497:
475:
41:
640:(governor). From the edge of the city moat, Tolui proclaimed that the inhabitants would be spared if they surrendered. Unlike at Merv, the Mongols honoured their word, only killing the 12,000 men in the city garrison. Having appointed a Mongol overseer to govern the town, Tolui left the region to rejoin his father at Taliqan in mid-1221. The population subsequently rebelled and were besieged for months by the Mongol general Eljigidei, who was said to have killed between 1,600,000 and 2,400,000 people during his sack of the town, in a massacre lasting seven days in June 1222.
363:
319:, which were among the largest and richest in the world. Tolui systematically besieged and captured them in turn, pillaging their wealth and executing their inhabitants. Although modern historians regard the figures of medieval chroniclers to be exaggerated (one account has 2.4 million people killed in Nishapur alone), they still estimate the death toll to be in the millions, especially if the resulting famine and starvation is taken into account. The campaign was certainly one of the bloodiest in human history.
577:, had arrived nearly a year earlier on 18 April 1220, fleeing the Mongol advance in Transoxiana. He departed in mid-May that year, just in time to escape the armies of Jebe and Subutai, who arrived the following day. The city submitted to the generals, who requested them to reduce their walls and aid any Mongols who passed by. However, the city did not heed these instructions and instead began causing trouble for the Mongols, killing Toquchar when he attempted to enforce control.
597:
the walls being breached on 9 April and the city captured the next day. According to
Juvayni, the city was razed in revenge; Toquchar's widow supervised the massacre of the entire population of the city, with the exception of 400 craftsmen. Unlike in Merv, all children were killed, and the corpses of the alleged 1,747,000 victims, including all the cats and dogs in the city, were piled in great heaps. The ground was subsequently
632:, who fought the Mongols nearby, recorded that after an eight-month siege, the city was taken and its population slaughtered. It is now known, thanks to a chronicle rediscovered in 1944, that there were two sieges of Herat. The first started with the execution of a Mongol diplomat in the town; an incensed Tolui launched an eight-day assault, which culminated in the death of the town's
462:, Genghis dispatched Tolui to Khorasan to make sure that no opposition remained in the extensive and wealthy region. His task was to pacify and subjugate the region and its cities by any means possible, and he carried out the task "with a thoroughness from which that region has never recovered", in the words of the historian
648:
was said to have ordered the deaths of a further 100,000 at Merv in
November 1221, after yet another rebellion. The figures do however clearly represent a demographic catastrophe so extreme the native populations found it difficult to quantify the destruction. The historian Michal Biran has suggested
643:
The death tolls traditionally attributed to Tolui's campaign in
Khorasan are considered exaggerated by modern historians. The cities of Merv, Nishapur, and Herat could have only supported fractions of their reported populations, and populations were reported to return almost miraculously to destroyed
596:
Tolui arrived at the city on 7 April and the inhabitants, awed by the size of his force, immediately sought to agree surrender terms. Because the killing of the khan's son-in-law had been a grave insult to the
Mongols, all proposals were rejected; the assault had begun before the end of the day, with
548:
raiders during the night of 24 February; the surprise attack caught the raiders off guard, and those who were not killed by the
Mongols or did not drown in the river were scattered. The Mongols arrived at Merv the following day. After assessing the city for six days, Tolui came to the conclusion that
553:
to no effect, lost the will to resist and surrendered to the
Mongols, who promised to treat them fairly. Tolui, however, reneged on this guarantee, and ordered that the entire population be driven out on the plain and put to the sword, excluding a small number of
496:
169:
162:
155:
649:
that the speed with which the
Mongols brought the pragmatically brutal warfare of East Asia into the less ruthless Muslim world was a factor in this cultural shock.
549:
the city fortifications would withstand a lengthy siege. Having been subjected to a general assault on the seventh day, the townspeople, who twice attempted a
1433:
628:, citing a local history from the 1400s, stated that none of the inhabitants were killed with the exception of the garrison; meanwhile, the chronicler
558:
and children. It was reported that each Mongol soldier was allotted between three and four hundred people to kill; the contemporary chronicler
1408:
379:
257:
179:
32:
1413:
566:, writing a few decades later, recorded that a cleric spent thirteen days counting the dead and arrived at a figure of 1,300,000.
1428:
1378:
1326:
1284:
1259:
1221:
1183:
1151:
1124:
1087:
1055:
569:
Tolui had meanwhile marched on south-westerly towards
Nishapur, which had already seen a number of events during the war.
581:, the eldest son and heir of the now-deceased Muhammad II, arrived at the city on 10 February 1221, attempting to escape
529:
1423:
1403:
1247:
589:, the capital of the empire; he remained at the city for only a couple of days before departing in the direction of
502:
601:
over. While marching through the region, Tolui was also sending detachments against surrounding towns such as
1102:
426:
moved westwards and his sons conducted various operations; he emerged in the autumn to assault and capture
524:; the historian Carl Sverdrup estimates its size at around 7,000 men. He marched westwards from Balkh to
1244:
The New
Cambridge History of Islam Volume 3: The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries
1398:
1276:
1251:
1108:
474:
292:, to follow the Shah and prevent any such Khwarazmian resurgence; meanwhile, he sent his youngest son
40:
1161:
411:
265:
208:
1418:
1239:
570:
277:
1171:
629:
578:
331:
1337:
1175:
1079:
193:
327:
1318:
1231:
520:
Tolui's army was composed of a tenth of the Mongol invasion force augmented by
Khwarazmian
485:
223:
46:
8:
510:
347:
238:
382:, which began in 1219, Tolui initially accompanied his father's army. They bypassed the
1290:
1206:
1189:
1041:
606:
574:
367:
261:
127:
761:
1374:
1322:
1307:
1280:
1255:
1217:
1201:
1179:
1147:
1120:
1097:
1083:
1051:
563:
506:
463:
383:
228:
198:
1294:
1270:
1112:
582:
443:
407:
371:
343:
300:
269:
233:
213:
203:
74:
509:, a Persian poet who was killed during the sack of Nishapur, was built during the
1341:
1302:
1235:
885:
837:
415:
430:. Tolui and his father spent the winter of 1220–1221 dealing with rebels on the
362:
147:
729:
625:
431:
326:, where he died; the two generals, with the Khan's permission, then set out on
1116:
1392:
1134:
624:, the last of the great cities of Khorasan. The early 20th-century historian
533:
273:
122:
1193:
1165:
1213:
669:
645:
559:
439:
395:
351:
339:
281:
78:
1365:
The Mongol Conquests: The Military Campaigns of Genghis Khan and Sübe'etei
1234:(2010). "The rule of the infidels: the Mongols and the Islamic world". In
997:
537:
391:
334:, managed to slip through Tolui's forces, and assemble a large army near
323:
86:
1363:
435:
809:
713:
1146:. Translated by Mustafayev, Shahin; Welsford, Thomas. Moscow: Nauka.
610:
521:
399:
322:
Meanwhile, Subutai and Jebe had pursued the Shah to an island on the
304:
1140:
A History of the Khorezmian State under the Anushteginids, 1097–1231
1073:
969:
1370:
1138:
1045:
869:
545:
525:
451:
447:
312:
685:
793:
602:
586:
555:
459:
423:
403:
285:
562:
estimated the number of deaths at 700,000, while the chronicler
1314:
614:
598:
550:
427:
335:
1167:
The Mongols and the Islamic World: From Conquest to Conversion
905:
635:
621:
590:
455:
418:, where he rested his army for the summer while his generals
387:
316:
293:
541:
481:
419:
308:
289:
82:
50:
406:—in early 1220. The latter was captured in February after
330:, which would take three years. However, the Shah's son,
945:
825:
442:, and the cities which had earlier submitted to them in
338:. He inflicted one of the first large Mongol defeats on
701:
488:
can be seen through a gap in the ruined fortifications.
484:, which never recovered from the Mongol conquests; the
264:
disintegrated after the capture of the large cities of
1017:
985:
921:
957:
933:
857:
633:
781:
1362:
1306:
1205:
749:
438:. By this point, Jebe and Subutai had moved into
280:fled westwards in the hope of gathering an army.
177:
53:, a city which never recovered from the invasion.
1390:
1143:Государство Хорезмшахов-Ануштегинидов: 1097–1231
620:There has been some confusion about the fate of
1047:Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire
458:in early 1221 and while continuing to besiege
446:had become bolder; Genghis Khan's son-in law
163:
1208:Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection
170:
156:
1434:Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire
1133:
679:
258:Mongol conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire
33:Mongol conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire
1360:
879:
775:
361:
1335:
1160:
1105:Volume 5: The Saljuq and Mongol Periods
927:
851:
771:
755:
735:
695:
675:
544:from the south. He ambushed a force of
1391:
1301:
1078:. Makers of the Muslim World. London:
1040:
1011:
1003:
979:
975:
899:
891:
284:ordered two of his foremost generals,
1096:
1071:
1023:
963:
951:
939:
911:
895:
875:
863:
847:
843:
831:
815:
803:
787:
743:
719:
707:
691:
450:was killed by a nascent rebellion at
370:in 1215; Tolui's campaign subjugated
151:
1346:Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition
1230:
767:
739:
723:
414:. Genghis moved southwards into the
328:an expedition around the Caspian Sea
1268:
1200:
1007:
991:
915:
819:
799:
374:, the central region of the empire.
296:south to subjugate any resistance.
13:
1409:Sieges involving the Mongol Empire
1248:The New Cambridge History of Islam
644:cities—Genghis Khan's adopted son
454:in November 1220. After capturing
380:invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire
256:took place in 1220-21, during the
14:
1445:
1348:. Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation
108:Khorasan annexed by Mongol Empire
495:
473:
39:
1414:Military history of Afghanistan
530:Afghanistan–Turkmenistan border
390:to attack the major centres of
1:
1103:The Cambridge History of Iran
652:
412:fell a couple of months later
181:Mongol invasion of Khwarazmia
1429:Sieges involving Afghanistan
662:
16:Mongol campaign in 1220–1221
7:
1250:(1st ed.). Cambridge:
1050:. New York: Facts on File.
634:
357:
254:Mongol conquest of Khorasan
25:Mongol conquest of Khorasan
10:
1450:
1277:Edinburgh University Press
1252:Cambridge University Press
1109:Cambridge University Press
1033:
1424:Sieges of the Middle Ages
1404:1221 in the Mongol Empire
1313:. The Peoples of Europe.
1117:10.1017/CHOL9780521069366
480:The walls of the city of
348:was subsequently defeated
189:
133:
116:
57:
38:
30:
23:
1373:: Helion & Company.
1142:
657:
583:the ongoing Mongol siege
540:to approach the city of
416:Turkestan mountain range
1361:Sverdrup, Carl (2017).
532:, and then crossed the
1072:Biran, Michal (2012).
1042:Atwood, Christopher P.
630:Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani
536:and its tributary the
375:
1338:"AṬṬĀR, FARĪD-AL-DĪN"
1269:May, Timothy (2018).
1232:Manz, Beatrice Forbes
1176:Yale University Press
1080:Oneworld Publications
850:, pp. 310, 314;
528:, on the present-day
365:
134:Casualties and losses
1336:Reinert, B. (2011).
1319:Blackwell Publishing
1295:10.3366/j.ctv1kz4g68
898:, pp. 314–315;
818:, pp. 313–314;
802:, pp. 175–176;
770:, pp. 134–135;
742:, pp. 134–135;
722:, pp. 311–314;
513:in the 15th century.
486:tomb of Ahmad Sanjar
346:in autumn 1221, but
47:Tomb of Ahmad Sanjar
994:, pp. 178–179.
954:, pp. 315–317.
834:, pp. 306–307.
822:, pp. 176–177.
778:, pp. 160–161.
726:, pp. 134–135.
710:, pp. 308–311.
682:, pp. 114–117.
573:, the ruler of the
511:Timurid Renaissance
444:the Khorasan region
1098:Boyle, John Andrew
694:, pp. 56–58;
678:, pp. 77–78;
575:Khwarazmian Empire
432:upper Vakhsh river
410:, while Samarkand
402:and its neighbour
376:
368:Khwarazmian Empire
262:Khwarazmian Empire
128:Khwarezmian Empire
1399:Conflicts in 1221
1380:978-1-9133-3605-9
1328:978-0-6311-7563-6
1286:978-0-7486-4237-3
1272:The Mongol Empire
1261:978-0-5218-5031-5
1223:978-0-3123-1444-6
1185:978-0-3001-2533-7
1153:978-9-9433-5721-1
1126:978-1-1390-5497-3
1089:978-1-7807-4204-5
1057:978-0-8160-4671-3
1026:, pp. 64–65.
982:, pp. 74–77.
564:Ata-Malik Juvayni
507:Attar of Nishapur
247:
246:
146:
145:
112:
111:
45:The ruins of the
1441:
1384:
1368:
1357:
1355:
1353:
1342:Yarshater, Ehsan
1332:
1312:
1298:
1265:
1227:
1211:
1197:
1157:
1135:Buniyatov, Z. M.
1130:
1093:
1068:
1066:
1064:
1027:
1021:
1015:
1001:
995:
989:
983:
973:
967:
961:
955:
949:
943:
937:
931:
925:
919:
909:
903:
889:
883:
873:
867:
861:
855:
841:
835:
829:
823:
813:
807:
797:
791:
785:
779:
765:
759:
753:
747:
733:
727:
717:
711:
705:
699:
689:
683:
673:
639:
499:
477:
344:Battle of Parwan
184:
182:
172:
165:
158:
149:
148:
59:
58:
43:
21:
20:
1449:
1448:
1444:
1443:
1442:
1440:
1439:
1438:
1419:Bamyan Province
1389:
1388:
1387:
1381:
1351:
1349:
1329:
1287:
1262:
1224:
1186:
1154:
1144:
1127:
1090:
1062:
1060:
1058:
1036:
1031:
1030:
1022:
1018:
1006:, p. 344;
1002:
998:
990:
986:
978:, p. 344;
974:
970:
962:
958:
950:
946:
938:
934:
926:
922:
910:
906:
894:, p. 343;
890:
886:
878:, p. 314;
874:
870:
862:
858:
842:
838:
830:
826:
814:
810:
798:
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786:
782:
766:
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734:
730:
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706:
702:
690:
686:
674:
670:
665:
660:
655:
518:
517:
516:
515:
514:
500:
491:
490:
489:
478:
360:
307:cities such as
250:
249:
248:
243:
185:
180:
178:
176:
104:
90:
44:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1447:
1437:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1386:
1385:
1379:
1358:
1333:
1327:
1299:
1285:
1266:
1260:
1228:
1222:
1198:
1184:
1162:Jackson, Peter
1158:
1152:
1131:
1125:
1094:
1088:
1069:
1056:
1037:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1028:
1016:
1010:, p. 63;
996:
984:
968:
966:, p. 316.
956:
944:
942:, p. 315.
932:
920:
918:, p. 174.
914:, p. 60;
904:
884:
882:, p. 161.
868:
866:, p. 317.
856:
846:, p. 60;
836:
824:
808:
806:, p. 313.
792:
790:, p. 313.
780:
774:, p. 79;
760:
748:
746:, p. 312.
738:, p. 79;
728:
712:
700:
684:
680:Buniyatov 2015
667:
666:
664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
626:Vasily Bartold
501:
494:
493:
492:
479:
472:
471:
470:
469:
468:
434:in modern-day
359:
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125:
119:
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114:
113:
110:
109:
106:
100:
99:
98:Mongol victory
96:
92:
91:
73:
71:
67:
66:
63:
55:
54:
36:
35:
28:
27:
19:
18:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1446:
1435:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1425:
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1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
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1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
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1394:
1382:
1376:
1372:
1367:
1366:
1359:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1334:
1330:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1311:
1310:
1304:
1303:Morgan, David
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1282:
1278:
1275:. Edinburgh:
1274:
1273:
1267:
1263:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1240:Reid, Anthony
1237:
1236:Morgan, David
1233:
1229:
1225:
1219:
1215:
1210:
1209:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1168:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1107:. Cambridge:
1106:
1104:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1076:
1070:
1059:
1053:
1049:
1048:
1043:
1039:
1038:
1025:
1020:
1014:, p. 78.
1013:
1009:
1005:
1000:
993:
988:
981:
977:
972:
965:
960:
953:
948:
941:
936:
930:, p. 80.
929:
924:
917:
913:
908:
902:, p. 74.
901:
897:
893:
888:
881:
880:Sverdrup 2017
877:
872:
865:
860:
854:, p. 80.
853:
849:
845:
840:
833:
828:
821:
817:
812:
805:
801:
796:
789:
784:
777:
776:Sverdrup 2017
773:
769:
764:
757:
752:
745:
741:
737:
732:
725:
721:
716:
709:
704:
698:, p. 78.
697:
693:
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681:
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672:
668:
650:
647:
641:
638:
637:
631:
627:
623:
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584:
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557:
552:
547:
543:
539:
535:
534:Marghab river
531:
527:
523:
512:
508:
504:
503:The mausoleum
498:
487:
483:
476:
467:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
408:a swift siege
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
384:ongoing siege
381:
373:
369:
366:A map of the
364:
355:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
320:
318:
314:
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306:
302:
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287:
283:
279:
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274:Mongol Empire
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123:Mongol Empire
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88:
84:
80:
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72:
69:
68:
64:
61:
60:
56:
52:
48:
42:
37:
34:
29:
26:
22:
1364:
1350:. Retrieved
1345:
1308:
1271:
1243:
1214:Bantam Press
1207:
1194:j.ctt1n2tvq0
1166:
1139:
1101:
1075:Genghis Khan
1074:
1061:. Retrieved
1046:
1019:
999:
987:
971:
959:
947:
935:
928:Jackson 2017
923:
907:
887:
871:
859:
852:Jackson 2017
839:
827:
811:
795:
783:
772:Jackson 2017
763:
756:Reinert 2011
751:
736:Jackson 2017
731:
715:
703:
696:Jackson 2017
687:
676:Jackson 2017
671:
646:Shigi Qutuqu
642:
619:
595:
579:Jalal al-Din
568:
560:Ibn al-Athir
519:
440:western Iran
396:Khwarazmshah
377:
352:Genghis Khan
340:Shigi Qutuqu
332:Jalal al-Din
321:
298:
282:Genghis Khan
253:
251:
218:
194:Irghiz River
117:Belligerents
79:Turkmenistan
77:(modern day
31:Part of the
24:
1309:The Mongols
1012:Morgan 1986
1004:Atwood 2004
980:Morgan 1986
976:Atwood 2004
900:Morgan 1986
892:Atwood 2004
571:Muhammad II
398:'s capital
392:Transoxiana
378:During the
324:Caspian Sea
299:The region
278:Muhammad II
142:Devastating
103:Territorial
87:Afghanistan
1393:Categories
1212:. London:
1024:Biran 2012
964:Boyle 2007
952:Boyle 2007
940:Boyle 2007
912:Biran 2012
896:Boyle 2007
876:Boyle 2007
864:Boyle 2007
848:Boyle 2007
844:Biran 2012
832:Boyle 2007
816:Boyle 2007
804:Boyle 2007
788:Boyle 2007
744:Boyle 2007
720:Boyle 2007
708:Boyle 2007
692:Biran 2012
653:References
522:conscripts
464:J.A. Boyle
436:Tajikistan
303:contained
1352:15 August
1202:Man, John
1172:New Haven
1137:(2015) .
1100:(2007) .
768:Manz 2010
740:Manz 2010
724:Manz 2010
663:Citations
400:Samarkand
354:himself.
305:Silk Road
266:Samarkand
260:. As the
209:Samarkand
1371:Solihull
1305:(1986).
1242:(eds.).
1204:(2004).
1164:(2017).
1044:(2004).
1008:May 2018
992:Man 2004
916:Man 2004
820:Man 2004
800:Man 2004
599:ploughed
556:artisans
526:Murichaq
452:Nishapur
448:Toquchar
372:Khorasan
358:Campaign
313:Nishapur
301:Khorasan
219:Khorasan
75:Khorasan
70:Location
1344:(ed.).
1063:2 March
1034:Sources
603:Abiward
587:Gurganj
546:Turkmen
460:Taliqan
424:Subutai
404:Bukhara
342:at the
286:Subutai
276:, Shah
272:by the
270:Bukhara
229:Waliyan
214:Gurganj
204:Bukhara
105:changes
65:1220-21
1377:
1325:
1315:Oxford
1293:
1283:
1258:
1220:
1192:
1182:
1150:
1123:
1086:
1054:
615:Jajarm
613:, and
551:sortie
428:Termez
336:Ghazni
315:, and
234:Parwan
95:Result
1340:. In
1291:JSTOR
1190:JSTOR
658:Notes
636:malik
622:Herat
591:Zozan
538:Kushk
456:Balkh
394:—the
388:Otrar
317:Herat
294:Tolui
239:Indus
199:Otrar
139:Light
1375:ISBN
1354:2023
1323:ISBN
1281:ISBN
1256:ISBN
1218:ISBN
1180:ISBN
1148:ISBN
1121:ISBN
1084:ISBN
1065:2022
1052:ISBN
607:Nasa
542:Merv
482:Merv
422:and
420:Jebe
309:Merv
290:Jebe
288:and
268:and
252:The
224:Merv
85:and
83:Iran
62:Date
51:Merv
1113:doi
611:Tus
585:at
505:of
386:at
350:by
49:in
1395::
1369:.
1321:.
1317::
1289:.
1279:.
1254:.
1246:.
1238:;
1216:.
1188:.
1178:.
1174::
1170:.
1119:.
1111:.
1082:.
617:.
609:,
605:,
593:.
466:.
311:,
81:,
1383:.
1356:.
1331:.
1297:.
1264:.
1226:.
1196:.
1156:.
1129:.
1115::
1092:.
1067:.
758:.
171:e
164:t
157:v
89:)
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