2031:
Athenaeus himself was killed. The
Antigonids had deployed no scouts, a failure that Diodorus ascribes to Athenaeus's failure to anticipate the rapidity of the Nabataean response. After the Nabataeans returned to their rock, they wrote a letter to Antigonus accusing Athenaeus and declaring that they had destroyed the Antigonid army in self-defence. Antigonus replied by blaming Athenaeus for acting unilaterally, intending to lull the Nabataeans into a false sense of security. But the Nabataeans, though pleased with Antigonus response, remained suspicious and established outposts on the edge of the mountains in preparation for future Antigonid attacks.
2214:
Galaad. This peaceful meeting between the
Nabataeans and two brothers in the first book of Maccabees seems to contradict a parallel account from the second book where a pastoral Arab tribe launched a surprise attack on the two brothers. Despite open contradiction between the two accounts, scholars tend to identify the plundering Arab tribe of the second book with the Nabataeans in the first book. They were evidently not Nabataeans, for good relations between the Maccabees and their "friends", the Nabataeans, continued to exist. The friendly relations between them is further emphasized by Jonathan decision to send his brother
2151:'s account (whose description of Arabia derives ultimately from reports by 3rd century BC Ptolemaic officials) that the Nabataean kingship was old and traditional. In conclusion, Rachel Barkay states that "the Nabataean economy and political regime were in existence by the third century BC". The Kingship of the Nabataeans, was in the view of Strabo, an effective one, where the Nabataean kingdom was "very well governed" and the king was "a man of the people". For more than four centuries the Nabataean kingdom dominated, politically and commercially, a large territory and was arguably the first Arab kingdom in the area.
2147:, provides further evidence. The relevant part of the Lithika section of the papyrus describes an Arabian cavalry of a certain Nabataean king, providing an early 3rd century BC reference to a Nabataean monarch. The word Nabataean stands alone beside a missing word that start with the letter M; one of the suggested words for filling the gap is the traditional name of Nabataean kings, Malichus. Furthermore, the anonymous Nabataean coins dated by Barkay to the second half of the 3rd century BC, found mainly in Nabataean territory, support such an early date of the Nabataean Kingdom. This is in line with
39:
2055:"the rock" through its "single artificial approach", but the Nabataeans managed to repulse the invading force. A Nabataean called out to Demetrius pointing out that Antigonid aggression made no sense, for the land was semi-barren and the Nabataeans had no desire to be their slaves. Realizing his limited supplies and the determination of the Nabataean fighters, Demetrius eventually was forced to accept peace, and withdraw with hostages and gifts. Demetrius drew Antigonus's displeasure for the peace, but this was ameliorated by Demetrius's reports of
1951:
295:
321:
2181:, mentioned in II Macc as "the tyrant of the Arabs" (169-168 BC), is regarded as the first explicitly named king of the Nabataeans. His first appearance in history is in the II Macc, where the high-priest Jason, driven by his rival Menelaus, sought the protection of Aretas. Upon his arrival at the land of the Nabataeans, Aretas imprisoned Jason. It is not clear why or when that happened; his arrest by Aretas was either after he escaped Jerusalem, where Aretas, fearing the retaliation of
1918:'s generals, who had a first-hand encounter with the Nabataeans. Diodorus relates how the Nabataeans survived in a waterless desert and managed to defeat their enemies by hiding in the desert until the latter surrendered for lack of water. The Nabataeans dug cisterns that were covered and marked by signs known only to themselves. Diodorus wrote about how they were "exceptionally fond of freedom" and includes an account about unsuccessful raids that were initiated by
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interpretation of the evidence in the books of
Maccabees "illustrates the danger of assuming that any reference to Arabs in areas known to have been settled by the Nabataeans must automatically refer to them". But the picture is different, many Arab tribes in the region continued to be nomadic and moved in and out of the emerging Nabataean kingdom, and the Nabataeans, as well as invading armies and eventually the
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2070:, to extract bitumen from the Dead Sea. A force of 6000 Arabs sailing on reed rafts approached Hieronymus's troops and killed them with arrows. These Arabs were almost certainly Nabataeans. Antigonus thus lost all hope of generating revenue in that manner. The event is described as the first conflict caused by a Middle Eastern petroleum product.
2127:". Simultaneously, the Nabataeans had probably moved across the 'Araba to the west into the desert tracts of the Negev. In their early history, before establishing urban centers, the Nabataeans demonstrated on several occasions their impressive and well organized military prowess by successfully defending their territory against larger powers.
2140:
could be linked with a reference from the Zenon archive (the second historical mention of the
Nabataeans) to deliveries of grain to "Rabbel's men", Rabbel being a characteristically royal Nabataean name, it is thus possible to link Rabbel of the Zenon archive with the nameless king of Bosra's inscription, though it is highly speculative.
2026:
interpreted by some as the future city of "Petra", "rock" in Greek.) The
Antigonids attacked "the rock" in 312 BC while the Nabataeans were away trading; the inhabitants were taken by surprise and tonnes of spices and silver were looted. The Antigonids departed before nightfall and made camp to rest 200
2054:
to warn of the approaching
Antigonid army. The Nabataeans dispersed their herds and possessions to guarded locations in harsh terrain - such as deserts and mountain tops - which would be difficult for the Antigonids to attack, and garrisoned "the rock" to defend what remained. The Antigonids attacked
2189:
A Nabataean inscription in the Negev, mentions a
Nabataean king called Aretas, the date given by Starcky is not later than 150 BC. However, the dating is difficult. It has been claimed that the inscription dates to the 3rd century BC, based on the pre-Nabataean writing style, or somewhere in the 2nd
2130:
The second phase saw the creation of the
Nabataean political state in the mid-3rd century BC. Kingship is regarded as a characteristic of a state and urban society. The Nabataean institution of kingship came about as a result of multiple factors, such as the indispensabilities of trade organization
2570:
The Zenon archive mentions
Dionysius, one of two Greek employees who sought an alternative career of selling women as sex slaves, he was once detained by the Nabataeans for a week during one of his expeditions. Considering what is known of the Nabtaean society's remarkable gender equality at later
2213:
report that Judas
Maccabeus and his brother Jonathan marched three days into the wilderness before encountering the Nabataeans in the Hauran, where they were settled in for at least a century. The Nabataeans treated them peacefully and told them of what happened to the Jews residing in the land of
2139:
region, probably Bosra, which mentions a Nabataean king whose name was lost, dated by Stracky to the early third century BC. The dating is significant, since the available evidence does not attest the existence of Nabataean monarchy until the second century BC. This nameless Nabataean king perhaps
2084:
Diodorus mentions that the Nabataeans had attacked merchant ships belonging to the Ptolemies in Egypt at an unspecified date, but were soon targeted by a larger force and "punished as they deserved". While it is unknown why the wealthy Nabataeans turned to piracy, one possible reason is that they
1873:
The literate Nabataeans left no lengthy historical texts. However, thousands of inscriptions have been found in their settlements, including graffiti and on minted coins. The Nabataeans appear in historical records from the fourth century BC, although there seems to be evidence of their existence
2154:
The testimony of the 4th and 3rd century external accounts and local materialistic evidence demonstrate that the Nabataeans played a relatively substantial political and economic role in the sphere of the early Hellenistic world. While the Nabataeans didn't attain observable characteristics of a
2218:
to "lodge his baggage" with the Nabataeans until the battle with the Seleucids is over. Again, the Maccabean caravan suffered an attack by a murderer Arab tribe in the vicinity of Madaba. This tribe was clearly not Nabataean, for they were identified as the sons of Amrai. In Bowersock view, the
2030:
away, where they thought they would be safe from Nabataean counter-attack. The camp was attacked by 8000 pursuing Nabataean soldiers and - as Diodorus describes it - "all the 4000 foot-soldiers were slain, but of the 600 horsemen about fifty escaped, and of these the larger part were wounded";
2025:
Antigonus ordered one of his officers, Athenaeus, to raid the Nabataeans with 4000 infantry and 600 cavalry, and loot herds and processions. Athenaeus learned that, every year, the Nabataeans gathered for a festival, during which women, children, and elders were left at "a certain rock" (later
2118:
The Nabataean Arabs did not emerge as a political power suddenly; their rise instead went through two phases. The first phase was in the 4th century BC (ruled then by an elders' council), which was marked by the growth of Nabataean control over trade routes and various tribes and towns. Their
2185:
for "openly demonstrating pro-Ptolemaic stand" (in Hammond's view however, Aretas hoped to use Jason as a political bargaining counter with the Seleucids), arrested Jason. Or his imprisonment might have happened at a later date (167 BC), as a result of the established friendship between the
2159:
1898:
joined the failed revolt, and consequently lost significant territory and their privileged position in the frankincense trade, and were presumably replaced by the Nabataeans. It has been argued that the Persians lost interest in the former territory of the
2155:
Hellenistic state (i.e. monumental architecture) in their early period, similar to contemporary Seleucid Syria, the Milan papyrus speaks of their wealth and prestige in this period. In that respect, the Nabataeans must be considered a unique entity.
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died. That might have prompted the official annexation of Nabatea to the Roman Empire, but the formal reasons and the exact manner of annexation are unknown. Some epigraphic evidence suggests a military campaign, commanded by
1763:
and moved with their herds to wherever they could find pasture and water. They became familiar with their area as seasons passed, and they struggled to survive during bad years when seasonal rainfall diminished.
2333:
After the Nabataean victory over the Judaeans, the former were now at odds with the Seleucids, who were concerned about the increasing influence of the Nabataeans to the south of their territories. During the
1839:
Unlike the rest of the Arabian tribes, the Nabataeans later emerged as vital players in the region during their times of prosperity. However, their influence then faded, and the Nabataeans were forgotten.
2119:
presence in Transjordan by the end of the fourth century BC is guaranteed by Antigonus's operations in the region, and despite recent suggestions that there is no evidence of Nabataean occupation of the
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waged war against the Nabataeans. Antiochus was slain during combat, and his army fled and perished in the desert from starvation. After Obodas's victories over the Judaeans and the Seleucids, he was
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5015:
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2454:, the local issue of coinage came to an end. There was no more building of sumptuous tombs, apparently because of a sudden change in political ways, such as an invasion by the neo-
2123:
in the early period, the Zenon papyri firmly attest the penetration of the Hauran by the Nabataeans in the mid-third century BC beyond all doubt, and according to Bowersock, it "
1903:
after 400 BC, allowing the Nabataeans to gain prominence in that area. All of these changes would have allowed Nabataeans to control the frankincense trade from Dedan to Gaza.
3709:
Milik, J.T. (2003), "Appendice, inscription nabatéenne archaïque. Une bilingue arameo-grecque de 105/104 avant J.-C.", in J. Dentzer-Feydy; J.-M. Dentzer; P.-M. Blanc (eds.),
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Jews, Idumaeans, and Ancient Arabs: Relations of the Jews in Eretz-Israel with the Nations of the Frontier and the Desert During the Hellenistic and Roman Era (332 BCE-70 CE)
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time, it is likely that they were objecting to the treatment of women in their area, for whom they believed they were responsible in the course of maintaining law and order.
1775:, but their deities, language and script share nothing with those of southern Arabia. Another hypothesis argues that they came from the eastern coast of the peninsula.
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The Nabataeans might have originated from there and migrated west between the 6th and 4th centuries BC into northwestern Arabia and much of what is now modern-day
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The Nabataean Kingdom controlled many of the trade routes of the region, amassing large wealth and drawing the envy of its neighbors. It stretched south along the
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3921:. Vol. 2 of the International Conference, The World of the Herods and the Nabataeans, Held at the British Museum, 17–19 April 2001. Franz Steiner Verlag.
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Nabataeans and Judas Maccabaeus, aimed to hand Jason to the Jews. "Either suggestion is feasible and so the riddle remains unresolved", according to Kasher.
1820:, were associated by some with the Nabataeans because of the temptation to link their similar names. Another misconception is their identification with the
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2002:. The Nabataeans were distinguished from the other Arab tribes by wealth. The Nabataeans generated revenues from the trade caravans that transported
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The suggestion that they came from the Hejaz area is considered to be more convincing, as they share many deities with the ancient people there;
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The Nabataeans began to mint coins during the second century BC, revealing the extensive economic and political independence they enjoyed.
2373:, which conquered Egypt and annexed Hasmonean Judea. While the Nabataean kingdom managed to preserve its formal independence, it became a
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in southern Arabia, and ran through Mada'in Saleh to Petra. From there, aromatics were distributed throughout the Mediterranean region.
2205:
had maintained a friendly relationship, the former had sympathized with the Maccabees, who were being mistreated by the Seleucids. The
1767:
The precise origin of the specific tribe of Arab nomads remains uncertain. One hypothesis locates their original homeland in today's
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and war; the subsequent outcomes of the Greek expeditions on the Nabataeans played a role in the political centralization of the
2424:. It is clear that by 107 AD Roman legions were stationed in the area around Petra and Bosra, as is shown by a papyrus found in
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1812:. Nabataeans have been falsely associated with other groups of people. A people called the "Nabaiti", who were defeated by the
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Benjamin, Jesse. "Of Nubians and Nabateans: Implications of research on neglected dimensions of ancient world history."
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Nabataea remained an independent political entity from the mid-3rd century BC until it was annexed in AD 106 by the
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Judaea and the Greco-Roman World In the Time of Herod In the Light of Archaeological Evidence: Acts of a Symposium
2322:. These territorial acquisitions threatened Nabataean trade interests in Gaza and in Damascus. The Nabataean King
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before shipment to European markets, giving the Nabataeans considerable influence over the Gazans. Hasmonean King
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The series of wars among the Greek generals ended in a dispute over the lands of modern-day Jordan between the
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The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India
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2432:. Trade seems to have largely continued thanks to the Nabataeans' undiminished talent for trading. Under
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The Antigonids' second attack was with an army of 4000 infantry and 4000 cavalry led by Antigonus's son,
1939:
1919:
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Wenning, Robert (2007). "The Nabataeans in History (Before AD 106).". In Konstantinos D. Politis (ed.).
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Petra was included in a list of major cities in the Mediterranean area to be visited by a notable from
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have been able to enslave them, and... they never brought their attempts to a successful conclusion. -
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3308:. Vol. 1. Trans. G. A. Williamson 1959. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin. p. 40.
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was the last stop for caravans carrying spices before being shipped to European markets through the
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Raqmu, now called Petra, was a wealthy trading town, located at a convergence of several important
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as one of several rebellious Arab tribes in the region, suggests a connection between the two.
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felt that their trade interests were threatened by the gradual understanding of the nature of
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Contextualizing the Nabataeans: A Critical Reassessment of Their History and Material Culture
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tribe. The earliest evidence of Nabataean kingship comes from a Nabataean inscription in the
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The rise of the Nabataeans: sociopolitical developments in 4th and 3rd century BC Nabataea
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based in Syria. The conflict enabled the Nabataeans to extend their kingdom beyond Edom.
1974:
After Alexander the Great's death in 323 BC, his empire split among his generals. During
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province Idumaea must have been established before 363 B.C. after the failed revolt of
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2393:, at its greatest extent, showing the territory of Trajan's Nabataean conquests in red
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supremacy over Nabataea. The Nabataean kingdom was slowly surrounded by the expanding
2365:
besieged Petra. The defeated king Aretas III paid a tribute to Scaurus and recognized
2233:, a sign of the significance of Nabataea in the ancient world. Petra was counted with
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Kropp, Andreas J. M. "Nabatean Petra: the royal palace and the Herod connection."
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2257:, which reused elements of a temple built by the Nabataeans to commemorate king
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Hauran II: Les Installations de Sī 8 du Sanctuaire à l'Etablissement Viticole I
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The Nabataeans were allies of the Maccabees during their struggles against the
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Levy, Thomas Evan; Daviau, P.M. Michele; Younker, Randall W. (16 June 2016).
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Hammond, Philip C. (1959). "The Nabataean Bitumen Industry at the Dead Sea".
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The kingdom seems to have reached its territorial zenith during the reign of
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ignored most of the Nabatæan territory and ran northeast from Aila (modern
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who lived around 30 BC. Diodorus refers accounts made 300 years earlier by
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Crossing Jordan: North American Contributions to the Archaeology of Jordan
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regained control of these areas after his forces defeated Jannaeus in the
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establish these Arabs in one of the principal areas of subsequent splendor
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2050:"the Besieger". The Nabataean scouts spotted the marching enemy and used
2042:. Roman copy from 1st century AD of a Greek original from 3rd century BC.
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period, as well as a group with the name of "Nabatu" being listed by the
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besieged and occupied Gaza in 96 BC, murdering many of its inhabitants.
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The first historical reference to the Nabataeans is by Greek historian
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2473:, grew in importance and attracted the Arabian trade away from Petra.
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The History of the Israelites and Judæans: Philosophical and Critical
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Around the same time, the Arab Nabataeans and the neighboring Jewish
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2063:, a valuable commodity that was essential for the embalming process.
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Mills, Watson E.; Bullard, Roger Aubrey; McKnight, Edgar V. (1990).
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2354:, where inscriptions have been found referring to "Obodas the god".
2237:, which was considered to be a supreme city in the civilized world.
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The Process of Nabataean Sedentarization: New Models and Approaches
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monarchs. They then became rivals of their successors, the Judaean
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2428:. The kingdom was annexed by the empire to become the province of
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2787:, Loeb Classical Library edition, 1954, accessed 27 December 2019
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in today's Yemen, across the Arabian peninsula, passing through
1782:, the root consonant of the tribe's name, is found in the early
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Dividing the Spoils: The War for Alexander the Great's Empire
3807:
Starcky, Jean (1955). "The Nabataeans: A Historical Sketch".
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Images and Monuments of Near Eastern Dynasts, 100 BC - AD 100
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Taylor, Jane; Petra; p.25-31; Aurum Press Ltd; London; 2005;
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2265:
2254:
2250:
2111:
2103:
2015:
2007:
1967:
1935:
1879:
1863:
1768:
1718:
1571:
1326:
1296:
52:
2269:
Aretas III on a Roman coin, depicted in a pose of submission
4717:
4692:
4541:
4485:
4480:
4270:
4243:
4196:
4176:
4116:
3975:
del Rio Sánchez, Francisco, and Juan Pedro Monferrer Sala.
3144:
2941:
2871:
2869:
2867:
2865:
2863:
2481:
The Nabataean Kingdom was situated between the Arabian and
2455:
2361:(87 to 62 BC). In 62 BC, a Roman army under the command of
2315:
1983:
1694:
1682:
1466:
3259:
3257:
3255:
3253:
3240:
3238:
3236:
2968:
2826:
2824:
2822:
2820:
2420:. Roman forces seem to have come from Syria and also from
2261:
and his victories against the Hasmoneans and the Seleucids
1874:
before that time. Aramaic ostraca finds indicate that the
4579:
3471:
Barkay, Rachel (2011). "The Earliest Nabataean Coinage".
3458:
Barkay, Rachel (2015). "NEW ASPECTS OF NABATAEAN COINS".
3394:
Teller, Matthew; Jordan; p.265; Rough Guides; Sept 2009;
2896:
2110:
was carved into rock by the Nabataeans in their capital,
1676:
5016:
States and territories disestablished in the 2nd century
5011:
States and territories established in the 3rd century BC
3586:
The Nabataeans -- their history, culture and archaeology
3110:
3108:
3025:
3023:
3021:
3019:
2886:
2884:
2860:
2848:
2190:
century BC. Generally, the inscription is attributed to
1978:
between Alexander's generals, Antigonus I conquered the
3250:
3233:
3175:
3173:
3171:
3083:
3081:
3079:
3077:
3062:
2980:
2931:
2929:
2927:
2925:
2923:
2817:
2795:
2793:
2677:
2675:
2673:
2671:
2669:
3132:
2711:
2605:
2603:
2601:
2599:
2597:
2595:
2593:
2591:
2589:
2587:
3221:
3209:
3156:
3105:
3016:
2881:
2281:, and a chief element in the disorders which invited
2089:
in the Red Sea from the third century BC onward (see
1725:, which it controlled for a short period (85–71 BC).
1673:
1670:
3734:
3197:
3168:
3120:
3074:
3035:
3004:
2920:
2908:
2836:
2790:
2729:
2666:
2098:
1688:
1679:
3185:
2699:
2687:
2584:
1685:
2992:
2805:
2735:
2295:was the last stop for spices that were carried by
2194:of II Macc, or perhaps as suggested by others, to
3977:Nabatu: The Nabataeans through their Inscriptions
3666:
3519:. Department of Anthropology, University of Utah.
3332:Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire
3099:
4992:
1992:the land of the Arabs who are called Nabataeans
3954:. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1996.
3448:
3150:
3056:
2962:
2950:
2630:
2628:
2626:
2624:
2622:
2620:
2618:
2524:which was based around the production of both
2306:Jannaeus then captured several territories in
2066:Antigonus sent an expedition, this time under
1755:The Nabataeans were one among several nomadic
16:Ancient Arab kingdom (3rd century BC – 106 AD)
4050:
2489:kingdom, and its south western neighbour was
2403:In 106 AD, during the reign of Roman emperor
1629:
4028:showing the outposts that made up Hadrian's
3876:Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans
3607:The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus
2638:Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans
2240:
43:The Nabataean Kingdom at its greatest extent
3979:. Barcelona: University of Barcelona, 2005.
3404:
2615:
4057:
4043:
3893:
3760:(PhD). University of California, Berkeley.
3726:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3687:
3410:
2902:
2875:
2854:
2469:, for a time the capital of the breakaway
1636:
1622:
37:
3491:
3390:
3388:
3371:
3369:
3367:
3365:
3363:
3263:
3244:
3068:
2986:
2974:
2830:
2717:
2407:, the last king of the Nabataean kingdom
1982:, and this brought him to the borders of
5036:Political entities in the Land of Israel
3855:Near Eastern royalty and Rome, 100-30 BC
3851:
3300:
3138:
2384:
2264:
2244:
2169:
2157:
2102:
2033:
1949:
1853:
3914:
3806:
3755:
3688:McLaughlin, Raoul (11 September 2014).
3579:
3534:
3275:
3227:
3162:
3029:
2890:
2780:
2778:
2776:
2774:
2772:
2770:
2681:
2450:. A century later, during the reign of
4993:
3872:
3785:
3764:
3624:
3603:
3470:
3457:
3385:
3360:
3215:
3203:
3179:
3126:
3114:
3087:
2935:
2914:
2842:
2799:
2768:
2766:
2764:
2762:
2760:
2758:
2756:
2754:
2752:
2750:
2741:
2705:
2693:
2609:
2143:A recent papyrological discovery, the
4038:
3894:Waterfield, Robin (11 October 2012).
3765:Salibi, Kamal S. (15 December 1998).
3708:
3646:Kropp, Andreas J. M. (27 June 2013).
3645:
3523:
3512:
3191:
3041:
3010:
2998:
2811:
2310:north of Nabataea, along the road to
2223:also, had to cope with these people.
3945:Journal of Asian and African Studies
3328:
3322:
2634:
2346:by his people. He was buried in the
1986:, just north of Petra. According to
314:Historical Arab states and dynasties
3280:. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
2747:
2380:
1938:and Persians, nor yet those of the
13:
4980:Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions
4065:Ancient states and regions in the
3950:Fittschen, Klaus, and G Foerster.
3937:
2785:Diodorus Siculus, Book XIX, 95-100
2730:Mills, Bullard & McKnight 1990
2022:for shipment to European markets.
1850:Antigonid–Nabataean confrontations
14:
5057:
3983:
3449:Al-Abduljabbar, Abdullah (1995).
2485:. Its northern neighbour was the
2099:Creation of the Nabataean Kingdom
1994:" to his existing territories of
1702:), was a political state of the
1666:
735:Western dynasties and caliphates
319:
293:
268:
254:
240:
3858:. University of Toronto Press.
3411:Greenfield, Jonas Carl (2001).
3294:
3269:
3100:Levy, Daviau & Younker 2016
2564:
2501:, and it included the towns of
2249:Remains of Byzantine church at
3738:Mercer Dictionary of the Bible
3329:Ball, Warwick (10 June 2016).
2493:. Its capital was the city of
2092:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
1858:Trading routes of the ancient
1793:dialect and the ones found in
1:
3756:Pearson, Jeffrey Eli (2011).
2552:
2377:under the influence of Rome.
1934:of old, nor the kings of the
1744:
4232:Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia
4009:Resources in other libraries
3792:. Harvard University Press.
3768:The Modern History of Jordan
3498:. Harvard University Press.
2578:
2476:
1843:
1759:Arab tribes that roamed the
7:
3918:The World of the Nabataeans
3900:. Oxford University Press.
3741:. Mercer University Press.
3589:. P. Åström (S. vägen 61).
2645:. pp. 14, 17, 30, 31.
2535:
1990:, Antigonus sought to add "
455:Arab empires and caliphates
10:
5062:
3966:Nabatean Archaeology Today
3852:Sullivan, Richard (1990).
3809:The Biblical Archaeologist
3789:The Middle East Under Rome
3537:The Biblical Archaeologist
3453:(PhD). Indiana University.
3441:
2641:. London, United Kingdom:
2396:
2174:Statue of soldier in Petra
1847:
1789:Similarities between late
1771:, in the southwest of the
1748:
1739:
4967:
4861:
4602:
4135:
4077:
4004:Resources in your library
3970:New York University Press
3947:36, no. 4 (2001): 361–82.
2241:Nabataeans and Hasmoneans
219:
209:
205:
192:
174:
164:
160:
150:
140:
132:
120:
110:
89:
48:
36:
31:
21:
3786:Sartre, Maurice (2005).
3604:Healey, John F. (2001).
3530:. Trübner & Company.
3524:Groot, N. G. De (1879).
3492:Bowersock, Glen (1994).
3473:The Numismatic Chronicle
2557:
763:Umayyad state of Córdoba
194:• Conquered by the
3513:Bowes, Alan R. (1998).
2542:List of Nabataean kings
2363:Marcus Aemilius Scaurus
2077:based in Egypt and the
2040:Demetrius I Poliorcetes
1890:of Salamis against the
5031:100s disestablishments
5006:160s BC establishments
4825:Luwian-Aramaean states
3625:Kasher, Aryeh (1988).
3276:Johnson, Paul (1987).
2520:. One of them was the
2394:
2270:
2262:
2183:Antiochus IV Epiphanes
2175:
2167:
2115:
2043:
2010:and other spices from
1971:
1948:
1870:
5026:Roman client kingdoms
4676:Neo-Babylonian Empire
4260:Canaanite city-states
3873:Taylor, Jane (2001).
3278:A History of the Jews
2635:Jane, Taylor (2001).
2446:) at the head of the
2388:
2314:, including northern
2287:intervention in Judea
2268:
2248:
2173:
2161:
2106:
2037:
2018:and ending up in the
1953:
1928:
1857:
1828:, the descendants of
1721:, up as far north as
1353:Sultanate of Zanzibar
1268:Mutawakkilite Kingdom
90:Common languages
32:3rd century BC–106 AD
4959:Tanukhid confederacy
4794:New Kingdom of Egypt
2338:, the Seleucid king
2068:Hieronymus of Cardia
1912:Hieronymus of Cardia
4671:Neo-Assyrian Empire
4454:Paleo-Syrian states
3151:Al-Abduljabbar 1995
3057:Al-Abduljabbar 1995
2963:Al-Abduljabbar 1995
2951:Al-Abduljabbar 1995
2344:worshipped as a god
1916:Alexander the Great
1732:, which renamed it
1708:classical antiquity
330:Ancient Arab states
166:• Established
74:30.3286°N 35.4419°E
70: /
4914:Herodian Tetrarchy
3581:Hammond, Philip C.
2547:Nabataean language
2416:, the governor of
2395:
2301:Alexander Jannaeus
2271:
2263:
2176:
2168:
2116:
2044:
1972:
1871:
1395:Current monarchies
1058:Sharifate of Mecca
528:Emirate of Tbilisi
518:Emirate of Armenia
368:Kingdom of Osroene
214:Nabataean Denarius
115:Nabataean religion
4988:
4987:
4929:Nabataean Kingdom
4904:Hasmonean dynasty
4899:Ghassanid Kingdom
4612:Achaemenid Empire
4448:Ib'al Confederacy
4087:Kish civilization
3990:Library resources
3961:32 (2009): 43–59.
3928:978-3-515-08816-9
3907:978-0-19-993152-1
3886:978-1-86064-508-2
3865:978-0-8020-2682-8
3799:978-0-674-01683-5
3778:978-1-86064-331-6
3748:978-0-86554-373-7
3701:978-1-78346-381-7
3694:. Pen and Sword.
3680:978-1-315-47856-2
3659:978-0-19-967072-7
3638:978-3-16-145240-6
3596:978-91-85058-57-0
3505:978-0-674-77756-9
3400:978-1-84836-066-2
3315:978-0-14-044420-9
3302:Josephus, Flavius
3287:978-0-297-79091-4
2977:, pp. 17–18.
2452:Alexander Severus
2279:Hasmonean dynasty
2166:in military dress
1784:Semitic languages
1773:Arabian peninsula
1654:Nabataean Aramaic
1650:Nabataean Kingdom
1646:
1645:
1611:
1610:
1386:
1385:
1378:Tippu Tip's State
1276:
1275:
1248:Emirate of Beihan
980:Arabian Peninsula
971:
970:
726:
725:
510:Eastern dynasties
501:
500:
446:
445:
358:Nabataean Kingdom
348:Kingdom of Lihyan
309:
308:
305:
304:
301:
300:
281:
280:
96:Nabataean Aramaic
23:Nabataean Kingdom
5053:
4939:Palmyrene Empire
4909:Herodian kingdom
4883:Byzantine Empire
4698:Israel (Samaria)
4059:
4052:
4045:
4036:
4035:
4025:
4024:
4023:VIA NOVA TRAIANA
3995:Nabatean Kingdom
3964:Negev, Avraham.
3932:
3911:
3890:
3869:
3848:
3803:
3782:
3761:
3752:
3731:
3725:
3717:
3705:
3684:
3663:
3642:
3631:. Mohr Siebeck.
3621:
3600:
3576:
3531:
3520:
3509:
3488:
3467:
3454:
3436:
3435:
3433:
3431:
3414:'Al Kanfei Yonah
3408:
3402:
3392:
3383:
3373:
3358:
3357:
3355:
3353:
3326:
3320:
3319:
3298:
3292:
3291:
3273:
3267:
3261:
3248:
3242:
3231:
3225:
3219:
3213:
3207:
3201:
3195:
3189:
3183:
3177:
3166:
3160:
3154:
3148:
3142:
3136:
3130:
3124:
3118:
3112:
3103:
3097:
3091:
3085:
3072:
3066:
3060:
3054:
3045:
3039:
3033:
3027:
3014:
3008:
3002:
2996:
2990:
2984:
2978:
2972:
2966:
2960:
2954:
2948:
2939:
2933:
2918:
2912:
2906:
2900:
2894:
2888:
2879:
2873:
2858:
2852:
2846:
2840:
2834:
2828:
2815:
2809:
2803:
2797:
2788:
2782:
2745:
2739:
2733:
2727:
2721:
2715:
2709:
2703:
2697:
2691:
2685:
2679:
2664:
2663:
2661:
2659:
2632:
2613:
2607:
2572:
2568:
2483:Sinai Peninsulas
2471:Palmyrene Empire
2458:power under the
2381:Roman annexation
2328:Battle of Gadara
2059:deposits in the
1988:Diodorus Siculus
1908:Diodorus Siculus
1791:Nabataean Arabic
1701:
1700:
1697:
1696:
1693:
1690:
1687:
1684:
1681:
1678:
1675:
1672:
1638:
1631:
1624:
1399:
1398:
1363:Nabahani dynasty
1308:Nabahani dynasty
1293:Makhzumi dynasty
1289:
1288:
984:
983:
739:
738:
538:Emirate of Crete
514:
513:
459:
458:
438:Kingdom of Kinda
388:Kingdom of Hatra
338:Kingdom of Qedar
334:
333:
323:
311:
310:
297:
296:
285:
284:
272:
271:
258:
257:
244:
243:
237:
236:
221:
220:
102:Nabataean Arabic
85:
84:
82:
81:
80:
79:30.3286; 35.4419
75:
71:
68:
67:
66:
63:
41:
19:
18:
5061:
5060:
5056:
5055:
5054:
5052:
5051:
5050:
5046:Former kingdoms
4991:
4990:
4989:
4984:
4963:
4954:Sasanian Empire
4949:Seleucid Empire
4944:Parthian Empire
4894:Emesene Dynasty
4857:
4703:Israel (united)
4618:Aramaean states
4598:
4145:Akkadian Empire
4131:
4073:
4063:
4022:
4021:
4015:
4014:
4013:
3998:
3997:
3993:
3986:
3940:
3938:Further reading
3935:
3929:
3908:
3887:
3866:
3821:10.2307/3209134
3800:
3779:
3749:
3719:
3718:
3702:
3681:
3660:
3639:
3618:
3597:
3549:10.2307/3209307
3506:
3444:
3439:
3429:
3427:
3425:
3409:
3405:
3393:
3386:
3374:
3361:
3351:
3349:
3347:
3327:
3323:
3316:
3299:
3295:
3288:
3274:
3270:
3262:
3251:
3243:
3234:
3226:
3222:
3214:
3210:
3202:
3198:
3190:
3186:
3178:
3169:
3161:
3157:
3149:
3145:
3137:
3133:
3125:
3121:
3113:
3106:
3098:
3094:
3086:
3075:
3067:
3063:
3055:
3048:
3040:
3036:
3028:
3017:
3009:
3005:
2997:
2993:
2985:
2981:
2973:
2969:
2961:
2957:
2949:
2942:
2934:
2921:
2913:
2909:
2903:Waterfield 2012
2901:
2897:
2889:
2882:
2876:McLaughlin 2014
2874:
2861:
2855:McLaughlin 2014
2853:
2849:
2841:
2837:
2829:
2818:
2810:
2806:
2798:
2791:
2783:
2748:
2740:
2736:
2728:
2724:
2716:
2712:
2704:
2700:
2692:
2688:
2680:
2667:
2657:
2655:
2653:
2633:
2616:
2608:
2585:
2581:
2576:
2575:
2569:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2538:
2491:Ptolemaic Egypt
2479:
2460:Sassanid Empire
2414:Cornelius Palma
2409:Rabbel II Soter
2401:
2383:
2348:Temple of Oboda
2243:
2101:
2038:Marble bust of
1901:Edomite Kingdom
1852:
1846:
1753:
1747:
1742:
1669:
1665:
1642:
1613:
1612:
1396:
1388:
1387:
1323:Mahdali dynasty
1286:
1278:
1277:
1218:Muscat and Oman
988:Imamate of Oman
981:
973:
972:
736:
728:
727:
511:
503:
502:
456:
448:
447:
378:Emesene Dynasty
331:
294:
269:
255:
241:
198:
185:
167:
78:
76:
72:
69:
64:
61:
59:
57:
56:
55:
44:
27:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5059:
5049:
5048:
5043:
5038:
5033:
5028:
5023:
5018:
5013:
5008:
5003:
4986:
4985:
4983:
4982:
4977:
4975:Amarna letters
4971:
4969:
4965:
4964:
4962:
4961:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4936:
4931:
4926:
4921:
4916:
4911:
4906:
4901:
4896:
4891:
4886:
4875:Roman Republic
4867:
4865:
4859:
4858:
4856:
4855:
4854:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4838:
4833:
4821:
4820:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4796:
4791:
4790:
4789:
4788:
4787:
4782:
4777:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4752:
4751:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4690:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4667:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4636:
4631:
4626:
4614:
4608:
4606:
4600:
4599:
4597:
4596:
4595:
4594:
4582:
4577:
4572:
4567:
4562:
4561:
4560:
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4550:
4538:
4537:
4536:
4531:
4526:
4514:
4513:
4512:
4507:
4502:
4497:
4488:
4483:
4478:
4469:
4468:
4467:
4450:
4445:
4440:
4435:
4434:
4433:
4432:
4431:
4421:
4416:
4404:
4402:Hittite Empire
4399:
4394:
4393:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4342:
4337:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4293:
4288:
4283:
4278:
4273:
4268:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4240:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4199:
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4156:Amorite states
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3984:External links
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3771:. I.B.Tauris.
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3652:. OUP Oxford.
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3339:. p. 65.
3321:
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3306:The Jewish War
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3286:
3268:
3264:Bowersock 1994
3249:
3245:Bowersock 1994
3232:
3220:
3218:, p. 219.
3208:
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3104:
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3092:
3073:
3069:Bowersock 1994
3061:
3059:, p. 147.
3046:
3044:, p. 275.
3034:
3015:
3013:, p. 106.
3003:
2991:
2987:Bowersock 1994
2979:
2975:Bowersock 1994
2967:
2965:, p. 136.
2955:
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2831:Bowersock 1994
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2439:limes Arabicus
2430:Arabia Petraea
2399:Arabia Petraea
2397:Main article:
2382:
2379:
2375:client kingdom
2336:Battle of Cana
2330:around 93 BC.
2297:trade caravans
2242:
2239:
2100:
2097:
1970:, Saudi Arabia
1954:Painting of a
1845:
1842:
1761:Arabian Desert
1749:Main article:
1746:
1743:
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1734:Arabia Petraea
1660:), also named
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4863:Classical Age
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4182:First Babylon
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4068:
4060:
4055:
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4040:
4037:
4031:
4027:
4026:
4019:A map of the
4017:
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4007:
4005:
4002:
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3996:
3991:
3978:
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3834:
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3826:
3822:
3818:
3815:(4): 84–106.
3814:
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3750:
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3740:
3739:
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3729:
3723:
3716:
3713:(in French),
3712:
3707:
3703:
3697:
3693:
3692:
3686:
3682:
3676:
3673:. Routledge.
3672:
3671:
3665:
3661:
3655:
3651:
3650:
3644:
3640:
3634:
3630:
3629:
3623:
3619:
3617:90-04-10754-1
3613:
3609:
3608:
3602:
3598:
3592:
3588:
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3582:
3578:
3574:
3570:
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3558:
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3446:
3426:
3420:
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3415:
3407:
3401:
3397:
3391:
3389:
3382:
3381:9957-451-04-9
3378:
3372:
3370:
3368:
3366:
3364:
3348:
3346:9781317296355
3342:
3338:
3334:
3333:
3325:
3317:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3297:
3289:
3283:
3279:
3272:
3266:, p. 20.
3265:
3260:
3258:
3256:
3254:
3247:, p. 19.
3246:
3241:
3239:
3237:
3230:, p. 13.
3229:
3224:
3217:
3212:
3206:, p. 17.
3205:
3200:
3194:, p. 41.
3193:
3188:
3182:, p. 24.
3181:
3176:
3174:
3172:
3165:, p. 84.
3164:
3159:
3152:
3147:
3141:, p. 72.
3140:
3139:Sullivan 1990
3135:
3129:, p. 69.
3128:
3123:
3116:
3111:
3109:
3101:
3096:
3090:, p. 40.
3089:
3084:
3082:
3080:
3078:
3071:, p. 17.
3070:
3065:
3058:
3053:
3051:
3043:
3038:
3032:, p. 10.
3031:
3026:
3024:
3022:
3020:
3012:
3007:
3000:
2995:
2989:, p. 18.
2988:
2983:
2976:
2971:
2964:
2959:
2952:
2947:
2945:
2938:, p. 38.
2937:
2932:
2930:
2928:
2926:
2924:
2917:, p. 10.
2916:
2911:
2904:
2899:
2893:, p. 68.
2892:
2887:
2885:
2878:, p. 52.
2877:
2872:
2870:
2868:
2866:
2864:
2857:, p. 51.
2856:
2851:
2845:, p. 28.
2844:
2839:
2833:, p. 14.
2832:
2827:
2825:
2823:
2821:
2813:
2808:
2802:, p. 31.
2801:
2796:
2794:
2786:
2781:
2779:
2777:
2775:
2773:
2771:
2769:
2767:
2765:
2763:
2761:
2759:
2757:
2755:
2753:
2751:
2743:
2738:
2731:
2726:
2720:, p. 13.
2719:
2714:
2708:, p. 30.
2707:
2702:
2696:, p. 17.
2695:
2690:
2684:, p. 26.
2683:
2678:
2676:
2674:
2672:
2670:
2654:
2652:9781860645082
2648:
2644:
2640:
2639:
2631:
2629:
2627:
2625:
2623:
2621:
2619:
2612:, p. 14.
2611:
2606:
2604:
2602:
2600:
2598:
2596:
2594:
2592:
2590:
2588:
2583:
2567:
2563:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2539:
2533:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2522:Incense Route
2519:
2514:
2512:
2508:
2507:Mada'in Saleh
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2474:
2472:
2468:
2463:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2448:Gulf of Aqaba
2445:
2441:
2440:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2410:
2406:
2400:
2392:
2389:A map of the
2387:
2378:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2355:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2340:Antiochus XII
2337:
2331:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
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2212:
2208:
2207:Romano-Jewish
2204:
2199:
2197:
2193:
2187:
2184:
2180:
2172:
2165:
2162:Coin showing
2160:
2156:
2152:
2150:
2146:
2145:Milan Papyrus
2141:
2138:
2134:
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2126:
2122:
2113:
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2093:
2088:
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2080:
2076:
2071:
2069:
2064:
2062:
2058:
2053:
2052:smoke signals
2049:
2041:
2036:
2032:
2029:
2023:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1969:
1965:
1964:Mada'in Saleh
1962:, located at
1961:
1960:Qasr al-Farid
1957:
1952:
1947:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1927:
1925:
1921:
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1856:
1851:
1841:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1806:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1787:
1785:
1781:
1776:
1774:
1770:
1765:
1762:
1758:
1752:
1737:
1735:
1731:
1726:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1711:
1709:
1705:
1699:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1639:
1634:
1632:
1627:
1625:
1620:
1619:
1617:
1616:
1606:
1603:
1599:
1596:
1595:
1591:
1588:
1584:
1581:
1580:
1576:
1573:
1569:
1566:
1565:
1561:
1558:
1554:
1551:
1550:
1546:
1543:
1539:
1536:
1535:
1531:
1528:
1524:
1521:
1520:
1516:
1513:
1512:Umm al-Quwain
1509:
1506:
1505:
1501:
1498:
1494:
1491:
1490:
1486:
1483:
1479:
1476:
1475:
1471:
1468:
1464:
1461:
1460:
1456:
1453:
1449:
1446:
1445:
1441:
1438:
1434:
1431:
1430:
1426:
1423:
1419:
1416:
1415:
1411:
1408:
1404:
1401:
1400:
1392:
1391:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1375:
1371:
1368:
1364:
1361:
1360:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1350:
1346:
1343:
1339:
1336:
1335:
1331:
1328:
1324:
1321:
1320:
1316:
1313:
1309:
1306:
1305:
1301:
1298:
1294:
1291:
1290:
1282:
1281:
1271:
1269:
1266:
1265:
1261:
1259:
1256:
1255:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1245:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1235:
1231:
1229:
1226:
1225:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1205:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1195:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1185:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1165:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1155:
1151:
1149:
1146:
1145:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1135:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1125:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1115:
1111:
1109:
1106:
1105:
1101:
1099:
1096:
1095:
1091:
1089:
1086:
1085:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1075:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1065:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1055:
1051:
1049:
1046:
1045:
1041:
1039:
1036:
1035:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1025:
1021:
1019:
1016:
1015:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1005:
1001:
999:
996:
995:
991:
989:
986:
985:
977:
976:
966:
964:
961:
960:
956:
954:
951:
950:
946:
944:
941:
940:
936:
934:
931:
930:
926:
924:
921:
920:
916:
914:
911:
910:
906:
904:
901:
900:
896:
894:
891:
890:
886:
884:
881:
880:
876:
874:
871:
870:
866:
864:
861:
860:
856:
854:
851:
850:
846:
844:
841:
840:
836:
834:
831:
830:
826:
824:
821:
820:
816:
814:
813:Muslim Sicily
811:
810:
806:
804:
801:
800:
796:
794:
791:
790:
786:
784:
781:
780:
776:
774:
771:
770:
766:
764:
761:
760:
756:
754:
751:
750:
746:
744:
741:
740:
732:
731:
721:
719:
716:
715:
711:
709:
706:
705:
701:
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696:
695:
691:
689:
686:
685:
681:
679:
676:
675:
671:
669:
666:
665:
661:
659:
656:
655:
651:
649:
646:
645:
641:
639:
636:
635:
631:
629:
626:
625:
621:
619:
616:
615:
611:
609:
606:
605:
601:
599:
596:
595:
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589:
586:
585:
581:
579:
576:
575:
571:
569:
566:
565:
561:
559:
556:
555:
551:
549:
546:
545:
541:
539:
536:
535:
531:
529:
526:
525:
521:
519:
516:
515:
507:
506:
496:
494:
491:
490:
486:
484:
481:
480:
476:
474:
471:
470:
466:
464:
461:
460:
452:
451:
442:450 AD–550 AD
441:
439:
436:
435:
431:
429:
426:
425:
421:
419:
416:
415:
411:
409:
406:
405:
401:
399:
396:
395:
391:
389:
386:
385:
382:64 BC–300s AD
381:
379:
376:
375:
372:132 BC–244 AD
371:
369:
366:
365:
362:400 BC–106 AD
361:
359:
356:
355:
352:600 BC–100 BC
351:
349:
346:
345:
342:800 BC–300 BC
341:
339:
336:
335:
327:
326:
322:
318:
317:
313:
312:
292:
290:
287:
286:
283:
277:
274:
267:
266:
263:
260:
253:
252:
249:
246:
239:
238:
235:
234:
231:
228:
226:
223:
222:
218:
215:
212:
208:
204:
200:
197:
191:
187:
183:
179:
173:
169:
163:
159:
156:
153:
149:
145:
143:
139:
135:
131:
128:
125:
123:
119:
116:
113:
109:
103:
100:
97:
94:
93:
92:
88:
83:
54:
51:
47:
40:
35:
30:
20:
4928:
4879:Roman Empire
4871:Ancient Rome
4823:
4798:
4680:
4616:
4584:
4540:
4516:
4452:
4406:
4258:
4154:
4097:Chagar Bazar
4029:
4020:
3994:
3976:
3968:. New York:
3965:
3958:
3951:
3944:
3917:
3896:
3875:
3854:
3812:
3808:
3788:
3767:
3757:
3737:
3710:
3690:
3669:
3648:
3627:
3606:
3585:
3543:(2): 40–48.
3540:
3536:
3526:
3515:
3495:Roman Arabia
3494:
3476:
3472:
3463:
3459:
3450:
3428:. Retrieved
3413:
3406:
3350:. Retrieved
3331:
3324:
3305:
3296:
3277:
3271:
3228:Pearson 2011
3223:
3211:
3199:
3187:
3163:Starcky 1955
3158:
3153:, p. 1.
3146:
3134:
3122:
3095:
3064:
3037:
3030:Pearson 2011
3006:
3001:, p. 4.
2994:
2982:
2970:
2958:
2953:, p. 8.
2910:
2898:
2891:Hammond 1973
2850:
2838:
2814:, p. 7.
2807:
2744:, p. 8.
2737:
2725:
2713:
2701:
2689:
2682:Wenning 2007
2656:. Retrieved
2637:
2566:
2530:frankincense
2518:trade routes
2515:
2480:
2465:The city of
2464:
2437:
2402:
2391:Roman Empire
2371:Roman Empire
2356:
2332:
2305:
2291:
2272:
2228:
2225:
2200:
2188:
2177:
2153:
2142:
2129:
2124:
2117:
2090:
2083:
2072:
2065:
2045:
2024:
2020:Port of Gaza
2004:frankincense
1991:
1976:the conflict
1973:
1943:
1930:neither the
1929:
1905:
1872:
1868:Port of Gaza
1838:
1826:Hebrew Bible
1818:Ashurbanipal
1807:
1799:Neo-Assyrian
1788:
1779:
1777:
1766:
1754:
1730:Roman Empire
1727:
1712:
1661:
1657:
1649:
1647:
1607:1921–present
1592:1900–present
1577:1868–present
1562:1833–present
1547:1810–present
1532:1783–present
1517:1775–present
1502:1761–present
1487:1752–present
1472:1749–present
1457:1744–present
1452:Saudi Arabia
1442:1727–present
1427:1727–present
1412:1631–present
422:300s–500s AD
357:
230:Succeeded by
229:
224:
196:Roman Empire
4644:Bit Bahiani
4429:Tell Hadidi
3216:Taylor 2001
3204:Sartre 2005
3180:Kasher 1988
3127:Barkay 2011
3115:Barkay 2015
3088:Taylor 2001
2936:Taylor 2001
2915:Salibi 1998
2843:Healey 2001
2800:Taylor 2001
2742:Taylor 2001
2706:Taylor 2001
2694:Taylor 2001
2610:Taylor 2001
2308:Transjordan
1940:Macedonians
1926:in 312 BC.
1924:Antigonus I
1860:Middle East
1797:during the
1795:Mesopotamia
1656:: 𐢕𐢃𐢋𐢈
1312:Pate Island
1285:East Africa
1078:Sulaymanids
1018:Ukhaidhirds
803:Sulaymanids
773:Muhallabids
678:Munqidhites
578:Shirvanshah
432:300s–602 AD
402:196–1100 AD
392:100s–241 AD
225:Preceded by
77: /
4995:Categories
4831:Carchemish
4812:Nabataeans
4629:Aram Rehob
4397:Carchemish
4207:Third Mari
4187:Third Ebla
4137:Bronze Age
4092:Tell Halaf
4079:Copper Age
3466:: 431–439.
3424:9004121706
3192:Kropp 2013
3042:Milik 2003
3011:Bowes 1998
2999:Bowes 1998
2812:Groot 1879
2643:I.B.Tauris
2553:References
2513:/Nessana.
2359:Aretas III
2235:Alexandria
2209:historian
2108:Al-Khazneh
1888:Evagoras I
1876:Achaemenid
1848:See also:
1786:of Hejaz.
1751:Nabataeans
1745:Nabataeans
1704:Nabataeans
1598:Hashemites
1553:Al Maktoum
1523:Al Khalifa
1208:Upper Yafa
1198:Ya'arubids
1038:Qarmatians
923:Sumadihids
412:220–638 AD
408:Ghassanids
248:Nabataeans
133:Government
122:Demonym(s)
98:(official)
65:35°26′31″E
62:30°19′43″N
4924:Macedonia
4889:Commagene
4817:Qedarites
4755:Phoenicia
4723:Philistia
4639:Bit Agusi
4634:Bit-Adini
4476:Tall Bazi
4370:Phoenicia
4340:Jerusalem
4192:Ekallatum
3845:134256604
3829:0006-0895
3610:. BRILL.
3573:133997328
3557:0006-0895
3479:: 67–73.
3430:27 August
3417:. BRILL.
3337:Routledge
2579:Citations
2505:, Hegra (
2487:Hasmonean
2477:Geography
2293:Gaza City
2203:Maccabees
2196:Aretas II
2164:Aretas IV
2079:Seleucids
2075:Ptolemies
2048:Demetrius
2000:Phoenicia
1956:Nabataean
1932:Assyrians
1914:, one of
1896:Qedarites
1844:Emergence
1803:Assyrians
1717:into the
1583:Al Sharqi
1538:Al Nuaimi
1508:Al Mualla
1497:Abu Dhabi
1493:Al Nahyan
1433:Al Qasimi
1418:Al Qasimi
1382:1860–1887
1372:1858–1895
1357:1856–1964
1347:1746–1828
1332:1277–1495
1317:1203–1894
1272:1926–1970
1262:1906–1934
1252:1903–1967
1242:1858–1967
1238:Qu'aitids
1232:1836–1921
1228:Rashidids
1222:1820–1970
1212:1800–1967
1202:1624–1742
1192:1597–1872
1182:1463–1521
1172:1454–1526
1162:1395–1967
1158:Kathirids
1152:1305–1487
1148:Jarwanids
1142:1253–1320
1132:1229–1454
1122:1159–1174
1112:1154–1624
1108:Nabhanids
1102:1083–1174
1092:1076–1253
1082:1063–1174
1072:1047–1138
1068:Sulayhids
967:1837–1969
963:Senussids
957:1554–1659
947:1230–1492
937:1049–1078
927:1041–1091
917:1039–1110
907:1031–1091
903:Jawharids
897:1027–1063
893:Muzaynids
887:1026–1057
883:Hammudids
877:1023–1062
873:Yahsubids
867:1023–1091
857:1020–1086
847:1013–1039
837:1012–1051
827:1004–1412
793:Aghlabids
722:1697–1842
712:1517–1865
702:1480–1677
692:1517–1697
682:1025–1157
672:1024–1080
668:Mirdasids
658:Numayrids
638:Jarrahids
628:Mazyadids
608:Hamdanids
598:Hashimids
558:Habbarids
548:Dulafids
398:Tanukhids
276:Qedarites
184:invasion
182:Hasmonean
155:Antiquity
127:Nabataean
111:Religion
5021:Nabataea
4846:Palistin
4806:Itureans
4604:Iron Age
4408:Hurrians
4150:Alashiya
4102:Hamoukar
3722:citation
3583:(1973).
3485:42667225
3304:(1981).
2536:See also
2324:Obodas I
2312:Damascus
2275:Seleucid
2259:Obodas I
2211:Josephus
2192:Aretas I
2179:Aretas I
2061:Dead Sea
2012:Eudaemon
1944:Diodorus
1922:general
1892:Persians
1836:'s son.
1822:Nebaioth
1814:Assyrian
1723:Damascus
1587:Fujairah
1568:Al Thani
1478:Al Sabah
1367:Wituland
1302:896–1279
1258:Idrisids
1188:Qasimids
1168:Tahirids
1138:Usfurids
1128:Rasulids
1098:Zurayids
1062:968–1925
1048:Wajihids
1042:899–1077
1032:897–1962
1022:865–1066
1008:Yufirids
1002:819–1138
998:Ziyadids
992:751–1970
933:Tahirids
863:Abbadids
843:Tujibids
817:831–1091
783:Idrisids
767:756–1031
747:710–1019
743:Salihids
708:Harfushs
698:Turabays
662:990–1081
652:990–1096
648:Uqaylids
642:970–1107
632:961–1150
622:955–1071
618:Rawadids
612:890–1004
602:869–1075
582:861–1538
568:Kaysites
562:854–1011
532:736–1122
497:909–1171
493:Fatimids
487:750–1258
483:Abbasids
473:Umayyads
463:Rashidun
428:Lakhmids
418:Salihids
210:Currency
178:Obodas I
136:Monarchy
104:(native)
26:𐢕𐢃𐢋𐢈
4968:Sources
4934:Osroene
4733:Ascalon
4708:Jericho
4586:Nuhašše
4534:Suteans
4472:Armanum
4424:Mitanni
4419:Nuhašše
4380:Shechem
4360:Megiddo
4355:Lakisha
4345:Kenites
4335:Jericho
4315:Dimasqu
4286:Aštartu
4281:Ascalon
4217:Palmyra
4172:Andarig
4162:Alalakh
4107:Jericho
4069:of the
4067:history
3972:, 1986.
3837:3209134
3565:3209307
3442:Sources
3352:10 July
2511:Nitzana
2509:), and
2467:Palmyra
2456:Persian
2434:Hadrian
2253:in the
2087:monsoon
2057:bitumen
2028:stadion
1862:, when
1834:Abraham
1830:Ishmael
1824:of the
1757:Bedouin
1740:History
1715:Tihamah
1706:during
1662:Nabatea
1527:Bahrain
1463:Al Said
1448:Al Saud
1437:Sharjah
1407:Morocco
1403:'Alawis
1342:Mombasa
1178:Jabrids
1118:Mahdids
1088:Uyunids
1052:926–965
1028:Rassids
1012:847–997
953:Saadids
943:Nasrids
853:Amirids
833:Bakrids
823:Kanzids
807:814–922
797:800–909
787:788–974
777:771–793
757:745-757
718:Shihabs
688:Ma'nids
592:864–928
588:Alavids
572:860–964
552:840–897
542:824–961
522:654–884
477:661–750
467:632–661
180:repels
176:•
49:Capital
5041:Gilead
5001:168 BC
4919:Iturea
4851:Pattin
4841:Luhuti
4836:Kummuh
4775:Tartus
4728:Ashdod
4682:Canaan
4659:Sam'al
4654:Hamath
4649:Geshur
4575:Ugarit
4565:Tadmor
4548:ʿApiru
4529:Aḫlamū
4524:ʿApiru
4510:Tuttul
4465:Aleppo
4438:Naziba
4375:Qadesh
4365:Midian
4350:Kumidi
4325:Gibeon
4305:Beruta
4300:Hauran
4296:Bashan
4291:Azzati
4266:Amalek
4237:Yamhad
4227:Ṭābetu
4212:Mukish
4167:Amurru
4127:Urkesh
4122:Ugarit
4112:Byblos
4071:Levant
3992:about
3959:Boreas
3925:
3904:
3883:
3862:
3843:
3835:
3827:
3796:
3775:
3745:
3715:Beirut
3698:
3677:
3656:
3635:
3614:
3593:
3571:
3563:
3555:
3502:
3483:
3421:
3398:
3379:
3343:
3312:
3284:
2658:8 July
2649:
2499:Jordan
2436:, the
2405:Trajan
2320:Gilead
2283:Pompey
2231:Priene
2221:Romans
2149:Strabo
2137:Hauran
2133:Nabatu
2121:Hauran
1980:Levant
1958:tomb,
1894:. The
1810:Jordan
1658:Nabāṭū
1602:Jordan
1482:Kuwait
913:Hudids
262:Lihyan
201:106 AD
146:
4800:Arabs
4785:Sidon
4770:Gebal
4765:Arwad
4760:Amrit
4738:Ekron
4713:Judah
4688:Ammon
4664:Zobah
4570:Tunip
4558:Shutu
4553:Shasu
4518:Suhum
4505:Nagar
4495:Terqa
4491:Khana
4414:Urshu
4385:Sidon
4330:Hazor
4320:Gezer
4310:Gebal
4276:Arwad
4254:Barga
4222:Qatna
4202:Kurda
4030:limes
3841:S2CID
3833:JSTOR
3569:S2CID
3561:JSTOR
3481:JSTOR
2558:Notes
2526:myrrh
2503:Bosra
2495:Raqmu
2444:Aqaba
2426:Egypt
2422:Egypt
2418:Syria
2367:Roman
2352:Avdat
2255:Negev
2251:Avdat
2112:Petra
2016:Petra
2008:myrrh
1996:Syria
1968:Hejaz
1936:Medes
1920:Greek
1884:Egypt
1880:Hakor
1864:Petra
1816:king
1769:Yemen
1719:Hejaz
1572:Qatar
1557:Dubai
1542:Ajman
1327:Kilwa
1297:Shewa
188:90 BC
53:Petra
4780:Tyre
4748:Gaza
4743:Gath
4718:Moab
4693:Edom
4592:Niya
4542:Amqu
4500:Mari
4486:Emar
4481:Ebla
4460:Armi
4443:Niya
4390:Tyre
4271:Arqa
4249:Aram
4244:Amqu
4197:Emar
4177:Apum
4117:Ebla
3923:ISBN
3902:ISBN
3881:ISBN
3860:ISBN
3825:ISSN
3794:ISBN
3773:ISBN
3743:ISBN
3728:link
3696:ISBN
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