748:
the hosts and the pathogens have continually adapted in various ways to evolutionary challenges. Although current strains of myxomatosis do not provide sufficient control on their own, the disease remains a significant ecological factor in rabbit control, both in
Australia and in other countries. For example, in spite of long-term concern in Australia especially, where the initial virulence of myxomatosis declined after a few decades in the field, rabbit evolution of resistance to the disease has not gone unchallenged. For some recent strains of the virus, as a case in point, selection for reduced inflammation prolongs virus replication, which enhances transmission and reduces suppression of the virus by the host's fever; it also may cause immunosuppression, which favours high virulence. Studies continue, both in the contexts of rabbit control, and of the relevant evolutionary principles.
636:
744:, drug resistance, and vaccine efficacy, it has been well studied by theoreticians and experimentalists. The introductions of myxoma virus into European rabbit populations in Australia and France created natural experiments in virulence evolution. While initial viral strains were highly virulent, attenuated strains were soon recovered from the field. These attenuated strains, which allowed rabbits to survive longer, came to dominate because they were more readily transmitted. As the complete genome sequences of multiple myxoma strains have been published, scientists have been able to pinpoint exactly which genes are responsible for the changes in the myxoma virus's virulence and behavior.
40:
601:
624:
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662:) was released in Australia as a biological control agent against feral rabbits. The virus was at first highly lethal, with an estimated case fatality rate of close to 99.8%. Within a few years, however, this strain was replaced by less virulent ones, which permitted longer survival of infected rabbits and enhanced disease transmission. The virus created strong selection pressure for the evolution of rabbits resistant to myxomatosis. As rabbits became more resistant the viral strains responded by becoming less virulent.
592:
wild rabbits, keeping rabbits indoors (preferred) or behind screens to prevent mosquito exposure, and using rabbit-safe medications to treat and prevent fleas, lice, and mites. Any new rabbit that may have been exposed should be quarantined, and rabbits suspected of having myxomatosis should be immediately isolated until the diagnosis is ruled out. If the disease is confirmed all contaminated cages, dishes, or other objects should be disinfected with 10% bleach, 10% sodium hydroxide, or 1%–1.4% formalin.
337:
63:
239:
564:. In group situations where rabbits are not routinely vaccinated, vaccination in the face of an outbreak is beneficial in limiting morbidity and mortality. The vaccine does not provide 100% protection, so it is still important to prevent contact with wild rabbits and insect vectors. Myxomatosis vaccines must be boostered regularly to remain effective, and annual vaccinations are usually recommended.
2018:
766:, and in the story a rabbit chief had driven out all rabbits who seemed to be afflicted. In one of the novel's folk tales about the rabbit hero El-ahrairah, the transmission of the disease is explained to him by the lord of the rabbit underworld, the Black Rabbit of Inle ("it is carried by the fleas in rabbits' ears; they pass from the ears of a sick rabbit to those of his companions").
571:. This vaccine is licensed for immunization of rabbits 5 weeks of age or older, with onset of immunity taking approximately 3 weeks. Protection against myxomatosis and rabbit hemorrhagic disease has a duration of immunity for 12 months, and annual vaccination is recommended to ensure continued protection. The vaccine has been shown to reduce mortality and clinical signs of myxomatosis.
320:
was found in nearby lymph nodes, and at three days it was found in the bloodstream and abdominal organs. At approximately four days the virus was isolated from non-inoculated skin as well as from the testes. Slight thickening of the eyelids and the presence of virus in conjunctival fluid was detectable on day five. Testicular engorgement was noticed on day six.
683:
introduction into
Ireland in 1954. Unlike in Australia, however, strenuous efforts were made to stop the spread in Europe. These efforts proved in vain. According to estimates, the wild rabbit population in the United Kingdom fell by 99%, in France by 90% to 95%, and in Spain by 95%. This in turn drove specialized rabbit predators, such as the
291:
and
Central America, is slightly less virulent, with reported case fatality rates of 99.8%. Strains present in Europe and Australia have become attenuated, with reported case fatality rates of 50–95%. While wild rabbits in Europe and Australia have developed some immunity to the virus, this is not generally true of pet rabbits.
461:
disease is also seen in previously vaccinated domestic rabbits that have partial immunity. Vaccinated rabbits often present with localized scabbed lesions, frequently on the bridge of the nose and around the eyes, or multiple cutaneous masses over the body. They are often still bright and alert, and survive with nursing care.
694:
Myxomatosis not only decreased the wild rabbit population and the population of its natural predators, but also had significant impacts on the large rabbit-farming industry, which produced domestic rabbits for meat and fur. The
Lausanne strain of the myxoma virus causes the formation of large purple
521:
Negative-stain electron microscopic examination can also be used for diagnosis due to the large size and distinctive structure of poxviruses. This method allows rapid visualization of poxviruses, but does not allow specific verification of virus species or variants. Virus isolation remains the "gold
497:
Diagnosis of myxomatosis in
European rabbits is often made on the basis of the characteristic clinical appearance. If a rabbit dies without exhibiting the classic signs of myxomatosis, or if further confirmation is desired, a number of laboratory tests are available. Historically these have included
319:
A laboratory study in which
European rabbits received intradermal injections of a South American strain of the myxoma virus demonstrated the following progression of disease. Initially the virus multiplied in the skin at the site of inoculation. Approximately two days following inoculation the virus
723:
by the
Argentinian Navy and a private rabbit farmer. The rabbits quickly became pests, riddling the ground with holes and leaving it bare of grass. By 1953 the rabbit population numbered about 30 million. In 1954 Chilean authorities introduced a Brazilian strain of myxoma virus to Tierra del Fuego,
608:
Myxoma virus was the first virus intentionally introduced into the wild with the purpose of eradicating a vertebrate pest, namely the
European rabbit in Australia and Europe. The long-term failure of this strategy has been due to natural selective pressures on both the rabbit and virus populations,
591:
In locations where myxomatosis is endemic but no vaccine is available, preventing exposure to the myxoma virus is of vital importance. Even vaccinated rabbits need protection, as the vaccines are not 100% effective. The risk of a pet contracting myxomatosis can be reduced by preventing contact with
582:
Although myxomatosis is endemic in parts of Mexico and the United States, there is no commercially available vaccine in either of these countries. Information on recently reported cases in the United States is available from the House Rabbit
Society. In the United States the importation of vaccines
533:
assays has created faster and more accurate methods of myxoma virus identification. Real-time PCR simplifies the diagnosis of myxomatosis by allowing nasal, ocular, or genital swabs to be quickly tested. It can also be used on paraffin-embedded tissue samples to confirm the presence of Myxoma virus
290:
caused by the myxoma virus. Different strains exist which vary in their virulence. The
Californian strain, which is endemic to the west coast of the United States and Baja in Mexico, is the most virulent, with reported case fatality rates of 100%. The South American strain, present in South America
747:
However, the evolution of the disease has proved to be increasingly complex and unpredictable, both among various strains of host, and among strains of the virus. Both in modes of resistance and of virulence, and in all countries in which the virus has been introduced for control of feral rabbits,
344:
The clinical signs of myxomatosis depend on the strain of virus, the route of inoculation, and the immune status of the host. Signs of the classic nodular form of the disease include a subcutaneous mass at the site of inoculation, swelling and edema of the eyelids and genitals, a milky or purulent
310:
The myxoma virus can also be transmitted by direct contact. Infected rabbits shed the virus in ocular and nasal secretions and from areas of eroded skin. The virus may also be present in semen and genital secretions. Poxviruses are fairly stable in the environment and can be spread by contaminated
542:
At present, no specific treatment exists for myxomatosis. If the decision is made to attempt treatment, careful monitoring is necessary to avoid prolonging suffering. Previously vaccinated rabbits or those infected with an attenuated strain may recover given supportive care with fluids, food, and
682:
strain of myxoma virus. His intention was to only eradicate rabbits on his property and town, but the disease quickly spread through Western Europe, Ireland and the United Kingdom. Some dissemination of the virus clearly appeared deliberate, such as the introduction into Britain in 1953 and the
460:
In rabbits infected with attenuated, less virulent strains of the virus, the lesions seen are more variable and generally milder, and the time course is delayed and prolonged. Many rabbits will survive and the cutaneous lesions gradually scab and fall off, leaving scarring. A milder form of the
578:
already cause a great deal of environmental damage, this concern is taken seriously by the government. Many pet rabbits in Australia continue to die from myxomatosis due to their lack of immunity. There is at least one campaign to allow the vaccine for domestic pets. The Australian Veterinary
229:
Myxomatosis is an example of what occurs when a virus jumps from a species adapted to the virus to a naive host, and has been extensively studied for this reason. The virus was intentionally introduced in Australia, France, and Chile in the 1950s to control wild European rabbit populations.
579:
Association supports the introduction of a safe and effective myxomatosis vaccine for pet rabbits, and the RSPCA of Australia has repeatedly called for a review of available myxoma virus vaccines and a scientific assessment of their likely impacts in the Australian setting.
522:
standard" against which other methods of virus detection are compared. Theoretically at least, a single viable virus present in a specimen can be grown in cultured cells, thus expanding it to produce enough material to permit further detailed characterization.
560:, which provides cross-immunity. It is recommended that all rabbits in areas of the world where myxomatosis is endemic be routinely vaccinated, even if kept indoors, because of the ability of the virus to be carried inside by vectors or
480:
Since the 1970s an "amyxomatous" form of the disease has been reported in Europe which lacks the cutaneous nodules typical of myxomatosis. This form is clinically milder and generally nonlethal. Respiratory signs, including clear or
609:
which resulted in the emergence of myxomatosis-resistant animals and attenuated virus variants. The process is regarded as a classical example of host–pathogen coevolution following cross-species transmission of a pathogen.
472:
occurs in many cases. Chronic respiratory disease, such as nasal discharge, is common in surviving rabbits. Even in apparently recovered rabbits, it is not unusual to find lung lobes filled with fluid rather than air at
1734:
Myxomatosis (a viral disease of rabbits, caused by the myxoma virus) had been introduced to New Zealand in 1952, but failed to become established as there was no vector to spread it through the rabbit population.
786:"I remember my parents pointing out all these dead rabbits on the road when I was a kid. I didn’t know that much about the virus, or even how to spell it, but I loved the word. I loved the way it sounded."
303:
mites. The myxoma virus does not replicate in these arthropod hosts, but is physically carried by biting arthropods from one rabbit to another. Seasonality is driven by the availability of arthropod
643:
European rabbits were brought to Australia in 1788 by early English settlers. Initially used as a food source, they later became feral and their numbers soared. In November 1937, the Australian
574:
Vaccination against myxomatosis is currently prohibited in Australia due to concerns that the vaccine virus could spread to wild rabbits and increase their immunity to myxomatosis. As feral
543:
broad spectrum antivirals. Cessation of food and water intake, ongoing severe weight loss, or rectal temperatures below 37 °C (98.6 °F) are reasons to consider euthanasia.
695:
skin-nodules, a sign not seen in other strains. As happened in Australia, the virus has generally become less virulent and the wild rabbit populations more resistant subsequently.
1890:
Peter J. Kerr, Isabella M. Cattadori, Derek Sim, June Liu, Edward C. Holmes, Andrew F. Read. "Divergent Evolutionary Pathways of Myxoma Virus in Australia" bioRxiv preprint doi:
299:
Myxomatosis is transmitted primarily by insects. Disease transmission commonly occurs via mosquito or flea bites, but can also occur via the bites of flies and lice, as well as
267:). Like other poxviruses, myxoma viruses are large DNA viruses with linear double-stranded DNA. Virus replication occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell. The natural hosts are
644:
2036:
1224:
556:
Vaccines against myxomatosis are available in some countries. All are modified live vaccines based either on attenuated myxoma virus strains or on the closely related
457:. Death usually occurs between days 10 and 12. Highly virulent strains, such as those present in North and South America, have essentially 100% case fatality rates.
1524:
1746:
Jaksic, F (1983). "Rabbit and Fox Introductions in Tierra del Fuego: History and Assessment of the Attempts at Biological Control of the Rabbit Infestation".
1194:
557:
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Respiratory signs are a common finding in rabbits that survive the first stages of myxomatosis. Mucopurulent nasal discharge occurs, leading to gasping and
1691:
854:"Genomic and phenotypic characterization of myxoma virus from Great Britain reveals multiple evolutionary pathways distinct from those in Australia"
1299:
2063:
567:
In Europe and the United Kingdom a bivalent vectored vaccine called Nobivac Myxo-RHD is available that protects against both myxomatosis and
2031:
311:
objects such as water bottles, feeders, caging, or people's hands. They are resistant to drying but are sensitive to some disinfectants.
1662:
283:) in North America. The myxoma virus causes only a mild disease in these species, with signs limited to the formation of skin nodules.
1905:
715:
Two pairs of European rabbits set free in 1936 at Punta Santa Maria resulted in an infestation that spread over the northern half of
218:) in North America. The myxoma virus causes only a mild disease in these species, but causes a severe and usually fatal disease in
453:
disease with a highly virulent strain, death may occur within 5 to 6 days of infection with minimal clinical signs other than the
988:"The pathogenesis of infectious myxomatosis: the mechanism of infection and the immunological response in the European rabbit (
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1408:
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340:
European rabbit with Californian strain of myxomatosis, indicated by swollen eyelids and genitals (Santa Cruz, California)
2148:
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1998:
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are generally still present. This form has been observed in wild rabbits, but is significant mainly in farmed rabbits.
651:
to conduct its first field trials of myxomatosis, which established the methodology for the successful release of the
2086:
2056:
1915:
510:. Histopathologic examination of affected skin typically shows undifferentiated mesenchymal cells within a matrix of
663:
1202:
704:
635:
1474:
Mahar JE, Read AJ, Gu X, Urakova N, Mourant R, Piper M, Haboury S, Holmes EC, Strive T, Hall RN (January 2018).
1449:
2225:
2138:
1374:
1225:"A Statement from the Chief Veterinary Officer (Australia) on myxomatosis vaccine availability in Australia"
2105:
2049:
62:
2037:
A Statement from the Chief Veterinary Officer (Australia) on myxomatosis vaccine availability in Australia
779:, contains a song "Myxomatosis". The disease is used as analogy to the journalist attention the band has.
675:
1169:
568:
583:
is overseen by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, part of the Department of Agriculture.
1118:
526:
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1630:"Former range and decline of the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) reconstructed using verified records"
39:
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Secondary skin lesions, including red pinpoint lesions on eyelids and raised masses on body
1845:
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618:
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518:. Intracytoplasmic inclusions may be seen in the epidermis and in conjunctival epithelium.
57:
756:
Myxomatosis is referred to as "the white blindness" by the rabbit characters of the novel
8:
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678:, the owner of an estate in northwestern France, inoculated two wild rabbits with the
1994:
1986:
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1663:"Action plan for the Spanish imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti) in the European Union"
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1476:"Detection and Circulation of a Novel Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease Virus in Australia"
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According to Meredith (2013), the typical time course of the disease is as follows:
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United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
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Vermin, Victims and Disease: British Debates Over Bovine Tuberculosis and Badgers
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The introduction of myxomatosis into New Zealand in 1952 to control a burgeoning
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1450:"Rabbits around a waterhole at the enclosed trial site at Wardang Island, 1938"
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has also been used to control wild rabbit populations in Australia since 1995.
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nasal discharge, predominate. Perineal edema, swollen eyelids, and purulent
2110:
2100:
1982:
1877:
1818:
1589:
1525:"Darwin's rabbit is revealing how the animals became immune to myxomatosis"
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1119:"Development and validation of a real-time polymerase chain reaction assay"
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19:
This article is about the disease in rabbits. For the Radiohead song, see
425:
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In 1950, the SLS strain of myxoma virus from the South American tapeti (
332:
European rabbit with Lausanne strain of myxomatosis (West Yorkshire, UK)
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384:
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147:
135:
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1834:"Evolutionary clash between myxoma virus and rabbit PKR in Australia"
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respiration with extension of the head and neck. Secondary bacterial
1117:
Albini, S; Sigrist, B; GĂĽttinger, R; et al. (6 December 2011).
724:
which succeeded in bringing rabbits to very low population levels.
679:
482:
474:
450:
300:
193:
1403:(Second ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 455.
1692:"How a thriving food industry faded away to nothing in the 1960s"
1554:"Myxoma Virus and the Leporipoxviruses: An Evolutionary Paradigm"
720:
465:
286:
Myxomatosis is the name of the severe and often fatal disease in
736:
Evolutionary history of the myxoma virus in Europe and Australia
604:
Rabbit and myxomatosis introductions around the world with dates
1116:
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268:
238:
203:
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Given the importance of viral evolution to disease emergence,
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ocular discharge, fever, lethargy, depression, and anorexia.
74:
2017:
1035:
Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery
627:
Rabbits around a waterhole in the myxomatosis trial site on
323:
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1552:
Kerr, P; Liu, J; Cattadori, I; et al. (6 March 2015).
1349:
918:
Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice
816:
Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice
814:
Meredith, A (2013). "Viral skin diseases of the rabbit".
525:
The more recent development of molecular methods such as
1401:
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1551:
1329:
Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
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Myxomatosis: A History of Pest Control and the Rabbit
2013:
1961:
Deane, C.D. (1955). "Note on myxomatosis in hares".
595:
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1628:Gil-Sánchez, JM; McCain, EB (14 October 2011).
1229:Australian Government Department of Agriculture
985:
809:
807:
805:
803:
801:
799:
727:
1783:"Theory and Empiricism in Virulence Evolution"
1126:Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation
966:The Center for Food Security and Public Health
645:Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
403:Clear ocular and nasal discharge that becomes
2057:
1039:(Third ed.). Elsevier Saunders. p.
996:The British Journal of Experimental Pathology
383:Swelling of eyelids, face, base of ears, and
1062:
1060:
796:
719:. More rabbits were introduced in 1950 near
586:
435:Complete closure of eyelids due to swelling
307:and the proximity of infected wild rabbits.
1831:
1547:
1545:
1030:
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2050:
1781:Bull, JJ; Lauring, AS; Condit, RC (2014).
1423:
1250:"The Rabbit Sanctuary Myxomatosis Hotline"
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1892:https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.06.02.494607
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1426:Fenner's Veterinary Virology, 5th Edition
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1094:Fenner's Veterinary Virology, 5th Edition
1069:Fenner's Veterinary Virology, 5th Edition
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1007:
937:
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324:Clinical presentation in European rabbits
1723:Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
1542:
1398:
1300:"Myxomatosis vaccination of pet rabbits"
813:
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599:
335:
327:
237:
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1607:. London, UK: Tauris Academic Studies.
1602:
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842:
639:Releasing the myxoma virus in Australia
2218:
1745:
2045:
1960:
1716:
16:Rabbit disease caused by Myxoma virus
911:
851:
275:) in South and Central America, and
210:) in South and Central America, and
1660:
531:real-time polymerase chain reaction
52:(transmission electron microscope)
13:
1953:
1717:Peden, Robert (24 November 2008).
314:
14:
2252:
2009:
1522:
1304:Australian Veterinary Association
986:Fenner, F; Woodroofe, GM (1953).
596:Use as a population control agent
2016:
1910:. Springer Nature. p. 178.
769:The sixth album of British band
710:
664:Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus
61:
2149:Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever
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534:and identify the viral strain.
294:
2139:Tick-borne meningoencephalitis
2032:An interview with Frank Fenner
1993:. Cambridge University Press.
1719:"Rabbits - Biological control"
1454:National Archives of Australia
1110:
1085:
1024:
979:
954:
698:
691:, to the brink of extinction.
551:
367:Swelling at site of infection
1:
1832:Burgess, HM; Mohr, I (2016).
1195:"Nobivac Myxo RHD Data Sheet"
914:"Viral Infections of Rabbits"
789:
751:
707:failed for lack of a vector.
546:
2106:Rocky Mountain spotted fever
1800:10.1371/journal.ppat.1004387
1768:10.1016/0006-3207(83)90097-6
1690:Cadogan, S (23 March 2017).
871:10.1371/journal.ppat.1006252
728:Use as an evolutionary model
612:
537:
492:
7:
569:rabbit haemorrhagic disease
10:
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930:10.1016/j.cvex.2013.02.002
828:10.1016/j.cvex.2013.05.010
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514:, inflammatory cells, and
242:Suffering from Myxomatosis
18:
2204:
2185:
2162:
2129:
2080:
1428:. Elsevier. p. 168.
1096:. Elsevier. p. 112.
1071:. Elsevier. p. 158.
676:Paul-FĂ©lix Armand-Delille
669:
587:Other preventive measures
527:polymerase chain reaction
56:
46:
37:
30:
1199:European Medicine Agency
1139:10.1177/1040638711425946
655:throughout the country.
233:
202:. The natural hosts are
1859:10.1073/pnas.1602063113
1748:Biological Conservation
1647:10.1644/10-MAMM-A-381.1
1350:"Myxomatosis in the US"
1031:Quesenberry, K (2012).
660:Sylvilagus brasiliensis
273:Sylvilagus brasiliensis
208:Sylvilagus brasiliensis
186:is a disease caused by
1529:Natural History Museum
1492:10.3201/eid2401.170412
1424:MacLachlan, J (2017).
1375:"Veterinary Biologics"
1092:MacLachlan, J (2017).
1067:MacLachlan, J (2017).
737:
689:Spanish imperial eagle
640:
632:
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487:blepharoconjunctivitis
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333:
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2226:Animal viral diseases
990:Oryctolagus cuniculus
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638:
626:
603:
339:
331:
241:
224:Oryctolagus cuniculus
1634:Journal of Mammalogy
1399:Oglesbee, B (2011).
1354:House Rabbit Society
619:Rabbits in Australia
576:rabbits in Australia
416:Respiratory distress
354:Days after infection
58:Virus classification
2164:Protozoan infection
2144:Colorado tick fever
2082:Bacterial infection
1904:Cassidy, A (2019).
1850:2016PNAS..113.3912B
1760:1983BCons..26..367J
1670:European Commission
1603:Bartrip, P (2008).
631:, Australia in 1938
558:Shope fibroma virus
504:electron microscopy
281:Sylvilagus bachmani
216:Sylvilagus bachmani
1696:The Irish Examiner
1170:"Nobivac Myxo RHD"
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606:
342:
334:
244:
113:Nucleocytoviricota
2213:
2212:
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1844:(15): 3912–3914.
1435:978-0-12-800946-8
1410:978-0-8138-2018-7
1174:MSD Animal Health
1103:978-0-12-800946-8
1078:978-0-12-800946-8
1050:978-1-4160-6621-7
776:Hail to the Thief
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717:Tierra del Fuego
351:
350:
288:European rabbits
264:Chordopoxvirinae
249:is in the genus
220:European rabbits
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2236:Rabbit diseases
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2131:Viral infection
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2116:Relapsing fever
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2075:-borne diseases
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1987:Ratcliffe, F.N.
1956:
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1275:"Myxo Campaign"
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2177:Cytauxzoonosis
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2024:Viruses portal
2011:
2010:External links
2008:
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2000:978-0521049917
1999:
1979:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1949:
1948:
1923:
1916:
1896:
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1824:
1787:PLOS Pathogens
1773:
1754:(4): 369–370.
1738:
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1614:978-1845115722
1613:
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1002:(4): 400–411.
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962:"Disinfection"
953:
924:(2): 437–468.
895:
858:PLOS Pathogens
841:
822:(3): 705–714.
794:
793:
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759:Watership Down
753:
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705:rabbit problem
700:
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674:In June 1952,
671:
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649:Wardang Island
629:Wardang Island
614:
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358:Clinical signs
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252:Leporipoxvirus
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199:Leporipoxvirus
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1983:Fenner, Frank
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1964:
1959:
1958:
1937:
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1932:"Myxomatosis"
1927:
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1894:June 2, 2022.
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1669:
1661:Sánchez, B.
1656:
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1528:
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347:
343:
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309:
298:
295:Transmission
285:
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262:
261:; subfamily
256:
250:
247:Myxoma virus
246:
245:
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189:Myxoma virus
187:
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174:Myxoma virus
173:
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137:Chitovirales
136:
124:
112:
101:Bamfordvirae
100:
89:Varidnaviria
88:
81:
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49:Myxoma virus
47:
32:Myxoma virus
31:
25:
2154:Myxomatosis
1991:Myxomatosis
1279:Myxomatosis
1254:Myxomatosis
699:New Zealand
552:Vaccination
426:Hypothermia
184:Myxomatosis
2241:Poxviruses
2220:Categories
2172:Babesiosis
1975:1224626693
1941:18 October
1702:15 October
1523:Davis, J.
790:References
783:has said:
781:Thom Yorke
762:(1972) by
752:In culture
617:See also:
547:Prevention
529:(PCR) and
466:stertorous
385:anogenital
258:Poxviridae
149:Poxviridae
2121:Tularemia
1675:14 August
1534:14 August
1359:23 August
771:Radiohead
613:Australia
538:Treatment
493:Diagnosis
470:pneumonia
168:Species:
96:Kingdom:
2197:tapeworm
2187:Helminth
1989:(1965).
1878:27035991
1819:25340792
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890:28253375
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687:and the
680:Lausanne
483:purulent
475:necropsy
451:peracute
301:arachnid
255:(family
194:poxvirus
144:Family:
108:Phylum:
2205:Vectors
1869:4839419
1846:Bibcode
1810:4207818
1756:Bibcode
1728:9 March
1581:4379559
1558:Viruses
1501:5749467
1459:28 July
1384:23 July
1334:20 July
1309:20 July
1284:20 July
1259:20 July
1234:20 July
1209:20 July
1179:20 July
1009:2073564
971:21 July
939:7110462
881:5349684
721:Ushuaia
562:fomites
305:vectors
156:Genus:
132:Order:
120:Class:
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506:, and
443:Death
375:Fever
269:tapeti
204:tapeti
2231:CSIRO
2085:(all
1666:(PDF)
1152:S2CID
1122:(PDF)
647:used
516:edema
512:mucin
440:10–12
387:area
234:Cause
82:Realm
75:Virus
2073:Flea
1995:ISBN
1971:OCLC
1943:2023
1912:ISBN
1874:PMID
1815:PMID
1730:2021
1704:2017
1677:2019
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1586:PMID
1536:2019
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1461:2019
1430:ISBN
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1361:2019
1336:2019
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