175:, and created related products. Among these are collections of music that he states harness the Mozart effect to enhance "deep rest and rejuvenation", "intelligence and learning", and "creativity and imagination". Campbell defines the term as "an inclusive term signifying the transformational powers of music in health, education, and well-being. It represents the general use of music to reduce stress, depression, or anxiety; induce relaxation or sleep; activate the body; and improve
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finding in this meta-analysis is the significantly larger effects published in studies affiliated with
Rauscher or Rideout, with effect sizes more than three times higher for published studies affiliated with these founding members of the Mozart Effect. These systematic moderating effects due to lab affiliation call into question the existence of a Mozart Effect. In addition, this study also found strong evidence supporting a confounding
248:. Among children, some studies suggest no effect on IQ or spatial ability, whereas others suggest that the effect can be elicited with energetic popular music that the children enjoy. The weight of subsequent evidence supports either a null effect, or short-term effects related to increases in mood and arousal, with mixed results published after the initial report in
215:, announced that his proposed state budget would include $ 105,000 a year to provide every child born in Georgia with a tape or CD of classical music. Miller stated "No one questions that listening to music at a very early age affects the spatial-temporal reasoning that underlies math and engineering and even chess." Miller played legislators some of Beethoven's "
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components of mental imagery; a research design that does not include a pretest to avoid ceiling effects; a musical composition that is complex rather than repetitive and simple. Regardless of listening to classical music, jazz or silence, the study did not yield a significant effect on spatial reasoning performance.
432:) where he used the music of Mozart in his efforts to "retrain" the ear, and believed that listening to the music presented at differing frequencies helped the ear, and promoted healing and the development of the brain, but his method is not directly related to claims that listening to Mozart increases intelligence.
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The Mozart Effect is likely just an artifact of arousal and heightened mood. Arousal is the confounding variable that mediates the relationship between spatial ability and music that defines the Mozart Effect. The "neural resonance" theory of
Rauscher and colleagues which contends that Mozart's music
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demonstrating that "any cognitive enhancement is small and does not reflect any change in IQ or reasoning ability in general, but instead derives entirely from performance on one specific type of cognitive task and has a simple neuropsychological explanation", called "enjoyment arousal". For example,
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article mentioned some of the
Rauscher and Shaw results. It described one study in which three- and four-year-olds who were given eight months of private piano lessons scored 30% higher on tests of spatio-temporal reasoning than control groups given computer lessons, singing lessons, and no training.
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story enhanced subjects' performance in paper folding and cutting (one of the tests frequently employed by
Rauscher and Shaw) but only for those who enjoyed what they heard". Steele et al. found that "listening to Mozart produced a 3-point increase relative to silence in one experiment and a 4-point
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While some supportive reports have been published, studies with positive results have tended to be associated with any form of music that has energetic and positive emotional qualities. Moreover, the intellectual benefits of enhanced mood and arousal are not restricted to spatial-temporal reasoning,
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Another meta-analysis by
Pietschnig, Voracek, and Formann (2010) combined results of 39 studies to answer the question as to whether or not the Mozart Effect exists. They concluded that there is little evidence to support the Mozart effect, as shown by small effect sizes. However, the most striking
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Government bodies also became involved in analysing the wealth (some 300+ articles as of 2005) of reports. A German report concluded, for instance, that "... passively listening to Mozart — or indeed any other music you enjoy — does not make you smarter. But more studies should be done to find out
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by Mozart, verbal relaxation instructions, and silence. They found a temporary enhancement of spatial-reasoning, as measured by spatial-reasoning sub tasks of the
Stanford-Binet IQ test. Rauscher et al. show that the enhancing effect of the music condition is only temporary: no student had effects
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that the existing evidence on the Mozart Effect in epilepsy is not scientifically robust. In an extensive meta-analysis, it was argued that positive findings regarding symptom relief are based on inadequate research designs, selective reporting, and too small sample sizes. Additionally, results
289:
Popular presentations of the "Mozart effect", including Alex Ross's comment that "listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter" and Zell Miller's "don't you feel smarter" query to the
Georgia legislature, almost always tie it to "intelligence." Rauscher, one of the original researchers, has
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Despite implementing
Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky's (1995) suggestions of three key components that must be present to replicate the Mozart Effect, McCutcheon (2000) still failed to reproduce the Mozart Effect in a study with 36 adults. These conditions were: to ensure a task that taps into spatial
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on spatial–temporal task performance have generated much interest but several misconceptions, many of which are reflected in attempts to replicate the research. The comments by
Chabris and Steele et al. echo the most common of these: that listening to Mozart enhances intelligence.
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On efforts like Miller's budget proposal, and the press attention surrounding the effect, Rauscher has said, "I don't think it can hurt. I'm all for exposing children to wonderful cultural experiences. But I do think the money could be better spent on music education programs."
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assessed the possible health benefits of the music of Mozart. John
Jenkins played Sonata K.448 to patients with epilepsy and found a decrease in epileptiform activity. According to the British Epilepsy Organization, research has suggested that apart from Mozart's
65:. The results were highly exaggerated by the popular press and became "Mozart makes you smart", which was said to apply to children in particular (the original study included 36 college students). These claims led to a commercial
255:
In 1999 a major challenge was raised to the existence of the Mozart effect by two teams of researchers. In a pair of papers published together under the title "Prelude or Requiem for the 'Mozart Effect'?" Chabris reported a
577:, p. 611 defines the term as "Slight and transient improvement in spational reasoning skills detected in normal subjects as a result of exposure to the music of Mozart, specifically his sonata for two pianos (K448)."
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the original study shows that there is little evidence that listening to Mozart has any particular effect on spatial reasoning. The author of the original study has stressed that listening to Mozart has no effect on
198:
These theories are controversial. The relationship of sound and music (both played and listened to) for cognitive function and various physiological metrics has been explored in studies with no definitive results.
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decrease in the other experiment". In another study, the effect was replicated with the original Mozart music, but eliminated when the tempo was slowed down and major chords were replaced by minor chords.
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While Rauscher et al. only showed an increase in "spatial intelligence", the results were popularly interpreted as an increase in general IQ. A general Mozart effect was thus widely reported. In 1994,
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or something like that, but they said they thought the classical music has a greater positive impact. Having never studied those impacts too much, I guess I'll just have to take their word for that."
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and produce many other beneficial effects on mental function. Campbell recommends playing specially selected classical music to infants, in the expectation that it will benefit their
879:
Husain, G., Thompson, W.F. & Schellenberg, E.G. (2002). "Effects of musical tempo and mode on arousal, mood, and spatial abilities: Re-examination of the "Mozart effect"".
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versions of the theory make the claim that "listening to Mozart makes you smarter" or that early childhood exposure to classical music has a beneficial effect on
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Rauscher, Frances H.; Shaw, Gordon L.; Ky, Katherine N. (1995). "Listening to Mozart enhances spatial-temporal reasoning: towards a neurophysiological basis".
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plant was quoted as saying, "We think the secret is in the vibrations of the music, which penetrate everything—including the water, the sewage and the cells."
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extending beyond the 15-minute period in which they were tested. The study makes no statement of an increase in IQ in general (because IQ was never measured).
115:. They gave research participants one of three standard tests of abstract spatial reasoning after they had experienced each of three listening conditions: the
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Many scholars in the psychological community now view the claim that playing classical music to children can boost their intelligence to be a "myth."
53:
The original study from 1993 reported a short-term (lasting about 15 minutes) improvement on the performance of certain kinds of mental tasks known as
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Thompson, Billie M.; Andrews, Susan R. (2000). "An historical commentary on the physiological effects of music: Tomatis, Mozart and neuropsychology".
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McKelvie, Pippa; Low, Jason (2002). "Listening to Mozart does not improve children's spatial ability: Final curtains for the Mozart effect".
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While it is clear that exposure to Mozart does not raise IQ, studies of the effects of music have explored as diverse areas as its links to
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disclaimed this idea. In a 1999 reply to an article challenging the effect, published along with the article, she wrote (emphasis added):
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Steele, K. M.; Bella, S. D.; Peretz, I.; Dunlop, T.; Dawe, L. A.; Humphrey, G. K.; Shannon, R. A.; Kirby, J. L.; Olmstead, C. G. (1999).
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Unfounded authority, underpowered studies, and non-transparent reporting perpetuate the Mozart effect myth: a multiverse meta-analysis
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Ilie, G., & Thompson, W.F. (2011). "Experiential and cognitive changes following seven minutes exposure to music and speech".
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Jones, Martin H.; West, Stephen D.; Estell, David B. (2006). "The Mozart effect: Arousal, preference, and spatial performance".
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wrote in a light-hearted article, "researchers have determined that listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter". A 1997
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Rauscher, F. H.; Robinson, K. D.; Jens, J. J. (July 1998). "Improved maze learning through early music exposure in rats".
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The Mozart Effect : tapping the power of music to heal the body, strengthen the mind, and unlock the creative spirit
1216:
Steele, Kenneth M.; Bass, Karen E.; Crook, Melissa D. (1999). "The Mystery of the Mozart Effect: Failure to Replicate".
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Bridgett, D.J.; Cuevas, J. (2000). "Effects of listening to Mozart and Bach on the performance of a mathematical test".
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cannot be replicated because study data is not available and therefore does not comply with modern research standards.
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The Mozart Effect: Tapping the Power of Music to Heal the Body, Strengthen the Mind, and Unlock the Creative Spirit
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The Mozart Effect: Tapping the Power of Music to Heal the Body, Strengthen the Mind, and Unlock the Creative Spirit
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Frances Rauscher, Gordon Shaw, and Catherine Ky (1993) investigated the effect of listening to music by Mozart on
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Pietschnig, Jakob; Voracek, Martin; Formann, Anton K. (2010). "Mozart effect–Shmozart effect: A meta-analysis".
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188:
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Hughes, J. R.; Daaboul, Y.; Fino, J. J.; Shaw, G. L. (1998). "The "Mozart Effect" on Epileptiform Activity".
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17:
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Wilson, T., Brown, T. (2010). "Reexamination of the effect of Mozart's music on spatial task performance".
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when effect sizes of samples who listened to Mozart are compared to samples not exposed to a stimulus.
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348:, only one other piece of music has been found to have a similar effect; a song by the Greek composer
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Thompson, W.F.; Schellenberg, E.G.; Husain, G. (2001). "Arousal, mood, and the Mozart effect".
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The effect is limited to spatial–temporal tasks involving mental imagery and temporal ordering.
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1555:, 1999-08-03 p. f1: Rauscher, "the money could be better spent on music education programs."
227:, to compile a collection of classical pieces that should be included. State representative
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onset or research in animals suggesting that even exposure in-utero in rats improves their
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learning. The original claim continues to influence public life. For instance a German
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183:. Innovative and experimental uses of music and sound can improve listening disorders,
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Music has been evaluated to see if it has other properties. The April 2001 edition of
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1523:(in German). Bundesministerium fĂĽr Bildung und Forschung. p. 183. Archived from
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he cites a study that found that "listening either to Mozart or to a passage from a
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219:" on a tape recorder and asked "Now, don't you feel smarter already?" Miller asked
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1988:
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990:"Music listening and cognitive abilities in 10 and 11 year olds: The Blur effect"
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2146:
2086:
2006:
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1352:
McCutcheon, Lynn E. (2000). "Another failure to generalize the Mozart effect".
1103:
Chabris, Christopher F. (1999). "Prelude or requiem for the 'Mozart effect'?".
772:
Sack, Kevin (1998-01-15). "Georgia's Governor Seeks Musical Start for Babies".
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The political impact of the theory was demonstrated on January 13, 1998, when
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primes the neural pathways of spatial reasoning has been widely criticized.
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plant plays Mozart music to break down the waste faster, reports the UK
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whether music lessons could raise your child's IQ in the long term".
220:
180:
987:
650:
Pietschnig, Jakob; Voracek, Martin; Formann, Anton K. (2010-05-01).
1918:
184:
1186:
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2036:
1908:
391:
372:, structure, melodic and harmonic consonance and predictability.
39:
504:
Rauscher, Frances H.; Shaw, Gordon L.; Ky, Catherine N. (1993).
156:(especially the piano concertos) may temporarily increase one's
2204:
1688:
1568:; Lynn, Steven Jay; Ruscio, John; Beyerstein, Barry L. (2009).
192:
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35:
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The term "Mozart effect" was used by the French researcher
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even proposed a budget to provide every child with a CD of
375:
In 2023, Sandra Oberleiter and Jakob Pietschnig showed in
69:
with Mozart CDs being sold to parents. The U.S. state of
362:). It was determined to have the "Mozart effect", by the
195:, and other mental and physical disorders and diseases".
66:
1281:
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238:
1598:"Mozart's music does not make you smarter, study finds"
1155:
499:
497:
352:, entitled "Acroyali/Standing in Motion" (version from
157:
1885:"Mozart's music does not make you smarter, study finds
691:"CLASSICAL VIEW; Listening To Prozac . . . Er, Mozart"
560:
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said "I asked about the possibility of including some
1706:
1258:"Papers by Steele casting doubt on the Mozart effect"
788:
1749:
1592:
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27:
Psychological effects of listening to Mozart's music
1653:
1402:Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts
1059:
38:may temporarily boost scores on one portion of an
1787:"Sewage plant plays Mozart to stimulate microbes"
1432:"Arousal and mood factors in the "Mozart effect""
478:"'Mozart Effect' Was Just What We Wanted To Hear"
2956:
1840:Integrative Physiological and Behavioral Science
1647:
1395:
1393:
1391:
652:"Mozart effect–Shmozart effect: A meta-analysis"
296:Mozart's Sonata for Two Pianos in D Major K. 448
1914:Frequently asked questions on the Mozart Effect
1837:
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319:ranks Mozart Effect as number six in his book
2555:
1934:
1425:
1423:
1388:
1158:"Prelude or requiem for the 'Mozart effect'?"
988:Schellenberg, E.G., & Hallam, S. (2005).
554:
96:
34:is the theory that listening to the music of
1045:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
946:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
905:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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368:because it was similar to Mozart's K.448 in
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963:British Journal of Developmental Psychology
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294:Our results on the effects of listening to
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997:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
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152:, discusses the theory that listening to
1909:Skeptic's Dictionary – The Mozart Effect
1810:
1784:
1053:
823:
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713:
596:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
365:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
336:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
117:Sonata for Two Pianos in D major, K. 448
2731:
2177:Temporal dynamics of music and language
1689:Oberleiter, Sandra; Pietschnig, Jakob.
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738:
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408:. Anton Stucki, chief operator of the
14:
2957:
1549:"Mozart For Baby? Some Say, Maybe Not"
1515:
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1246:
869:
720:(1st ed.). New York: Avon Books.
244:but extend to speed of processing and
2543:
1922:
239:Subsequent research and meta-analyses
1948:
1570:50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology
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688:
645:
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506:"Music and spatial task performance"
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470:
468:
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415:
322:50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology
109:, and the results were published in
1811:Sorensen, Lars (19 November 2008).
202:
171:, Campbell wrote a follow-up book,
24:
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1255:
328:
25:
2991:
2122:Music in psychological operations
1877:
640:
580:
463:
123:
2939:
2938:
2799:Maria Anna Thekla Mozart (Bäsle)
2067:Generative theory of tonal music
1496:"Mozart doesn't make you clever"
2916:Beethoven–Haydn–Mozart Memorial
2077:Hedonic music consumption model
1974:Cognitive neuroscience of music
1831:
1804:
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1700:
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1509:
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1345:
1302:
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1209:
1149:
1096:
981:
954:
782:
563:Companion to Clinical Neurology
561:William Pryse-Phillips (2003).
148:The 1997 book by Don Campbell,
1785:Connolly, Kate (2 June 2010).
1764:10.1080/01616412.1998.11740543
1632:. epilepsy.org. Archived from
1260:. appstate.edu. Archived from
765:
707:
689:Ross, Alex (August 28, 1994).
682:
447:Music education § Significance
346:Piano Concerto No. 23 (K. 488)
173:The Mozart Effect For Children
13:
1:
2514:Psychology of Music (journal)
2057:Eye movement in music reading
1904:The myth of the Mozart effect
1709:Clinical EEG and Neuroscience
1654:Yanni; Rensin, David (2002).
457:
2825:(paternal great-grandfather)
2668:Concert arias, songs, canons
2082:Illusory continuity of tones
1323:10.1016/0304-3940(94)11221-4
1296:10.1016/j.intell.2010.03.001
668:10.1016/j.intell.2010.03.001
386:Other uses of Mozart's music
7:
2805:Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart
2787:Maria Anna Mozart (Nannerl)
2528:This Is Your Brain on Music
2507:Music, Thought, and Feeling
2493:Musicae Scientiae (journal)
1439:Perceptual and Motor Skills
1430:Steele, Kenneth M. (2000).
1074:10.2466/pms.2000.90.3c.1171
1062:Perceptual and Motor Skills
590:Jenkins, J S (April 2001).
565:. Oxford University Press.
435:
355:Yanni Live at the Acropolis
10:
2996:
2301:Neuronal encoding of sound
2271:Melodic intonation therapy
1979:Culture in music cognition
1721:10.1177/155005949802900301
608:10.1177/014107680109400404
189:attention deficit disorder
2934:
2911:Mozart in popular culture
2898:
2862:
2765:
2723:Relationship with G minor
2658:
2577:
2477:
2339:
2243:
2195:
2027:Consonance and dissonance
1997:
1956:
1894:Dowd, Will. (2008-02-06)
1451:10.2466/pms.2000.91.1.188
1366:10.2466/pr0.2000.87.1.325
803:10.1080/00223989709603522
791:The Journal of Psychology
2640:Appearance and character
2316:Psychoanalysis and music
2296:Neurologic music therapy
2230:Music-specific disorders
2042:Embodied music cognition
2032:Deutsch's scale illusion
1414:10.1037/1931-3896.S.1.26
934:10.1525/mp.2011.28.3.247
893:10.1525/mp.2002.20.2.151
246:creative problem solving
223:, music director of the
2980:Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
2926:Mozart Monument, Vienna
2571:Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
2172:Speech-to-song illusion
1984:Evolutionary musicology
1232:10.1111/1467-9280.00169
1017:10.1196/annals.1360.013
975:10.1348/026151002166433
847:10.1111/1467-9280.00345
2965:Educational psychology
2819:(paternal grandfather)
2521:The World in Six Songs
2464:William Forde Thompson
2220:Musical hallucinations
1518:"Macht Mozart schlau?"
745:Campbell, Don (1997).
714:Campbell, Don (1997).
305:
301:We made no such claim.
2326:Systematic musicology
1813:"Mozart on the Brain"
1547:Goode, Erica (1999),
1354:Psychological Reports
1219:Psychological Science
1068:(3 Pt 2): 1171–1175.
835:Psychological Science
292:
84:of studies that have
2718:Compositional method
2698:Works for solo piano
2132:Music-related memory
1969:Cognitive musicology
1602:www.sciencedaily.com
1594:University of Vienna
1566:Lilienfeld, Scott O.
1311:Neuroscience Letters
91:general intelligence
2817:Johann Georg Mozart
2752:Neue Mozart-Ausgabe
2745:Alte Mozart-Ausgabe
2419:Max Friedrich Meyer
2311:Philosophy of music
2306:Performance science
2251:Aesthetics of music
2225:Musician's dystonia
2210:Auditory arrhythmia
2097:Melodic expectation
1630:"The Mozart Effect"
1516:Schumacher, Ralph.
1179:1999Natur.400..827S
1119:1999Natur.400..826C
1009:2005NYASA1060..202S
592:"The Mozart Effect"
524:1993Natur.365..611R
2975:Popular psychology
2811:Karl Thomas Mozart
2478:Books and journals
2399:Carol L. Krumhansl
2117:Music and movement
2072:Glissando illusion
2052:Exercise and music
1852:10.1007/BF02688778
1553:The New York Times
775:The New York Times
378:Scientific Reports
162:mental development
48:mental development
2952:
2951:
2781:Anna Maria Mozart
2761:
2760:
2537:
2536:
2286:Musical acoustics
2162:Sharawadji effect
2142:Musical semantics
2112:Music and emotion
2012:Auditory illusion
1636:on 9 January 2013
1173:(6747): 827–828.
1113:(6747): 826–827.
751:. HarperCollins.
424:in his 1991 book
422:Alfred A. Tomatis
416:Alfred A. Tomatis
357:performed at the
169:The Mozart Effect
107:spatial reasoning
55:spatial reasoning
16:(Redirected from
2987:
2970:Music psychology
2942:
2941:
2831:(brother-in-law)
2793:Constanze Mozart
2739:Köchel catalogue
2729:
2728:
2713:Violin concertos
2564:
2557:
2550:
2541:
2540:
2486:Music Perception
2429:Richard Parncutt
2414:Leonard B. Meyer
2364:Jane W. Davidson
2349:Jamshed Bharucha
2127:Music preference
2022:Background music
2017:Auditory imagery
1950:Music psychology
1943:
1936:
1929:
1920:
1919:
1872:
1871:
1835:
1829:
1828:
1826:
1824:
1815:. Archived from
1808:
1802:
1801:
1799:
1797:
1782:
1776:
1775:
1747:
1741:
1740:
1704:
1698:
1697:
1686:
1680:
1679:
1651:
1645:
1644:
1642:
1641:
1626:
1613:
1612:
1610:
1608:
1596:(May 10, 2010).
1590:
1584:
1583:
1562:
1556:
1545:
1539:
1538:
1536:
1535:
1529:
1522:
1513:
1507:
1506:
1504:
1503:
1494:Abbott, Alison.
1491:
1485:
1484:
1482:
1481:
1475:
1469:. Archived from
1436:
1427:
1418:
1417:
1397:
1386:
1385:
1349:
1343:
1342:
1306:
1300:
1299:
1279:
1273:
1272:
1270:
1269:
1253:
1244:
1243:
1213:
1207:
1206:
1162:
1153:
1147:
1146:
1100:
1094:
1093:
1057:
1051:
1050:
1044:
1036:
994:
985:
979:
978:
958:
952:
951:
945:
937:
922:Music Perception
917:
911:
910:
904:
896:
881:Music Perception
876:
867:
866:
830:
821:
820:
814:
806:
786:
780:
779:
769:
763:
762:
742:
736:
735:
732:Internet Archive
711:
705:
704:
702:
701:
686:
680:
679:
647:
638:
637:
627:
587:
578:
576:
558:
552:
551:
532:10.1038/365611a0
501:
492:
491:
489:
488:
474:
426:Pourquoi Mozart?
400:sewage treatment
317:Scott Lilienfeld
313:Emory University
272:publication bias
225:Atlanta Symphony
203:Political impact
134:music columnist
21:
2995:
2994:
2990:
2989:
2988:
2986:
2985:
2984:
2955:
2954:
2953:
2948:
2930:
2894:
2875:Catholic Church
2858:
2855:(sister-in-law)
2849:(sister-in-law)
2843:(sister-in-law)
2837:(mother-in-law)
2757:
2727:
2693:Piano concertos
2654:
2573:
2568:
2538:
2533:
2473:
2359:Robert Cutietta
2335:
2321:Sociomusicology
2276:Music education
2261:Ethnomusicology
2239:
2191:
2187:Tritone paradox
2152:Octave illusion
2137:Musical gesture
2102:Melodic fission
2092:Lipps–Meyer law
2062:Franssen effect
1993:
1989:Psychoacoustics
1952:
1947:
1880:
1875:
1836:
1832:
1822:
1820:
1809:
1805:
1795:
1793:
1783:
1779:
1748:
1744:
1705:
1701:
1687:
1683:
1676:
1652:
1648:
1639:
1637:
1628:
1627:
1616:
1606:
1604:
1591:
1587:
1580:
1563:
1559:
1546:
1542:
1533:
1531:
1527:
1520:
1514:
1510:
1501:
1499:
1492:
1488:
1479:
1477:
1473:
1434:
1428:
1421:
1398:
1389:
1350:
1346:
1307:
1303:
1280:
1276:
1267:
1265:
1254:
1247:
1214:
1210:
1160:
1154:
1150:
1101:
1097:
1058:
1054:
1038:
1037:
992:
986:
982:
959:
955:
939:
938:
918:
914:
898:
897:
877:
870:
831:
824:
808:
807:
787:
783:
770:
766:
759:
743:
739:
728:
712:
708:
699:
697:
687:
683:
648:
641:
588:
581:
573:
559:
555:
502:
495:
486:
484:
476:
475:
464:
460:
452:Psychoacoustics
438:
418:
388:
331:
329:Health benefits
241:
233:Charlie Daniels
205:
126:
103:
75:classical music
44:Popular science
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2993:
2983:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2950:
2949:
2947:
2946:
2935:
2932:
2931:
2929:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2902:
2900:
2896:
2895:
2893:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2866:
2864:
2860:
2859:
2857:
2856:
2850:
2844:
2838:
2832:
2826:
2820:
2814:
2808:
2802:
2801:(first cousin)
2796:
2790:
2784:
2778:
2775:Leopold Mozart
2771:
2769:
2763:
2762:
2759:
2758:
2756:
2755:
2748:
2741:
2735:
2733:
2726:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2678:Horn concertos
2675:
2670:
2664:
2662:
2656:
2655:
2653:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2581:
2579:
2575:
2574:
2567:
2566:
2559:
2552:
2544:
2535:
2534:
2532:
2531:
2524:
2517:
2510:
2503:
2496:
2489:
2481:
2479:
2475:
2474:
2472:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2409:Daniel Levitin
2406:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2384:Henkjan Honing
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2345:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2334:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2247:
2245:
2244:Related fields
2241:
2240:
2238:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2201:
2199:
2193:
2192:
2190:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2157:Relative pitch
2154:
2149:
2147:Musical syntax
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2087:Levitin effect
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2007:Absolute pitch
2003:
2001:
1995:
1994:
1992:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1960:
1958:
1954:
1953:
1946:
1945:
1938:
1931:
1923:
1917:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1892:
1891:, May 10, 2010
1879:
1878:External links
1876:
1874:
1873:
1846:(3): 174–188.
1830:
1803:
1777:
1742:
1715:(3): 109–119.
1699:
1681:
1674:
1657:Yanni in Words
1646:
1614:
1585:
1579:978-1405131124
1578:
1557:
1540:
1508:
1486:
1445:(1): 188–190.
1419:
1387:
1344:
1301:
1290:(3): 314–323.
1274:
1245:
1226:(4): 366–369.
1208:
1148:
1095:
1052:
980:
953:
928:(3): 247–264.
912:
868:
822:
797:(4): 365–370.
781:
778:. p. A12.
764:
757:
737:
727:978-0380974184
726:
706:
695:New York Times
681:
662:(3): 314–323.
639:
602:(4): 170–172.
579:
571:
553:
493:
461:
459:
456:
455:
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449:
444:
437:
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417:
414:
410:Treuenbrietzen
387:
384:
330:
327:
240:
237:
211:, governor of
204:
201:
131:New York Times
125:
124:Popularization
122:
102:
95:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2992:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
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2966:
2963:
2962:
2960:
2945:
2937:
2936:
2933:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2921:Mozart effect
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2903:
2901:
2897:
2891:
2888:
2886:
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2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2861:
2854:
2851:
2848:
2847:Aloysia Weber
2845:
2842:
2841:Josepha Weber
2839:
2836:
2835:Cäcilia Weber
2833:
2830:
2827:
2824:
2821:
2818:
2815:
2812:
2809:
2806:
2803:
2800:
2797:
2794:
2791:
2788:
2785:
2782:
2779:
2776:
2773:
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2511:
2509:
2508:
2504:
2502:
2501:
2497:
2495:
2494:
2490:
2488:
2487:
2483:
2482:
2480:
2476:
2470:
2469:Sandra Trehub
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2449:Roger Shepard
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2439:Carl Seashore
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2424:James Mursell
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2379:Tuomas Eerola
2377:
2375:
2374:Diana Deutsch
2372:
2370:
2369:Irène Deliège
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2346:
2344:
2342:
2338:
2332:
2331:Zoomusicology
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2281:Music therapy
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2248:
2246:
2242:
2236:
2235:Tone deafness
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2215:Beat deafness
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2202:
2200:
2198:
2194:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2107:Mozart effect
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
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2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1964:Biomusicology
1962:
1961:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1944:
1939:
1937:
1932:
1930:
1925:
1924:
1921:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1890:
1889:Science Daily
1886:
1882:
1881:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1834:
1819:on 2011-05-10
1818:
1814:
1807:
1792:
1788:
1781:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1758:(5): 427–32.
1757:
1753:
1746:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1703:
1695:
1694:
1685:
1677:
1675:1-4013-5194-8
1671:
1667:
1663:
1662:Miramax Books
1659:
1658:
1650:
1635:
1631:
1625:
1623:
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1603:
1599:
1595:
1589:
1581:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1561:
1554:
1550:
1544:
1530:on 2011-07-26
1526:
1519:
1512:
1497:
1490:
1476:on 2017-01-06
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
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1433:
1426:
1424:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1360:(5): 325–30.
1359:
1355:
1348:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1305:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1278:
1264:on 2007-02-27
1263:
1259:
1252:
1250:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1220:
1212:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1187:10.1038/23611
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1167:
1159:
1152:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1127:10.1038/23608
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1107:
1099:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
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1063:
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916:
908:
902:
894:
890:
886:
882:
875:
873:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
841:(3): 248–51.
840:
836:
829:
827:
818:
812:
804:
800:
796:
792:
785:
777:
776:
768:
760:
758:0-380-97418-5
754:
750:
749:
741:
733:
729:
723:
719:
718:
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685:
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673:
669:
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631:
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621:
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584:
574:
572:0-19-515938-1
568:
564:
557:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
518:(6447): 611.
517:
513:
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507:
500:
498:
483:
479:
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471:
469:
467:
462:
453:
450:
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442:Baby Einstein
440:
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315:psychologist
314:
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279:
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273:
267:
264:
259:
258:meta-analysis
253:
251:
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236:
234:
230:
229:Homer DeLoach
226:
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210:
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196:
194:
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2341:Researchers
2047:Entrainment
1752:Neurol. Res
1256:Steele, M.
430:Why Mozart?
209:Zell Miller
2959:Categories
2863:Influences
2708:Symphonies
2595:Grand tour
2590:Birthplace
2444:Max Schoen
2394:Nina Kraus
2354:Lola Cuddy
2291:Musicology
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