by a Middle Eastern petroleum product. 2138:". Simultaneously, the Nabataeans had probably moved across the 'Araba to the west into the desert tracts of the Negev. In their early history, before establishing urban centers, the Nabataeans demonstrated on several occasions their impressive and well organized military prowess by successfully defending their territory against larger powers. 2151:

could be linked with a reference from the Zenon archive (the second historical mention of the Nabataeans) to deliveries of grain to "Rabbel's men", Rabbel being a characteristically royal Nabataean name, it is thus possible to link Rabbel of the Zenon archive with the nameless king of Bosra's inscription, though it is highly speculative.

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interpreted by some as the future city of "Petra", "rock" in Greek.) The Antigonids attacked "the rock" in 312 BC while the Nabataeans were away trading; the inhabitants were taken by surprise and tonnes of spices and silver were looted. The Antigonids departed before nightfall and made camp to rest 200

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to warn of the approaching Antigonid army. The Nabataeans dispersed their herds and possessions to guarded locations in harsh terrain - such as deserts and mountain tops - which would be difficult for the Antigonids to attack, and garrisoned "the rock" to defend what remained. The Antigonids attacked

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A Nabataean inscription in the Negev, mentions a Nabataean king called Aretas, the date given by Starcky is not later than 150 BC. However, the dating is difficult. It has been claimed that the inscription dates to the 3rd century BC, based on the pre-Nabataean writing style, or somewhere in the 2nd

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The second phase saw the creation of the Nabataean political state in the mid-3rd century BC. Kingship is regarded as a characteristic of a state and urban society. The Nabataean institution of kingship came about as a result of multiple factors, such as the indispensabilities of trade organization

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The Zenon archive mentions Dionysius, one of two Greek employees who sought an alternative career of selling women as sex slaves, he was once detained by the Nabataeans for a week during one of his expeditions. Considering what is known of the Nabtaean society's remarkable gender equality at later

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report that Judas Maccabeus and his brother Jonathan marched three days into the wilderness before encountering the Nabataeans in the Hauran, where they were settled in for at least a century. The Nabataeans treated them peacefully and told them of what happened to the Jews residing in the land of

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region, probably Bosra, which mentions a Nabataean king whose name was lost, dated by Stracky to the early third century BC. The dating is significant, since the available evidence does not attest the existence of Nabataean monarchy until the second century BC. This nameless Nabataean king perhaps

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Diodorus mentions that the Nabataeans had attacked merchant ships belonging to the Ptolemies in Egypt at an unspecified date, but were soon targeted by a larger force and "punished as they deserved". While it is unknown why the wealthy Nabataeans turned to piracy, one possible reason is that they

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The literate Nabataeans left no lengthy historical texts. However, thousands of inscriptions have been found in their settlements, including graffiti and on minted coins. The Nabataeans appear in historical records from the fourth century BC, although there seems to be evidence of their existence

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The testimony of the 4th and 3rd century external accounts and local materialistic evidence demonstrate that the Nabataeans played a relatively substantial political and economic role in the sphere of the early Hellenistic world. While the Nabataeans didn't attain observable characteristics of a

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to "lodge his baggage" with the Nabataeans until the battle with the Seleucids is over. Again, the Maccabean caravan suffered an attack by a murderer Arab tribe in the vicinity of Madaba. This tribe was clearly not Nabataean, for they were identified as the sons of Amrai. In Bowersock view, the

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away, where they thought they would be safe from Nabataean counter-attack. The camp was attacked by 8000 pursuing Nabataean soldiers and - as Diodorus describes it - "all the 4000 foot-soldiers were slain, but of the 600 horsemen about fifty escaped, and of these the larger part were wounded";

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Antigonus ordered one of his officers, Athenaeus, to raid the Nabataeans with 4000 infantry and 600 cavalry, and loot herds and processions. Athenaeus learned that, every year, the Nabataeans gathered for a festival, during which women, children, and elders were left at "a certain rock" (later

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The Nabataean Arabs did not emerge as a political power suddenly; their rise instead went through two phases. The first phase was in the 4th century BC (ruled then by an elders' council), which was marked by the growth of Nabataean control over trade routes and various tribes and towns. Their

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for "openly demonstrating pro-Ptolemaic stand" (in Hammond's view however, Aretas hoped to use Jason as a political bargaining counter with the Seleucids), arrested Jason. Or his imprisonment might have happened at a later date (167 BC), as a result of the established friendship between the

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joined the failed revolt, and consequently lost significant territory and their privileged position in the frankincense trade, and were presumably replaced by the Nabataeans. It has been argued that the Persians lost interest in the former territory of the

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Hellenistic state (i.e. monumental architecture) in their early period, similar to contemporary Seleucid Syria, the Milan papyrus speaks of their wealth and prestige in this period. In that respect, the Nabataeans must be considered a unique entity.

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died. That might have prompted the official annexation of Nabatea to the Roman Empire, but the formal reasons and the exact manner of annexation are unknown. Some epigraphic evidence suggests a military campaign, commanded by

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and moved with their herds to wherever they could find pasture and water. They became familiar with their area as seasons passed, and they struggled to survive during bad years when seasonal rainfall diminished.

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After the Nabataean victory over the Judaeans, the former were now at odds with the Seleucids, who were concerned about the increasing influence of the Nabataeans to the south of their territories. During the

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Unlike the rest of the Arabian tribes, the Nabataeans later emerged as vital players in the region during their times of prosperity. However, their influence then faded, and the Nabataeans were forgotten.

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presence in Transjordan by the end of the fourth century BC is guaranteed by Antigonus's operations in the region, and despite recent suggestions that there is no evidence of Nabataean occupation of the

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waged war against the Nabataeans. Antiochus was slain during combat, and his army fled and perished in the desert from starvation. After Obodas's victories over the Judaeans and the Seleucids, he was

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in the early period, the Zenon papyri firmly attest the penetration of the Hauran by the Nabataeans in the mid-third century BC beyond all doubt, and according to Bowersock, it "

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after 400 BC, allowing the Nabataeans to gain prominence in that area. All of these changes would have allowed Nabataeans to control the frankincense trade from Dedan to Gaza.

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Milik, J.T. (2003), "Appendice, inscription nabatéenne archaïque. Une bilingue arameo-grecque de 105/104 avant J.-C.", in J. Dentzer-Feydy; J.-M. Dentzer; P.-M. Blanc (eds.),

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Jews, Idumaeans, and Ancient Arabs: Relations of the Jews in Eretz-Israel with the Nations of the Frontier and the Desert During the Hellenistic and Roman Era (332 BCE-70 CE)

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time, it is likely that they were objecting to the treatment of women in their area, for whom they believed they were responsible in the course of maintaining law and order.

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The Nabataeans might have originated from there and migrated west between the 6th and 4th centuries BC into northwestern Arabia and much of what is now modern-day

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The Nabataean Kingdom controlled many of the trade routes of the region, amassing large wealth and drawing the envy of its neighbors. It stretched south along the

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Nabataeans and Judas Maccabaeus, aimed to hand Jason to the Jews. "Either suggestion is feasible and so the riddle remains unresolved", according to Kasher.

1831:, were associated by some with the Nabataeans because of the temptation to link their similar names. Another misconception is their identification with the 1639: 5046: 4053: 2013:. The Nabataeans were distinguished from the other Arab tribes by wealth. The Nabataeans generated revenues from the trade caravans that transported 1911: 1789:

The suggestion that they came from the Hejaz area is considered to be more convincing, as they share many deities with the ancient people there;

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The Nabataeans began to mint coins during the second century BC, revealing the extensive economic and political independence they enjoyed.

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in southern Arabia, and ran through Mada'in Saleh to Petra. From there, aromatics were distributed throughout the Mediterranean region.

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had maintained a friendly relationship, the former had sympathized with the Maccabees, who were being mistreated by the Seleucids. The

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The precise origin of the specific tribe of Arab nomads remains uncertain. One hypothesis locates their original homeland in today's

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and war; the subsequent outcomes of the Greek expeditions on the Nabataeans played a role in the political centralization of the

2435:. It is clear that by 107 AD Roman legions were stationed in the area around Petra and Bosra, as is shown by a papyrus found in 1860: 1823:. Nabataeans have been falsely associated with other groups of people. A people called the "Nabaiti", who were defeated by the 3937: 3916: 3895: 3874: 3808: 3787: 3757: 3710: 3689: 3668: 3647: 3605: 3514: 3410: 3324: 3296: 4713: 2557: 3954:

Benjamin, Jesse. "Of Nubians and Nabateans: Implications of research on neglected dimensions of ancient world history."

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Nabataea remained an independent political entity from the mid-3rd century BC until it was annexed in AD 106 by the

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Judaea and the Greco-Roman World In the Time of Herod In the Light of Archaeological Evidence: Acts of a Symposium

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before shipment to European markets, giving the Nabataeans considerable influence over the Gazans. Hasmonean King

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The series of wars among the Greek generals ended in a dispute over the lands of modern-day Jordan between the

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The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India

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The Antigonids' second attack was with an army of 4000 infantry and 4000 cavalry led by Antigonus's son,

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Wenning, Robert (2007). "The Nabataeans in History (Before AD 106).". In Konstantinos D. Politis (ed.).

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Petra was included in a list of major cities in the Mediterranean area to be visited by a notable from

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have been able to enslave them, and... they never brought their attempts to a successful conclusion. -

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was the last stop for caravans carrying spices before being shipped to European markets through the

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Raqmu, now called Petra, was a wealthy trading town, located at a convergence of several important

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as one of several rebellious Arab tribes in the region, suggests a connection between the two.

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felt that their trade interests were threatened by the gradual understanding of the nature of

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Contextualizing the Nabataeans: A Critical Reassessment of Their History and Material Culture

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tribe. The earliest evidence of Nabataean kingship comes from a Nabataean inscription in the

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The rise of the Nabataeans: sociopolitical developments in 4th and 3rd century BC Nabataea

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based in Syria. The conflict enabled the Nabataeans to extend their kingdom beyond Edom.

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After Alexander the Great's death in 323 BC, his empire split among his generals. During

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province Idumaea must have been established before 363 B.C. after the failed revolt of

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supremacy over Nabataea. The Nabataean kingdom was slowly surrounded by the expanding

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besieged Petra. The defeated king Aretas III paid a tribute to Scaurus and recognized

2244:, a sign of the significance of Nabataea in the ancient world. Petra was counted with 893: 5031: 4914: 4622: 4097: 3933: 3912: 3891: 3870: 3855: 3835: 3804: 3783: 3753: 3732: 3706: 3685: 3664: 3643: 3622: 3601: 3591: 3583: 3563: 3510: 3429: 3406: 3387: 3351: 3320: 3292: 2657: 2462: 2432: 2289: 2085: 1794: 1783: 1664: 1413: 1258: 863: 503: 493: 483: 224: 192: 106: 4949: 4919: 4893: 4723: 4501: 4464: 3827: 3555: 2517: 2481: 2338: 1998: 1974: 1918: 1801: 1678: 1567: 1563: 1552: 1533: 1198: 1178: 1158: 1078: 873: 753: 678: 668: 618: 548: 448: 398: 112: 3968:

Kropp, Andreas J. M. "Nabatean Petra: the royal palace and the Herod connection."

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Hauran II: Les Installations de Sī 8 du Sanctuaire à l'Etablissement Viticole I

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The Nabataeans were allies of the Maccabees during their struggles against the

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Levy, Thomas Evan; Daviau, P.M. Michele; Younker, Randall W. (16 June 2016).

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Hammond, Philip C. (1959). "The Nabataean Bitumen Industry at the Dead Sea".

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The kingdom seems to have reached its territorial zenith during the reign of

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ignored most of the Nabatæan territory and ran northeast from Aila (modern

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who lived around 30 BC. Diodorus refers accounts made 300 years earlier by

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Crossing Jordan: North American Contributions to the Archaeology of Jordan

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regained control of these areas after his forces defeated Jannaeus in the

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establish these Arabs in one of the principal areas of subsequent splendor

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period, as well as a group with the name of "Nabatu" being listed by the

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besieged and occupied Gaza in 96 BC, murdering many of its inhabitants.

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The first historical reference to the Nabataeans is by Greek historian

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The History of the Israelites and Judæans: Philosophical and Critical

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Around the same time, the Arab Nabataeans and the neighboring Jewish

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Mills, Watson E.; Bullard, Roger Aubrey; McKnight, Edgar V. (1990).

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The Process of Nabataean Sedentarization: New Models and Approaches

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monarchs. They then became rivals of their successors, the Judaean

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in today's Yemen, across the Arabian peninsula, passing through

1793:, the root consonant of the tribe's name, is found in the early 4929: 4861: 4851: 4846: 4785: 4780: 4692: 4659: 4585: 4539: 4520: 4448: 4375: 4320: 4310: 4306: 4276: 4270: 4247: 4137: 4132: 4122: 4081: 3725: 2509: 2415: 2330: 2293: 2241: 2159: 2147: 2143: 2131: 1990: 1820: 1612: 1492: 1348: 358: 272: 2957: 2955: 1702: 4795: 4775: 4770: 4748: 4698: 4674: 4580: 4568: 4563: 4528: 4505: 4424: 4395: 4330: 4286: 4232: 4212: 3908:

Dividing the Spoils: The War for Alexander the Great's Empire

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Starcky, Jean (1955). "The Nabataeans: A Historical Sketch".

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Images and Monuments of Near Eastern Dynasts, 100 BC - AD 100

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Taylor, Jane; Petra; p.25-31; Aurum Press Ltd; London; 2005;

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Aretas III on a Roman coin, depicted in a pose of submission

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del Rio Sánchez, Francisco, and Juan Pedro Monferrer Sala.

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The Nabataean Kingdom was situated between the Arabian and

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and his victories against the Hasmoneans and the Seleucids

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before that time. Aramaic ostraca finds indicate that the

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Barkay, Rachel (2011). "The Earliest Nabataean Coinage".

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Barkay, Rachel (2015). "NEW ASPECTS OF NABATAEAN COINS".

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Teller, Matthew; Jordan; p.265; Rough Guides; Sept 2009;

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was carved into rock by the Nabataeans in their capital,

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States and territories disestablished in the 2nd century

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States and territories established in the 3rd century BC

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The Nabataeans -- their history, culture and archaeology

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century BC. Generally, the inscription is attributed to

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between Alexander's generals, Antigonus I conquered the

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in the Red Sea from the third century BC onward (see

1736:, which it controlled for a short period (85–71 BC). 1684: 1681: 3745: 3208: 3179: 3131: 3085: 3046: 3015: 2931: 2919: 2847: 2801: 2740: 2677: 2109: 1699: 1690: 3196: 2710: 2698: 2595: 1696: 3003: 2816: 2746: 2306:was the last stop for spices that were carried by 2205:of II Macc, or perhaps as suggested by others, to 3988:Nabatu: The Nabataeans through their Inscriptions 3677: 3530:. Department of Anthropology, University of Utah. 3343:Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire 3110: 5003: 2003:the land of the Arabs who are called Nabataeans 3965:. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1996. 3459: 3161: 3067: 2973: 2961: 2641: 2639: 2637: 2635: 2633: 2631: 2629: 2535:which was based around the production of both 2317:Jannaeus then captured several territories in 2077:Antigonus sent an expedition, this time under 1766:The Nabataeans were one among several nomadic 27:Ancient Arab kingdom (3rd century BC – 106 AD) 4061: 2500:kingdom, and its south western neighbour was 2414:In 106 AD, during the reign of Roman emperor 1640: 4039:showing the outposts that made up Hadrian's 3887:Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans 3618:The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus 2649:Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans 2251: 54:The Nabataean Kingdom at its greatest extent 3990:. Barcelona: University of Barcelona, 2005. 3415: 2626: 4068: 4054: 3904: 3771:(PhD). University of California, Berkeley. 3737:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3698: 3421: 2913: 2886: 2865: 2480:, for a time the capital of the breakaway 1647: 1633: 48: 3502: 3401: 3399: 3382: 3380: 3378: 3376: 3374: 3274: 3255: 3079: 2997: 2985: 2841: 2728: 2418:, the last king of the Nabataean kingdom 1993:, and this brought him to the borders of 5047:Political entities in the Land of Israel 3866:Near Eastern royalty and Rome, 100-30 BC 3862: 3311: 3149: 2395: 2275: 2255: 2180: 2168: 2113: 2044: 1960: 1864: 3925: 3817: 3766: 3699:McLaughlin, Raoul (11 September 2014). 3590: 3545: 3286: 3238: 3173: 3040: 2901: 2791: 2789: 2787: 2785: 2783: 2781: 2692: 2461:. A century later, during the reign of 14: 5004: 3883: 3796: 3775: 3635: 3614: 3481: 3468: 3396: 3371: 3226: 3214: 3190: 3137: 3125: 3098: 2946: 2925: 2853: 2810: 2779: 2777: 2775: 2773: 2771: 2769: 2767: 2765: 2763: 2761: 2752: 2716: 2704: 2620: 2154:A recent papyrological discovery, the 4049: 3905:Waterfield, Robin (11 October 2012). 3776:Salibi, Kamal S. (15 December 1998). 3719: 3657:Kropp, Andreas J. M. (27 June 2013). 3656: 3534: 3523: 3202: 3052: 3021: 3009: 2822: 2321:north of Nabataea, along the road to 2234:also, had to cope with these people. 3956:Journal of Asian and African Studies 3339: 3333: 2645: 2357:by his people. He was buried in the 1997:, just north of Petra. According to 325:Historical Arab states and dynasties 3291:. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 2758: 2391: 1949:and Persians, nor yet those of the 24: 4991:Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions 4076:Ancient states and regions in the 3961:Fittschen, Klaus, and G Foerster. 3948: 2796:Diodorus Siculus, Book XIX, 95-100 2741:Mills, Bullard & McKnight 1990 2033:for shipment to European markets. 1861:Antigonid–Nabataean confrontations 25: 5068: 3994: 3460:Al-Abduljabbar, Abdullah (1995). 2496:. Its northern neighbour was the 2110:Creation of the Nabataean Kingdom 2005:" to his existing territories of 1713:), was a political state of the 1677: 746:Western dynasties and caliphates 330: 304: 279: 265: 251: 3869:. University of Toronto Press. 3422:Greenfield, Jonas Carl (2001). 3305: 3280: 3111:Levy, Daviau & Younker 2016 2575: 2512:, and it included the towns of 2260:Remains of Byzantine church at 3749:Mercer Dictionary of the Bible 3340:Ball, Warwick (10 June 2016). 2504:. Its capital was the city of 2103:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 1869:Trading routes of the ancient 1804:dialect and the ones found in 13: 1: 3767:Pearson, Jeffrey Eli (2011). 2563: 2388:under the influence of Rome. 1945:of old, nor the kings of the 1755: 4243:Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia 4020:Resources in other libraries 3803:. Harvard University Press. 3779:The Modern History of Jordan 3509:. Harvard University Press. 2589: 2487: 1854: 1770:Arab tribes that roamed the 7: 3929:The World of the Nabataeans 3911:. Oxford University Press. 3752:. Mercer University Press. 3600:. P. Åström (S. vägen 61). 2656:. pp. 14, 17, 30, 31. 2546: 2001:, Antigonus sought to add " 466:Arab empires and caliphates 10: 5073: 3977:Nabatean Archaeology Today 3863:Sullivan, Richard (1990). 3820:The Biblical Archaeologist 3800:The Middle East Under Rome 3548:The Biblical Archaeologist 3464:(PhD). Indiana University. 3452: 2652:. London, United Kingdom: 2407: 2185:Statue of soldier in Petra 1858: 1800:Similarities between late 1782:, in the southwest of the 1759: 1750: 4978: 4872: 4613: 4146: 4088: 4015:Resources in your library 3981:New York University Press 3958:36, no. 4 (2001): 361–82. 2252:Nabataeans and Hasmoneans 230: 220: 216: 203: 185: 175: 171: 161: 151: 143: 131: 121: 100: 59: 47: 42: 32: 3797:Sartre, Maurice (2005). 3615:Healey, John F. (2001). 3541:. Trübner & Company. 3535:Groot, N. G. De (1879). 3503:Bowersock, Glen (1994). 3484:The Numismatic Chronicle 2568: 774:Umayyad state of Córdoba 205:• Conquered by the 3524:Bowes, Alan R. (1998). 2553:List of Nabataean kings 2374:Marcus Aemilius Scaurus 2088:based in Egypt and the 2051:Demetrius I Poliorcetes 1901:of Salamis against the 5042:100s disestablishments 5017:160s BC establishments 4836:Luwian-Aramaean states 3636:Kasher, Aryeh (1988). 3287:Johnson, Paul (1987). 2531:. One of them was the 2405: 2281: 2273: 2194:Antiochus IV Epiphanes 2186: 2178: 2126: 2054: 2021:and other spices from 1982: 1959: 1881: 5037:Roman client kingdoms 4687:Neo-Babylonian Empire 4271:Canaanite city-states 3884:Taylor, Jane (2001). 3289:A History of the Jews 2646:Jane, Taylor (2001). 2457:) at the head of the 2399: 2325:, including northern 2298:intervention in Judea 2279: 2259: 2184: 2172: 2117: 2048: 2029:and ending up in the 1964: 1939: 1868: 1839:, the descendants of 1732:, up as far north as 1364:Sultanate of Zanzibar 1279:Mutawakkilite Kingdom 101:Common languages 43:3rd century BC–106 AD 4970:Tanukhid confederacy 4805:New Kingdom of Egypt 2349:, the Seleucid king 2079:Hieronymus of Cardia 1923:Hieronymus of Cardia 4682:Neo-Assyrian Empire 4465:Paleo-Syrian states 3162:Al-Abduljabbar 1995 3068:Al-Abduljabbar 1995 2974:Al-Abduljabbar 1995 2962:Al-Abduljabbar 1995 2355:worshipped as a god 1927:Alexander the Great 1743:, which renamed it 1719:classical antiquity 341:Ancient Arab states 177:• Established 85:30.3286°N 35.4419°E 81: / 4925:Herodian Tetrarchy 3592:Hammond, Philip C. 2558:Nabataean language 2427:, the governor of 2406: 2312:Alexander Jannaeus 2282: 2274: 2187: 2179: 2127: 2055: 1983: 1882: 1406:Current monarchies 1069:Sharifate of Mecca 539:Emirate of Tbilisi 529:Emirate of Armenia 379:Kingdom of Osroene 225:Nabataean Denarius 126:Nabataean religion 4999: 4998: 4940:Nabataean Kingdom 4915:Hasmonean dynasty 4910:Ghassanid Kingdom 4623:Achaemenid Empire 4459:Ib'al Confederacy 4098:Kish civilization 4001:Library resources 3972:32 (2009): 43–59. 3939:978-3-515-08816-9 3918:978-0-19-993152-1 3897:978-1-86064-508-2 3876:978-0-8020-2682-8 3810:978-0-674-01683-5 3789:978-1-86064-331-6 3759:978-0-86554-373-7 3712:978-1-78346-381-7 3705:. Pen and Sword. 3691:978-1-315-47856-2 3670:978-0-19-967072-7 3649:978-3-16-145240-6 3607:978-91-85058-57-0 3516:978-0-674-77756-9 3411:978-1-84836-066-2 3326:978-0-14-044420-9 3313:Josephus, Flavius 3298:978-0-297-79091-4 2988:, pp. 17–18. 2463:Alexander Severus 2290:Hasmonean dynasty 2177:in military dress 1795:Semitic languages 1784:Arabian peninsula 1665:Nabataean Aramaic 1661:Nabataean Kingdom 1657: 1656: 1622: 1621: 1397: 1396: 1389:Tippu Tip's State 1287: 1286: 1259:Emirate of Beihan 991:Arabian Peninsula 982: 981: 737: 736: 521:Eastern dynasties 512: 511: 457: 456: 369:Nabataean Kingdom 359:Kingdom of Lihyan 320: 319: 316: 315: 312: 311: 292: 291: 107:Nabataean Aramaic 34:Nabataean Kingdom 16:(Redirected from 5064: 4950:Palmyrene Empire 4920:Herodian kingdom 4894:Byzantine Empire 4709:Israel (Samaria) 4070: 4063: 4056: 4047: 4046: 4036: 4035: 4034:VIA NOVA TRAIANA 4006:Nabatean Kingdom 3975:Negev, Avraham. 3943: 3922: 3901: 3880: 3859: 3814: 3793: 3772: 3763: 3742: 3736: 3728: 3716: 3695: 3674: 3653: 3642:. Mohr Siebeck. 3632: 3611: 3587: 3542: 3531: 3520: 3499: 3478: 3465: 3447: 3446: 3444: 3442: 3425:'Al Kanfei Yonah 3419: 3413: 3403: 3394: 3384: 3369: 3368: 3366: 3364: 3337: 3331: 3330: 3309: 3303: 3302: 3284: 3278: 3272: 3259: 3253: 3242: 3236: 3230: 3224: 3218: 3212: 3206: 3200: 3194: 3188: 3177: 3171: 3165: 3159: 3153: 3147: 3141: 3135: 3129: 3123: 3114: 3108: 3102: 3096: 3083: 3077: 3071: 3065: 3056: 3050: 3044: 3038: 3025: 3019: 3013: 3007: 3001: 2995: 2989: 2983: 2977: 2971: 2965: 2959: 2950: 2944: 2929: 2923: 2917: 2911: 2905: 2899: 2890: 2884: 2869: 2863: 2857: 2851: 2845: 2839: 2826: 2820: 2814: 2808: 2799: 2793: 2756: 2750: 2744: 2738: 2732: 2726: 2720: 2714: 2708: 2702: 2696: 2690: 2675: 2674: 2672: 2670: 2643: 2624: 2618: 2583: 2579: 2494:Sinai Peninsulas 2482:Palmyrene Empire 2469:power under the 2392:Roman annexation 2339:Battle of Gadara 2070:deposits in the 1999:Diodorus Siculus 1919:Diodorus Siculus 1802:Nabataean Arabic 1712: 1711: 1708: 1707: 1704: 1701: 1698: 1695: 1692: 1689: 1686: 1683: 1649: 1642: 1635: 1410: 1409: 1374:Nabahani dynasty 1319:Nabahani dynasty 1304:Makhzumi dynasty 1300: 1299: 995: 994: 750: 749: 549:Emirate of Crete 525: 524: 470: 469: 449:Kingdom of Kinda 399:Kingdom of Hatra 349:Kingdom of Qedar 345: 344: 334: 322: 321: 308: 307: 296: 295: 283: 282: 269: 268: 255: 254: 248: 247: 232: 231: 113:Nabataean Arabic 96: 95: 93: 92: 91: 90:30.3286; 35.4419 86: 82: 79: 78: 77: 74: 52: 30: 29: 21: 18:Nabatean kingdom 5072: 5071: 5067: 5066: 5065: 5063: 5062: 5061: 5057:Former kingdoms 5002: 5001: 5000: 4995: 4974: 4965:Sasanian Empire 4960:Seleucid Empire 4955:Parthian Empire 4905:Emesene Dynasty 4868: 4714:Israel (united) 4629:Aramaean states 4609: 4156:Akkadian Empire 4142: 4084: 4074: 4033: 4032: 4026: 4025: 4024: 4009: 4008: 4004: 3997: 3951: 3949:Further reading 3946: 3940: 3919: 3898: 3877: 3832:10.2307/3209134 3811: 3790: 3760: 3730: 3729: 3713: 3692: 3671: 3650: 3629: 3608: 3560:10.2307/3209307 3517: 3455: 3450: 3440: 3438: 3436: 3420: 3416: 3404: 3397: 3385: 3372: 3362: 3360: 3358: 3338: 3334: 3327: 3310: 3306: 3299: 3285: 3281: 3273: 3262: 3254: 3245: 3237: 3233: 3225: 3221: 3213: 3209: 3201: 3197: 3189: 3180: 3172: 3168: 3160: 3156: 3148: 3144: 3136: 3132: 3124: 3117: 3109: 3105: 3097: 3086: 3078: 3074: 3066: 3059: 3051: 3047: 3039: 3028: 3020: 3016: 3008: 3004: 2996: 2992: 2984: 2980: 2972: 2968: 2960: 2953: 2945: 2932: 2924: 2920: 2914:Waterfield 2012 2912: 2908: 2900: 2893: 2887:McLaughlin 2014 2885: 2872: 2866:McLaughlin 2014 2864: 2860: 2852: 2848: 2840: 2829: 2821: 2817: 2809: 2802: 2794: 2759: 2751: 2747: 2739: 2735: 2727: 2723: 2715: 2711: 2703: 2699: 2691: 2678: 2668: 2666: 2664: 2644: 2627: 2619: 2596: 2592: 2587: 2586: 2580: 2576: 2571: 2566: 2549: 2502:Ptolemaic Egypt 2490: 2471:Sassanid Empire 2425:Cornelius Palma 2420:Rabbel II Soter 2412: 2394: 2359:Temple of Oboda 2254: 2112: 2049:Marble bust of 1912:Edomite Kingdom 1863: 1857: 1764: 1758: 1753: 1680: 1676: 1653: 1624: 1623: 1407: 1399: 1398: 1334:Mahdali dynasty 1297: 1289: 1288: 1229:Muscat and Oman 999:Imamate of Oman 992: 984: 983: 747: 739: 738: 522: 514: 513: 467: 459: 458: 389:Emesene Dynasty 342: 305: 280: 266: 252: 209: 196: 178: 89: 87: 83: 80: 75: 72: 70: 68: 67: 66: 55: 38: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5070: 5060: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5029: 5024: 5019: 5014: 4997: 4996: 4994: 4993: 4988: 4986:Amarna letters 4982: 4980: 4976: 4975: 4973: 4972: 4967: 4962: 4957: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4917: 4912: 4907: 4902: 4897: 4886:Roman Republic 4878: 4876: 4870: 4869: 4867: 4866: 4865: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4832: 4831: 4830: 4825: 4820: 4807: 4802: 4801: 4800: 4799: 4798: 4793: 4788: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4763: 4762: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4731: 4726: 4721: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4701: 4689: 4684: 4679: 4678: 4677: 4672: 4667: 4662: 4657: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4625: 4619: 4617: 4611: 4610: 4608: 4607: 4606: 4605: 4593: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4573: 4572: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4549: 4548: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4525: 4524: 4523: 4518: 4513: 4508: 4499: 4494: 4489: 4480: 4479: 4478: 4461: 4456: 4451: 4446: 4445: 4444: 4443: 4442: 4432: 4427: 4415: 4413:Hittite Empire 4410: 4405: 4404: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4304: 4299: 4294: 4289: 4284: 4279: 4267: 4262: 4257: 4252: 4251: 4250: 4245: 4240: 4235: 4230: 4225: 4220: 4215: 4210: 4205: 4200: 4195: 4190: 4185: 4180: 4175: 4167:Amorite states 4163: 4158: 4152: 4150: 4144: 4143: 4141: 4140: 4135: 4130: 4125: 4120: 4115: 4110: 4105: 4100: 4094: 4092: 4086: 4085: 4073: 4072: 4065: 4058: 4050: 4044: 4043: 4023: 4022: 4017: 4011: 4010: 3999: 3998: 3996: 3995:External links 3993: 3992: 3991: 3984: 3973: 3966: 3959: 3950: 3947: 3945: 3944: 3938: 3923: 3917: 3902: 3896: 3890:. I.B.Tauris. 3881: 3875: 3860: 3815: 3809: 3794: 3788: 3782:. I.B.Tauris. 3773: 3764: 3758: 3743: 3717: 3711: 3696: 3690: 3675: 3669: 3663:. OUP Oxford. 3654: 3648: 3633: 3627: 3612: 3606: 3588: 3543: 3532: 3521: 3515: 3500: 3479: 3466: 3456: 3454: 3451: 3449: 3448: 3434: 3414: 3395: 3370: 3356: 3350:. p. 65. 3332: 3325: 3317:The Jewish War 3304: 3297: 3279: 3275:Bowersock 1994 3260: 3256:Bowersock 1994 3243: 3231: 3229:, p. 219. 3219: 3207: 3195: 3178: 3166: 3154: 3142: 3130: 3128:, p. 433. 3115: 3113:, p. 335. 3103: 3084: 3080:Bowersock 1994 3072: 3070:, p. 147. 3057: 3055:, p. 275. 3045: 3026: 3024:, p. 106. 3014: 3002: 2998:Bowersock 1994 2990: 2986:Bowersock 1994 2978: 2976:, p. 136. 2966: 2951: 2930: 2918: 2916:, p. 123. 2906: 2891: 2870: 2858: 2846: 2842:Bowersock 1994 2827: 2815: 2800: 2757: 2745: 2743:, p. 598. 2733: 2729:Bowersock 1994 2721: 2709: 2697: 2676: 2662: 2625: 2593: 2591: 2588: 2585: 2584: 2573: 2572: 2570: 2567: 2565: 2562: 2561: 2560: 2555: 2548: 2545: 2489: 2486: 2450:limes Arabicus 2441:Arabia Petraea 2410:Arabia Petraea 2408:Main article: 2393: 2390: 2386:client kingdom 2347:Battle of Cana 2341:around 93 BC. 2308:trade caravans 2253: 2250: 2111: 2108: 1981:, Saudi Arabia 1965:Painting of a 1856: 1853: 1772:Arabian Desert 1760:Main article: 1757: 1754: 1752: 1749: 1745:Arabia Petraea 1671:), also named 1655: 1654: 1652: 1651: 1644: 1637: 1629: 1626: 1625: 1620: 1619: 1616: 1605: 1604: 1601: 1590: 1589: 1586: 1575: 1574: 1571: 1560: 1559: 1556: 1545: 1544: 1541: 1530: 1529: 1526: 1515: 1514: 1511: 1500: 1499: 1496: 1485: 1484: 1481: 1470: 1469: 1466: 1455: 1454: 1451: 1440: 1439: 1436: 1433:Ras al Khaymah 1425: 1424: 1421: 1408: 1405: 1404: 1401: 1400: 1395: 1394: 1391: 1385: 1384: 1381: 1370: 1369: 1366: 1360: 1359: 1356: 1349:Mazrui dynasty 1345: 1344: 1341: 1330: 1329: 1326: 1315: 1314: 1311: 1298: 1295: 1294: 1291: 1290: 1285: 1284: 1281: 1275: 1274: 1271: 1265: 1264: 1261: 1255: 1254: 1251: 1245: 1244: 1241: 1235: 1234: 1231: 1225: 1224: 1221: 1215: 1214: 1211: 1205: 1204: 1201: 1195: 1194: 1191: 1185: 1184: 1181: 1175: 1174: 1171: 1165: 1164: 1161: 1155: 1154: 1151: 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4936: 4933: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4913: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4901: 4898: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4880: 4879: 4877: 4875: 4874:Classical Age 4871: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4839: 4838: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4818: 4815: 4814: 4813: 4812: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4768: 4767: 4764: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4736: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4720: 4717: 4715: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4705: 4702: 4700: 4697: 4696: 4695: 4694: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4676: 4673: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4658: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4635:Aram-Damascus 4633: 4632: 4631: 4630: 4626: 4624: 4621: 4620: 4618: 4616: 4612: 4604: 4601: 4600: 4599: 4598: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4556: 4555: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4543: 4541: 4538: 4536: 4533: 4532: 4531: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4519: 4517: 4514: 4512: 4509: 4507: 4503: 4500: 4498: 4495: 4493: 4490: 4488: 4484: 4481: 4477: 4474: 4473: 4472: 4469: 4468: 4467: 4466: 4462: 4460: 4457: 4455: 4452: 4450: 4447: 4441: 4438: 4437: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4422: 4421: 4420: 4416: 4414: 4411: 4409: 4406: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4354: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4308: 4305: 4303: 4300: 4298: 4295: 4293: 4290: 4288: 4285: 4283: 4280: 4278: 4275: 4274: 4273: 4272: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4249: 4246: 4244: 4241: 4239: 4236: 4234: 4231: 4229: 4226: 4224: 4221: 4219: 4216: 4214: 4211: 4209: 4206: 4204: 4201: 4199: 4196: 4194: 4193:First Babylon 4191: 4189: 4186: 4184: 4181: 4179: 4176: 4174: 4171: 4170: 4169: 4168: 4164: 4162: 4159: 4157: 4154: 4153: 4151: 4149: 4145: 4139: 4136: 4134: 4131: 4129: 4126: 4124: 4121: 4119: 4116: 4114: 4111: 4109: 4106: 4104: 4101: 4099: 4096: 4095: 4093: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4071: 4066: 4064: 4059: 4057: 4052: 4051: 4048: 4042: 4038: 4037: 4030:A map of the 4028: 4027: 4021: 4018: 4016: 4013: 4012: 4007: 4002: 3989: 3985: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3971: 3967: 3964: 3960: 3957: 3953: 3952: 3941: 3935: 3931: 3930: 3924: 3920: 3914: 3910: 3909: 3903: 3899: 3893: 3889: 3888: 3882: 3878: 3872: 3868: 3867: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3826:(4): 84–106. 3825: 3821: 3816: 3812: 3806: 3802: 3801: 3795: 3791: 3785: 3781: 3780: 3774: 3770: 3765: 3761: 3755: 3751: 3750: 3744: 3740: 3734: 3727: 3724:(in French), 3723: 3718: 3714: 3708: 3704: 3703: 3697: 3693: 3687: 3684:. Routledge. 3683: 3682: 3676: 3672: 3666: 3662: 3661: 3655: 3651: 3645: 3641: 3640: 3634: 3630: 3628:90-04-10754-1 3624: 3620: 3619: 3613: 3609: 3603: 3599: 3598: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3544: 3540: 3539: 3533: 3529: 3528: 3522: 3518: 3512: 3508: 3507: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3467: 3463: 3458: 3457: 3437: 3431: 3427: 3426: 3418: 3412: 3408: 3402: 3400: 3393: 3392:9957-451-04-9 3389: 3383: 3381: 3379: 3377: 3375: 3359: 3357:9781317296355 3353: 3349: 3345: 3344: 3336: 3328: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3308: 3300: 3294: 3290: 3283: 3277:, p. 20. 3276: 3271: 3269: 3267: 3265: 3258:, p. 19. 3257: 3252: 3250: 3248: 3241:, p. 13. 3240: 3235: 3228: 3223: 3217:, p. 17. 3216: 3211: 3205:, p. 41. 3204: 3199: 3193:, p. 24. 3192: 3187: 3185: 3183: 3176:, p. 84. 3175: 3170: 3163: 3158: 3152:, p. 72. 3151: 3150:Sullivan 1990 3146: 3140:, p. 69. 3139: 3134: 3127: 3122: 3120: 3112: 3107: 3101:, p. 40. 3100: 3095: 3093: 3091: 3089: 3082:, p. 17. 3081: 3076: 3069: 3064: 3062: 3054: 3049: 3043:, p. 10. 3042: 3037: 3035: 3033: 3031: 3023: 3018: 3011: 3006: 3000:, p. 18. 2999: 2994: 2987: 2982: 2975: 2970: 2963: 2958: 2956: 2949:, p. 38. 2948: 2943: 2941: 2939: 2937: 2935: 2928:, p. 10. 2927: 2922: 2915: 2910: 2904:, p. 68. 2903: 2898: 2896: 2889:, p. 52. 2888: 2883: 2881: 2879: 2877: 2875: 2868:, p. 51. 2867: 2862: 2856:, p. 28. 2855: 2850: 2844:, p. 14. 2843: 2838: 2836: 2834: 2832: 2824: 2819: 2813:, p. 31. 2812: 2807: 2805: 2797: 2792: 2790: 2788: 2786: 2784: 2782: 2780: 2778: 2776: 2774: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2766: 2764: 2762: 2754: 2749: 2742: 2737: 2731:, p. 13. 2730: 2725: 2719:, p. 30. 2718: 2713: 2707:, p. 17. 2706: 2701: 2695:, p. 26. 2694: 2689: 2687: 2685: 2683: 2681: 2665: 2663:9781860645082 2659: 2655: 2651: 2650: 2642: 2640: 2638: 2636: 2634: 2632: 2630: 2623:, p. 14. 2622: 2617: 2615: 2613: 2611: 2609: 2607: 2605: 2603: 2601: 2599: 2594: 2578: 2574: 2559: 2556: 2554: 2551: 2550: 2544: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2533:Incense Route 2530: 2525: 2523: 2519: 2518:Mada'in Saleh 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2485: 2483: 2479: 2474: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2459:Gulf of Aqaba 2456: 2452: 2451: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2421: 2417: 2411: 2403: 2400:A map of the 2398: 2389: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2366: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2351:Antiochus XII 2348: 2342: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2315: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2278: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2258: 2249: 2247: 2243: 2238: 2235: 2233: 2228: 2223: 2219: 2218:Romano-Jewish 2215: 2210: 2208: 2204: 2198: 2195: 2191: 2183: 2176: 2173:Coin showing 2171: 2167: 2163: 2161: 2157: 2156:Milan Papyrus 2152: 2149: 2145: 2139: 2137: 2133: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2107: 2105: 2104: 2099: 2093: 2091: 2087: 2082: 2080: 2075: 2073: 2069: 2064: 2063:smoke signals 2060: 2052: 2047: 2043: 2040: 2034: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1980: 1976: 1975:Mada'in Saleh 1973:, located at 1972: 1971:Qasr al-Farid 1968: 1963: 1958: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1938: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1915: 1913: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1867: 1862: 1852: 1848: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1817: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1798: 1796: 1792: 1787: 1785: 1781: 1776: 1773: 1769: 1763: 1748: 1746: 1742: 1737: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1722: 1720: 1716: 1710: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1650: 1645: 1643: 1638: 1636: 1631: 1630: 1628: 1627: 1617: 1614: 1610: 1607: 1606: 1602: 1599: 1595: 1592: 1591: 1587: 1584: 1580: 1577: 1576: 1572: 1569: 1565: 1562: 1561: 1557: 1554: 1550: 1547: 1546: 1542: 1539: 1535: 1532: 1531: 1527: 1524: 1523:Umm al-Quwain 1520: 1517: 1516: 1512: 1509: 1505: 1502: 1501: 1497: 1494: 1490: 1487: 1486: 1482: 1479: 1475: 1472: 1471: 1467: 1464: 1460: 1457: 1456: 1452: 1449: 1445: 1442: 1441: 1437: 1434: 1430: 1427: 1426: 1422: 1419: 1415: 1412: 1411: 1403: 1402: 1392: 1390: 1387: 1386: 1382: 1379: 1375: 1372: 1371: 1367: 1365: 1362: 1361: 1357: 1354: 1350: 1347: 1346: 1342: 1339: 1335: 1332: 1331: 1327: 1324: 1320: 1317: 1316: 1312: 1309: 1305: 1302: 1301: 1293: 1292: 1282: 1280: 1277: 1276: 1272: 1270: 1267: 1266: 1262: 1260: 1257: 1256: 1252: 1250: 1247: 1246: 1242: 1240: 1237: 1236: 1232: 1230: 1227: 1226: 1222: 1220: 1217: 1216: 1212: 1210: 1207: 1206: 1202: 1200: 1197: 1196: 1192: 1190: 1187: 1186: 1182: 1180: 1177: 1176: 1172: 1170: 1167: 1166: 1162: 1160: 1157: 1156: 1152: 1150: 1147: 1146: 1142: 1140: 1137: 1136: 1132: 1130: 1127: 1126: 1122: 1120: 1117: 1116: 1112: 1110: 1107: 1106: 1102: 1100: 1097: 1096: 1092: 1090: 1087: 1086: 1082: 1080: 1077: 1076: 1072: 1070: 1067: 1066: 1062: 1060: 1057: 1056: 1052: 1050: 1047: 1046: 1042: 1040: 1037: 1036: 1032: 1030: 1027: 1026: 1022: 1020: 1017: 1016: 1012: 1010: 1007: 1006: 1002: 1000: 997: 996: 988: 987: 977: 975: 972: 971: 967: 965: 962: 961: 957: 955: 952: 951: 947: 945: 942: 941: 937: 935: 932: 931: 927: 925: 922: 921: 917: 915: 912: 911: 907: 905: 902: 901: 897: 895: 892: 891: 887: 885: 882: 881: 877: 875: 872: 871: 867: 865: 862: 861: 857: 855: 852: 851: 847: 845: 842: 841: 837: 835: 832: 831: 827: 825: 824:Muslim Sicily 822: 821: 817: 815: 812: 811: 807: 805: 802: 801: 797: 795: 792: 791: 787: 785: 782: 781: 777: 775: 772: 771: 767: 765: 762: 761: 757: 755: 752: 751: 743: 742: 732: 730: 727: 726: 722: 720: 717: 716: 712: 710: 707: 706: 702: 700: 697: 696: 692: 690: 687: 686: 682: 680: 677: 676: 672: 670: 667: 666: 662: 660: 657: 656: 652: 650: 647: 646: 642: 640: 637: 636: 632: 630: 627: 626: 622: 620: 617: 616: 612: 610: 607: 606: 602: 600: 597: 596: 592: 590: 587: 586: 582: 580: 577: 576: 572: 570: 567: 566: 562: 560: 557: 556: 552: 550: 547: 546: 542: 540: 537: 536: 532: 530: 527: 526: 518: 517: 507: 505: 502: 501: 497: 495: 492: 491: 487: 485: 482: 481: 477: 475: 472: 471: 463: 462: 453:450 AD–550 AD 452: 450: 447: 446: 442: 440: 437: 436: 432: 430: 427: 426: 422: 420: 417: 416: 412: 410: 407: 406: 402: 400: 397: 396: 393:64 BC–300s AD 392: 390: 387: 386: 383:132 BC–244 AD 382: 380: 377: 376: 373:400 BC–106 AD 372: 370: 367: 366: 363:600 BC–100 BC 362: 360: 357: 356: 353:800 BC–300 BC 352: 350: 347: 346: 338: 337: 333: 329: 328: 324: 323: 303: 301: 298: 297: 294: 288: 285: 278: 277: 274: 271: 264: 263: 260: 257: 250: 249: 246: 245: 242: 239: 237: 234: 233: 229: 226: 223: 219: 215: 211: 208: 202: 198: 194: 190: 184: 180: 174: 170: 167: 164: 160: 156: 154: 150: 146: 142: 139: 136: 134: 130: 127: 124: 120: 114: 111: 108: 105: 104: 103: 99: 94: 65: 62: 58: 51: 46: 41: 31: 19: 4939: 4890:Roman Empire 4882:Ancient Rome 4834: 4809: 4691: 4627: 4595: 4551: 4527: 4463: 4417: 4269: 4165: 4108:Chagar Bazar 4040: 4031: 4005: 3987: 3979:. New York: 3976: 3969: 3962: 3955: 3928: 3907: 3886: 3865: 3823: 3819: 3799: 3778: 3768: 3748: 3721: 3701: 3680: 3659: 3638: 3617: 3596: 3554:(2): 40–48. 3551: 3547: 3537: 3526: 3506:Roman Arabia 3505: 3487: 3483: 3474: 3470: 3461: 3439:. Retrieved 3424: 3417: 3361:. Retrieved 3342: 3335: 3316: 3307: 3288: 3282: 3239:Pearson 2011 3234: 3222: 3210: 3198: 3174:Starcky 1955 3169: 3164:, p. 1. 3157: 3145: 3133: 3106: 3075: 3048: 3041:Pearson 2011 3017: 3012:, p. 4. 3005: 2993: 2981: 2969: 2964:, p. 8. 2921: 2909: 2902:Hammond 1973 2861: 2849: 2825:, p. 7. 2818: 2755:, p. 8. 2748: 2736: 2724: 2712: 2700: 2693:Wenning 2007 2667:. Retrieved 2648: 2577: 2541:frankincense 2529:trade routes 2526: 2491: 2476:The city of 2475: 2448: 2413: 2402:Roman Empire 2382:Roman Empire 2367: 2343: 2316: 2302: 2283: 2239: 2236: 2211: 2199: 2188: 2164: 2153: 2140: 2135: 2128: 2101: 2094: 2083: 2076: 2056: 2035: 2031:Port of Gaza 2015:frankincense 2002: 1987:the conflict 1984: 1954: 1941:neither the 1940: 1916: 1883: 1879:Port of Gaza 1849: 1837:Hebrew Bible 1829:Ashurbanipal 1818: 1810:Neo-Assyrian 1799: 1790: 1788: 1777: 1765: 1741:Roman Empire 1738: 1723: 1672: 1668: 1660: 1658: 1618:1921–present 1603:1900–present 1588:1868–present 1573:1833–present 1558:1810–present 1543:1783–present 1528:1775–present 1513:1761–present 1498:1752–present 1483:1749–present 1468:1744–present 1463:Saudi Arabia 1453:1727–present 1438:1727–present 1423:1631–present 433:300s–500s AD 368: 241:Succeeded by 240: 235: 207:Roman Empire 4655:Bit Bahiani 4440:Tell Hadidi 3227:Taylor 2001 3215:Sartre 2005 3191:Kasher 1988 3138:Barkay 2011 3126:Barkay 2015 3099:Taylor 2001 2947:Taylor 2001 2926:Salibi 1998 2854:Healey 2001 2811:Taylor 2001 2753:Taylor 2001 2717:Taylor 2001 2705:Taylor 2001 2621:Taylor 2001 2319:Transjordan 1951:Macedonians 1937:in 312 BC. 1935:Antigonus I 1871:Middle East 1808:during the 1806:Mesopotamia 1667:: 𐢕𐢃𐢋𐢈 1323:Pate Island 1296:East Africa 1089:Sulaymanids 1029:Ukhaidhirds 814:Sulaymanids 784:Muhallabids 689:Munqidhites 589:Shirvanshah 443:300s–602 AD 413:196–1100 AD 403:100s–241 AD 236:Preceded by 88: / 5006:Categories 4842:Carchemish 4823:Nabataeans 4640:Aram Rehob 4408:Carchemish 4218:Third Mari 4198:Third Ebla 4148:Bronze Age 4103:Tell Halaf 4090:Copper Age 3477:: 431–439. 3435:9004121706 3203:Kropp 2013 3053:Milik 2003 3022:Bowes 1998 3010:Bowes 1998 2823:Groot 1879 2654:I.B.Tauris 2564:References 2524:/Nessana. 2370:Aretas III 2246:Alexandria 2220:historian 2119:Al-Khazneh 1899:Evagoras I 1887:Achaemenid 1859:See also: 1797:of Hejaz. 1762:Nabataeans 1756:Nabataeans 1715:Nabataeans 1609:Hashemites 1564:Al Maktoum 1534:Al Khalifa 1219:Upper Yafa 1209:Ya'arubids 1049:Qarmatians 934:Sumadihids 423:220–638 AD 419:Ghassanids 259:Nabataeans 144:Government 133:Demonym(s) 109:(official) 76:35°26′31″E 73:30°19′43″N 4935:Macedonia 4900:Commagene 4828:Qedarites 4766:Phoenicia 4734:Philistia 4650:Bit Agusi 4645:Bit-Adini 4487:Tall Bazi 4381:Phoenicia 4351:Jerusalem 4203:Ekallatum 3856:134256604 3840:0006-0895 3621:. BRILL. 3584:133997328 3568:0006-0895 3490:: 67–73. 3441:27 August 3428:. BRILL. 3348:Routledge 2590:Citations 2516:, Hegra ( 2498:Hasmonean 2488:Geography 2304:Gaza City 2214:Maccabees 2207:Aretas II 2175:Aretas IV 2090:Seleucids 2086:Ptolemies 2059:Demetrius 2011:Phoenicia 1967:Nabataean 1943:Assyrians 1925:, one of 1907:Qedarites 1855:Emergence 1814:Assyrians 1728:into the 1594:Al Sharqi 1549:Al Nuaimi 1519:Al Mualla 1508:Abu Dhabi 1504:Al Nahyan 1444:Al Qasimi 1429:Al Qasimi 1393:1860–1887 1383:1858–1895 1368:1856–1964 1358:1746–1828 1343:1277–1495 1328:1203–1894 1283:1926–1970 1273:1906–1934 1263:1903–1967 1253:1858–1967 1249:Qu'aitids 1243:1836–1921 1239:Rashidids 1233:1820–1970 1223:1800–1967 1213:1624–1742 1203:1597–1872 1193:1463–1521 1183:1454–1526 1173:1395–1967 1169:Kathirids 1163:1305–1487 1159:Jarwanids 1153:1253–1320 1143:1229–1454 1133:1159–1174 1123:1154–1624 1119:Nabhanids 1113:1083–1174 1103:1076–1253 1093:1063–1174 1083:1047–1138 1079:Sulayhids 978:1837–1969 974:Senussids 968:1554–1659 958:1230–1492 948:1049–1078 938:1041–1091 928:1039–1110 918:1031–1091 914:Jawharids 908:1027–1063 904:Muzaynids 898:1026–1057 894:Hammudids 888:1023–1062 884:Yahsubids 878:1023–1091 868:1020–1086 858:1013–1039 848:1012–1051 838:1004–1412 804:Aghlabids 733:1697–1842 723:1517–1865 713:1480–1677 703:1517–1697 693:1025–1157 683:1024–1080 679:Mirdasids 669:Numayrids 649:Jarrahids 639:Mazyadids 619:Hamdanids 609:Hashimids 569:Habbarids 559:Dulafids 409:Tanukhids 287:Qedarites 195:invasion 193:Hasmonean 166:Antiquity 138:Nabataean 122:Religion 5032:Nabataea 4857:Palistin 4817:Itureans 4615:Iron Age 4419:Hurrians 4161:Alashiya 4113:Hamoukar 3733:citation 3594:(1973). 3496:42667225 3315:(1981). 2547:See also 2335:Obodas I 2323:Damascus 2286:Seleucid 2270:Obodas I 2222:Josephus 2203:Aretas I 2190:Aretas I 2072:Dead Sea 2023:Eudaemon 1955:Diodorus 1933:general 1903:Persians 1847:'s son. 1833:Nebaioth 1825:Assyrian 1734:Damascus 1598:Fujairah 1579:Al Thani 1489:Al Sabah 1378:Wituland 1313:896–1279 1269:Idrisids 1199:Qasimids 1179:Tahirids 1149:Usfurids 1139:Rasulids 1109:Zurayids 1073:968–1925 1059:Wajihids 1053:899–1077 1043:897–1962 1033:865–1066 1019:Yufirids 1013:819–1138 1009:Ziyadids 1003:751–1970 944:Tahirids 874:Abbadids 854:Tujibids 828:831–1091 794:Idrisids 778:756–1031 758:710–1019 754:Salihids 719:Harfushs 709:Turabays 673:990–1081 663:990–1096 659:Uqaylids 653:970–1107 643:961–1150 633:955–1071 629:Rawadids 623:890–1004 613:869–1075 593:861–1538 579:Kaysites 573:854–1011 543:736–1122 508:909–1171 504:Fatimids 498:750–1258 494:Abbasids 484:Umayyads 474:Rashidun 439:Lakhmids 429:Salihids 221:Currency 189:Obodas I 147:Monarchy 115:(native) 37:𐢕𐢃𐢋𐢈 4979:Sources 4945:Osroene 4744:Ascalon 4719:Jericho 4597:Nuhašše 4545:Suteans 4483:Armanum 4435:Mitanni 4430:Nuhašše 4391:Shechem 4371:Megiddo 4366:Lakisha 4356:Kenites 4346:Jericho 4326:Dimasqu 4297:Aštartu 4292:Ascalon 4228:Palmyra 4183:Andarig 4173:Alalakh 4118:Jericho 4080:of the 4078:history 3983:, 1986. 3848:3209134 3576:3209307 3453:Sources 3363:10 July 2522:Nitzana 2520:), and 2478:Palmyra 2467:Persian 2445:Hadrian 2264:in the 2098:monsoon 2068:bitumen 2039:stadion 1873:, when 1845:Abraham 1841:Ishmael 1835:of the 1768:Bedouin 1751:History 1726:Tihamah 1717:during 1673:Nabatea 1538:Bahrain 1474:Al Said 1459:Al Saud 1448:Sharjah 1418:Morocco 1414:'Alawis 1353:Mombasa 1189:Jabrids 1129:Mahdids 1099:Uyunids 1063:926–965 1039:Rassids 1023:847–997 964:Saadids 954:Nasrids 864:Amirids 844:Bakrids 834:Kanzids 818:814–922 808:800–909 798:788–974 788:771–793 768:745-757 729:Shihabs 699:Ma'nids 603:864–928 599:Alavids 583:860–964 563:840–897 553:824–961 533:654–884 488:661–750 478:632–661 191:repels 187:• 60:Capital 5052:Gilead 5012:168 BC 4930:Iturea 4862:Pattin 4852:Luhuti 4847:Kummuh 4786:Tartus 4739:Ashdod 4693:Canaan 4670:Sam'al 4665:Hamath 4660:Geshur 4586:Ugarit 4576:Tadmor 4559:ʿApiru 4540:Aḫlamū 4535:ʿApiru 4521:Tuttul 4476:Aleppo 4449:Naziba 4386:Qadesh 4376:Midian 4361:Kumidi 4336:Gibeon 4316:Beruta 4311:Hauran 4307:Bashan 4302:Azzati 4277:Amalek 4248:Yamhad 4238:Ṭābetu 4223:Mukish 4178:Amurru 4138:Urkesh 4133:Ugarit 4123:Byblos 4082:Levant 4003:about 3970:Boreas 3936: 3915: 3894: 3873: 3854: 3846: 3838: 3807: 3786: 3756: 3726:Beirut 3709: 3688: 3667: 3646: 3625: 3604: 3582: 3574: 3566: 3513: 3494: 3432: 3409: 3390: 3354: 3323: 3295: 2669:8 July 2660: 2510:Jordan 2447:, the 2416:Trajan 2331:Gilead 2294:Pompey 2242:Priene 2232:Romans 2160:Strabo 2148:Hauran 2144:Nabatu 2132:Hauran 1991:Levant 1969:tomb, 1905:. The 1821:Jordan 1669:Nabāṭū 1613:Jordan 1493:Kuwait 924:Hudids 273:Lihyan 212:106 AD 157: 4811:Arabs 4796:Sidon 4781:Gebal 4776:Arwad 4771:Amrit 4749:Ekron 4724:Judah 4699:Ammon 4675:Zobah 4581:Tunip 4569:Shutu 4564:Shasu 4529:Suhum 4516:Nagar 4506:Terqa 4502:Khana 4425:Urshu 4396:Sidon 4341:Hazor 4331:Gezer 4321:Gebal 4287:Arwad 4265:Barga 4233:Qatna 4213:Kurda 4041:limes 3852:S2CID 3844:JSTOR 3580:S2CID 3572:JSTOR 3492:JSTOR 2569:Notes 2537:myrrh 2514:Bosra 2506:Raqmu 2455:Aqaba 2437:Egypt 2433:Egypt 2429:Syria 2378:Roman 2363:Avdat 2266:Negev 2262:Avdat 2123:Petra 2027:Petra 2019:myrrh 2007:Syria 1979:Hejaz 1947:Medes 1931:Greek 1895:Egypt 1891:Hakor 1875:Petra 1827:king 1780:Yemen 1730:Hejaz 1583:Qatar 1568:Dubai 1553:Ajman 1338:Kilwa 1308:Shewa 199:90 BC 64:Petra 4791:Tyre 4759:Gaza 4754:Gath 4729:Moab 4704:Edom 4603:Niya 4553:Amqu 4511:Mari 4497:Emar 4492:Ebla 4471:Armi 4454:Niya 4401:Tyre 4282:Arqa 4260:Aram 4255:Amqu 4208:Emar 4188:Apum 4128:Ebla 3934:ISBN 3913:ISBN 3892:ISBN 3871:ISBN 3836:ISSN 3805:ISBN 3784:ISBN 3754:ISBN 3739:link 3707:ISBN 3686:ISBN 3665:ISBN 3644:ISBN 3623:ISBN 3602:ISBN 3564:ISSN 3511:ISBN 3471:ARAM 3443:2014 3430:ISBN 3407:ISBN 3388:ISBN 3365:2016 3352:ISBN 3321:ISBN 3293:ISBN 2671:2016 2658:ISBN 2539:and 2329:and 2327:Moab 2227:John 2009:and 1995:Edom 1897:and 1791:nbṭw 1659:The 1478:Oman 153:King 4591:Upu 3828:doi 3556:doi 3488:171 2508:in 2361:in 2296:'s 2106:). 1893:of 5008:: 4892:- 4888:- 3850:. 3842:. 3834:. 3824:18 3822:. 3735:}} 3731:{{ 3578:. 3570:. 3562:. 3552:22 3550:. 3486:. 3475:27 3473:. 3398:^ 3373:^ 3346:. 3263:^ 3246:^ 3181:^ 3118:^ 3087:^ 3060:^ 3029:^ 2954:^ 2933:^ 2894:^ 2873:^ 2830:^ 2803:^ 2760:^ 2679:^ 2628:^ 2597:^ 2473:. 2300:. 2209:. 2017:, 1977:, 1843:, 1747:. 1721:. 1703:iː 4896:) 4884:( 4819:? 4504:/ 4485:/ 4309:/ 4069:e 4062:t 4055:v 3942:. 3921:. 3900:. 3879:. 3858:. 3830:: 3813:. 3792:. 3762:. 3741:) 3715:. 3694:. 3673:. 3652:. 3631:. 3610:. 3586:. 3558:: 3519:. 3498:. 3445:. 3367:. 3329:. 3301:. 2673:. 2125:. 1957:. 1709:/ 1706:ə 1700:t 1697:ˈ 1694:ə 1691:b 1688:æ 1685:n 1682:ˌ 1679:/ 1675:( 1663:( 1648:e 1641:t 1634:v 1615:) 1611:( 1600:) 1596:( 1585:) 1581:( 1570:) 1566:( 1555:) 1551:( 1540:) 1536:( 1525:) 1521:( 1510:) 1506:( 1495:) 1491:( 1480:) 1476:( 1465:) 1461:( 1450:) 1446:( 1435:) 1431:( 1420:) 1416:( 1380:) 1376:( 1355:) 1351:( 1340:) 1336:( 1325:) 1321:( 1310:) 1306:( 20:)

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