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235:). Mimetic synoeketes are myrmecoid, resembling their host ant morphologically. Many mimetic species are guests of driver ants, which are blind. Driver ants have strong senses of touch, suggesting mimics fool their hosts tactilely. It is also possible that mimicry may reduce predation from more visual animals, such as birds. Loricate, or “tear-drop shaped”, synoeketes are “defensive forms”. They typically exhibit long tapering bodies with broad thoraxes and smooth bodies, which prevent aggressing ants from gripping them. Symphiloids strongly resemble “true guests,” but are not fully integrated into the colony. They are often mimics, and in some species have developed
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in close contact with their host ants are able to pick up the host's hydrocarbons and imitate the ant's hydrocarbon pattern, thus appearing in scent at least to be the same species as the host ant. As hydrocarbon patterns are specific to an individual colony, the rove beetles are generally restricted to one nest. The production of a new hydrocarbon pattern takes time, during which the beetle is vulnerable to detection and attack. Some species, such as
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177:, commonly lay their eggs in the refuse heaps of their host ant, where the larvae feed on the discarded carcasses of ants. If detected by the host ant, the larvae enters a typical defense position, facing the ant with its abdomen tip raised. Usually this behavior results in the ant palpating the beetle's abdomen and stopping the attack. At least two members of
277:. Symphiles typically take on many roles in the colony, raising young, feeding and grooming adults, and helping transport food and larvae. Many staphylinids are capable of following ant pheromone trails, although they are not limited to following trails laid by their host ant. This allows symphiles of army ants to migrate with the colony. Most species are
239:. Syneoketes generally live on or inside of ant nests, where they feed on refuse and may steal food from their hosts. There is some overlap between synoeketes and other categories, especially in loricate species and synecthrans, and symphiloids and symphiles, where the behavior of “true guests” may be difficult to determine.
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For staphylinids accepted into the host colony, chemical mimicry is used more for camouflage. The majority of the chemical signals used are cuticular hydrocarbons, which are produced in the cuticle of the host ant at certain concentrations and are palpated to determine the identity of an ant. Species
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Synoeketetic staphylinids live in close contact with their host ants but are not integrated into the colony. These species may be further categorized as neutral, mimetic, loricate, and symphiloid synoeketes. Neutral synoeketes ignore and are ignored by their host, but feed on refuse. There are few
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and sulcatone, which elicit aggressive and panic reactions respectively. Although it seems counterintuitive to release an aggressive alarm pheromone as a defense, the presence of sulcatone stops the aggression response to undecane. Ants exposed to the defensive secretion act less aggressively and
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Symphilic staphylinids have been fully integrated into the host ant's society. Symphilic species have undergone complex morphological adaptations, many becoming myrmecoid. Most have developed trichomes, which secrete appeasement pheromones. The most extreme adaptations, found in members of tribe
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Due to their large number and diversity, myrmecophilous rove beetles occupy an array of behaviors. Myrmecophilous interactions can be generalized into categories, in three of which staphylinids can be found. The synecthrans, or “persecuted guests,” the synoeketes, or “tolerated guests,” and the
139:, which includes 117 myrmecophilous species in 20 genera The Aleocharinae possess defensive glands on their abdomens, which are used in myrmecophilous species to prevent attacks by their host ant and in more extreme cases to integrate completely into the colony. Many Pselephinae species have
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Synecthran staphylinids live on the periphery of the host colony and are not accepted into the colony. The majority are in the subfamily
Aleocharinae, having defensive glands on their terminal abdominal segments. Species in this group, such as those in the genus
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of ants, which exhibit extreme morphological and chemical adaptations to the harsh environments of ant nests. Some species are fully integrated into the host colony, and are cleaned and fed by ants. Many of these, including species in tribe
Clavigerini, are
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species attack the ants from the rear before pulling them from the main column. If pursued, they rapidly wave their abdomens through the air, releasing a noticeable scent. Ants encountering this scent seem disoriented and take almost 20 minutes to recover.
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refers to the production of one species’ chemical signals by another species. Many myrmecophilous staphylinids have evolved chemical mimicry to deter or placate ants. Synecthrans, as non-tolerated guests, primarily produce defensive secretions.
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Staphylinidae is currently considered to be the largest family of beetles, with over 58,000 species described. As such, many myrmecophilous species are unknown. The majority of studied myrmecophilous rove beetles belong to the subfamily
38:. Rove beetles are among the most rich and diverse families of myrmecophilous beetles, with a wide variety of relationships with ants. Ant associations range from near free-living species which prey only on ants, to obligate
285:. Almost all species have also been observed feeding on the brood. Some of these species die if kept away from the appropriate ant colonies, and others lay their own eggs in ant brood galleries, effectively making them
367:
O'Keefe, Sean (2000). "Ant-Like Stone
Beetles, Ants, and Their Associations (Coleoptera: Scydmaenidae; Hymenoptera: Formicidae; Isoptera)". ‘’J. N. Y. Entomol. Soc.’’ (NYC: N. Y. Entomol. Soc.) 108 (3/4):
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Stoeffler, Michael; S. Maier, Tanja; Till, Tolasch; L. M. Steidle, Johannes (2007). "Foreign-language Skills in Rove-Beetles? Evidence for
Chemical Mimicry of Ant Alarm Pheromones in Myrmecophilous
326:, produce volatile pheromones as well as cuticular hydrocarbons, which may provide it more protection than contact based pheromones while traveling with its host in foraging trails.
143:, tufts of hairs which hold placating pheromones. Pselephines have evolved trichomes independently at least four times, most notably in all members of Clavigerini, but also in
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and the fusing of many body and antennal segments. While most symphiles use antennal contact to stimulate food giving from their host, at least one member of
Clavigerini,
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Mynhardt, Glené (2013). "Declassifying
Myrmecophily in the Coleoptera to Promote the Study of Ant-Beetle Symbioses". ‘’Psyche’’ (Cairo: Hindawi pub co) 2013: 1–8.
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from
Tropical Africa with Notes on Their Behavior and Their Relationship to the Pygostenini (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae)". “Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am” 58 (1): 28–44
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Parker, Joe; Eldredge, Taro (10 Dec 2012), "The
Bizarre, Beetle-Biased World of Social Insect Exploitation", ‘’Scientific American’’
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W. Rettenmeyer, Carl; D. Akre, Roger (1968). "Trail-Following by Guests of Army Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ecitonini)".
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552:(Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) and Diaritiger fossulatus (Coleoptera: Pselaphidae) to be integrated into the nest of
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M. Wheeler, William (1960). ‘’Ants: Their
Structure, Development, and Behavior.’’ 9. NYC: Columbia Univ Press.
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185:, produce several of their host ant's alarm pheromones to avoid aggression. Other species, like members of
34:(commonly known as "rove beetles") have developed complex interspecies relationships with ants, known as
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Lapeva-Gjonova, Albena (April 2013). “Ant-Associated Beetle Fauna in
Bulgaria: A Review and New Data”.
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R. Herman, Henry, ed.; H. Kistner, David (1979). ‘’Social Insects’’ 1,3. Waltham: Academic Press Inc.
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502:"Myrmecophily in beetles (Coleoptera): evolutionary patterns and biological mechanisms"
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Beetles (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae)". ‘’J Chem Ecol’’ (NYC: Springer Pub) 33: 1382–1392
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Holldobler, B.; Moglich, M.; Maschwitz, U. (1981). "Myrmecophilic Relationship Of
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444:. Koblick, Tonya; H. Kistner, David. "A Revision of the Species of the Genus
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Cammaerts, R. (1992). "Stimuli inducing the regurgitation of the workers of
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Akino, Toshiharu (2002). "Chemical camouflage by myrmecophilous beetles
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474:(Pselaphidae)". “Behavioural Processes” (ScienceDirect) 28 (1-2): 81–95
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