773:, in 1988 the government offered a 5 percent bonus over the international price of gold on local sales to the Central Bank. Gold was mined almost exclusively by over 300 cooperatives throughout the country, along with about 10,000 prospectors. A large percentage of the cooperatives worked in Tipuani, Guanay, Mapiri, Huayti, and Teoponte in a 21,000-hectare region set aside for gold digging and located 120 kilometers north of La Paz. Mining cooperatives in the late 1980s had requested an additional 53,000 hectares from the government for gold prospecting. Others panned for their fortunes in remote villages like Araras along the Brazilian border in Beni. Small-scale operations were very traditional and wasteful. Analysts predicted that more commercial production, such as the dredging of alluvial deposits, would maximize gold output. A few medium-sized mining operations, as well as the
646:, the chief source of tin, since 1861. Although long among the world's leading tin producers and exporters, the industry faced numerous and complicated structural problems by the early 1980s: the highest cost underground mines and smelters in the world; inaccessibility of the ores because of high altitudes and poor infrastructure; narrow, deep veins found in hard rock; complex tin ores that had to be specially processed to extract tin, antimony, lead, and other ores; depletion of high-grade ores; almost continual labor unrest; deplorable conditions for miners; extensive mineral theft or juqueo; poor macroeconomic conditions; lack of foreign exchange for needed imports; unclear mining policies; few export incentives; and decreasing international demand for tin. Between 1978 and 1985, Bolivia fell from the second to the fifth position among tin producers.
669:(ITC), a body of twenty-two consumer and producer countries that since 1930 had attempted to regulate tin markets through buffer stocks. Bolivia, however, did not sign the ITC's International Tin Agreements in the 1970s and 1980s. In 1983 Bolivia joined the newly formed Association of Tin Producing Countries, which attempted—unsuccessfully—to control tin prices through a cartel approach to commodity regulation. After a period of decline, tin prices rebounded in the late 1980s. Government policies since the early 1970s had sought to expand the percentage of metallic or refined tin exports that offered greater returns. As a result, smelting increased during the 1970s, but in the 1980s the excessive costs of the nation's highly underutilized smelting operations contributed to the decision to restructure Comibol.
635:
696:
produced 225 tons of silver in 1988, as compared with about 140 tons in 1987. Zinc reserves were large, 530,000 tons, and the expansion of zinc production enjoyed growing government support. Zinc output also rose in the late 1980s from roughly 39,000 tons in 1987 to over 53,000 tons in 1988, compared with 47,000 tons in 1975. Nearly all zinc was exported. In 1987 the government declared the construction of a new zinc refinery in Potosí a national priority. Although the authorities considered lead a minor metal, production increased from 9,000 tons in 1987 to 11,000 tons in 1988.
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836:(Unidad Promotora de La Siderurgia Boliviana, formerly known as Siderúrgica Boliviana), however, were bleak. After more than a decade of planning a national steel plant, Bolivia was still unable to obtain financing for such a project, especially given international overcapacity in steel. The possibility of a national steel plant appeared unlikely at the end of the 1980s.
747:, both in Potosí Department. Medium and small miners generated an average of 9,500 tons of antimony a year in the mid-to late-1980s, all of which was exported. Antimony, a strategic mineral used in flameproofing compounds and semiconductors, was exported in concentrates, trioxides, and alloys to all regions of the world, with most sales going to Britain and Brazil.
658:. The country's tin reserves in 1988 were estimated at 453,700 tons, of which 250,000 tons were found in medium-sized mines, 143,700 tons in Comibol mines, and 60,000 tons in small mines. In the late 1980s, tin was exported mainly in concentrates for refining abroad. Eighty percent of all exports went to the
760:
Company's
Chojilla mine was the source of most tungsten output. Tungsten production sank from 2,300 tons in 1984 to barely more than 800 tons in 1987 because of falling international prices. Tungsten was sold to West European, East European, and Latin American countries, as well as to the United States.
768:
Gold prospecting in the country's rivers and mines was brisk in the late 1980s. Because of
Bolivia's vast territory and the high value of gold, contraband gold accounted for approximately 80 percent of exports. Official gold exports were approximately five tons in 1988, up sharply from less than one
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in
February 2007. The still-unopened Karachipampa was nationalized in 2011 following the regional protest in Potosí's demand for its operation and the failure of foreign investors to accomplish this. In July 2011, the Chinese firm Vicstar Union Engineering (a joint venture of Shenzhen Vicstar Import
861:
demanded its activation. Following Atlas
Precious Metals' unsuccessful efforts to open and operate the plant, Comibol resumed control of the plant in January 2011. As of May 2011, Comibol promises to begin its operation in November; one-quarter of the production at the San Cristóbal mine is pledged
814:
as a partner for the development of
Bolivia’s lithium resources. The agreement between the parties included the construction of a plant for the production of lithium carbonate based on residual brine and of another plant for the production of industrial cathode materials and batteries. Despite the
485:
The decentralization of
Comibol under the Rehabilitation Plan reduced the company's payroll from 27,000 employees to under 7,000 in less than a year. All of Comibol's mines, previously responsible for the bulk of mining output, were shut down from September 1986 to May 1987 to examine the economic
856:
was built to be the nation's largest smelter. Completed in 1984, Karachipampa employed Soviet technology but was constructed by a
Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) company. The smelter's gross capacity is an enormous 51,000 tons per year. Widely criticized for its overcapacity, the plant
831:
was scheduled to open its first of two plants in 1989. The Mutún mine, the sole responsibility of the Mining
Company of the Oriente, was expected to yield 592,000 tons of iron in its first five years of operation. Mutún was also expected to produce manganese. The prospects for the steel industry,
759:
among market economies. But the dramatic decline in tungsten prices in the 1980s severely hurt production, despite the fact that reserves stood at 60,000 tons. Medium and small producers accounted for over 80 percent of the country's tungsten production in the late 1980s. The
International Mining
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and the second largest tin enterprise in the world, until it was decentralized into five semi-autonomous mining enterprises in 1986. In addition to operating twenty-one mining companies, several spare-parts factories, various electricity plants, farms, a railroad, and other agencies, Comibol also
269:
The crisis of 1985 prompted emergency economic measures by the government, including massive layoffs of miners. The twenty-first century has seen a recovery and expansion of the mining sector, and the government of Evo
Morales has re-nationalized several facilities. However, as of 2010 mining in
844:
The Vinto Smelting and Metallurgica Company (Empresa Metalúrgica y Fundidora Vinto) is a tin smelting facility in Oruro, opened in 1970. It was designed to process tin ore from mines including those at Huanuni and Colquiri. On 20 December 1999, it was privatized by the government of Hugo Banzer
291:
The mining industry is organized into three main sectors: the government-owned sector, principally Comibol; the small mining cooperatives; and medium- and large-scale private enterprises. In 2013, private enterprises produced the largest share of minerals by mass and value. However, cooperative
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frequently encompassed the mining of other minerals as well. With the collapse of tin, the government was increasingly interested in exploiting its large reserves of other minerals, particularly silver and zinc. Three centuries after being the world's largest producer of silver, Bolivia still
672:
During the presidency of Evo Morales, Bolivia increased government control over and investment in the tin sector. At the Huanuni mines, violent clashes among cooperative miners led to nationalization of the facility in 2007. The government also nationalized the Vinto smelter citing issues of
574:(Bancco Minera de Bolivia—Bamin), which was also restructured after 1985 into a joint venture of private and public interests. Beginning in 1987, small miners no longer had to sell their exports through Bamin, a policy shift that boosted that group's output and foreign sales.
266:, 65 percent of exports, 27 percent of government revenues, and about 6 percent of the labor force in 1977. Spurred by a massive increase in gold production, however, the mining sector rebounded in 1988, returning to the top of the nation's list of foreign exchange earners.
529:
For the first time since 1952, Comibol produced less minerals than the rest of the mining sector in 1987. The medium miners consisted of Bolivian and foreign mining companies in the private sector that were involved in the production of virtually every mineral, especially
777:(Corporación de las Fuerzas Armadas para el Desarrollo Nacional—Cofadena) became involved in the gold rush in the 1980s. Government policy favored augmenting gold reserves as a means of leveraging more external finance for development projects.
586:(Federación Nacional de Cooperativas Mineras de Bolivia) served as an umbrella organization for the country's 434 mining cooperatives, 82 percent of which mined gold. Only a few of these groups, however, were officially registered with the
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In the late 1980s, however, tin still accounted for a third of all Bolivian mineral exports because of the strong performance by the medium and small mining sectors. The largest tin-mining company in the private sector was
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570:(Cámara Nacional de Minería), the equivalent of a small miners association, compared with 6,300 mines and 23,000 workers before the crash. Traditionally, small miners had to market their mining output through the
774:
562:. Nevertheless, the collapse of tin and the decline in other commodity prices in the mid-1980s also severely affected the private mining sector. Nineteen mining companies with 4,020 employees constituted the
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supplanted silver by the twentieth century and the central element of Bolivian mining, and wealthy tin barons played an important role in national politics until they were marginalized by the industry's
888:. The DOL has also reported that "children continue to engage in the worst forms of child labor in mining" and that "child labor inspections remain insufficient relative to the scope of the problem."
478:
levels. In addition, Comibol failed to invest sufficiently in mining technology and existing mines, and it proved unable to open new mines. Indeed, except for the mid-1960s Comibol did not engage in
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288:
is responsible for directing and developing the mining and metallurgical industries as well as implementation of policies and regulations for mining and metallurgical activities in the country.
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Silver, zinc, lead, bismuth, and other minerals were all found with Bolivia's large tin reserves and, like tin, were considered strategic minerals. Because of the common mixture of ores,
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Mining cooperatives and other miscellaneous miners made up the rest of the producers in the mining sector, although their output was aggregated with that of the small mining sector. The
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The government of Evo Morales re-nationalized the cooperative mines at Huanuni (in 2007) and the smelting facilities in Vinto (in February 2007) and Karachipampa (in January 2011).
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1833:
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590:(Instituto Nacional para Cooperativas). Most cooperatives were small and consisted of individual miners organized by mine or specific mineral and using very little technology.
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1926:
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1888:
654:, which dredged alluvial tin deposits in the Antequera River in northeastern Potosí Department. The Mining Company of Oruro operated the country's richest tin mine at
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874:. Zinc represents 13% and tin represents 5% of the country's economy. These three major products of the Bolivian mining industry are listed among those produced by
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Republic Gold Limited, an Australian mining company ASX:RAU, are presently drilling for gold at Amayapampa Gold Project, 380 km South East of La Paz, on the
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producers, YLB has experienced difficulties in making lithium production commercially viable. In 2021, Bolivia produced just 540 tons of lithium carbonate.
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The government's mineral policy also gave a high priority to exploiting the lithium and potassium deposits located in the brines of the southern Altiplano's
254:
By 1985, however, the production of every significant mineral in the country had failed to exceed the output registered in 1975. Moreover, the international
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and Export Co. and Yantai Design and Research Engineering Co. Ltd of the Shandong Gold Group) won a contract to build a new smelter for Comibol at Huanuni.
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mine also produce relatively large quantities of minerals. In 2010, 79,043 miners worked in the sector, producing $ 2.642 billion of mineral products.
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1803:
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feasibility of each mine; some never reopened. Comibol's mining and service companies were restructured into five autonomous mining subsidiaries (in
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In 2017, mining and quarrying activities accounted for 9% of the GDP. The mineral industry was estimated to have employed nearly 135,000 workers.
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566:(Asociación de Minería Mediana) in 1987, compared with twenty-eight companies and 8,000 workers in 1985. Only 615 mines in 1987 were part of the
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1452:"Comibol recupera Karachipampa después de arreglo amistoso con canadiense Atlas Precious Metals :: Noticias de Bolivia de último momento"
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reserves were estimated at 4,100 tons, and production in 1987 reached two-thirds of a ton entirely by small miners. Bolivia, the site of the
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provided schooling for over 60,000 children, housing for mining families, health clinics, and popular subsidized commissaries called
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Bolivia is primarily in private hands, while the vast majority of miners work in cooperatives. Large, foreign owned mines such as
462:(Comibol), created in 1952 by the nationalization of the country's tin mines, was a huge multi-mineral corporation controlled by
75:
133:
105:
262:, 36 percent of exports, 2.5 percent of government revenues, and 2 percent of the labor force, compared with 8 percent of
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810:(YLB) was created with the aim of extracting the lithium deposits and developing the lithium industry. In 2018 YLB chose
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37:
806:, Bolivia’s resources of lithium are estimated to be 9 million metric tons as of 2018. In 2017, a state-owned company
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51:
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Observers severely criticized Comibol's mining policies. Comibol took fifteen years to bring tin production to its
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708:
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90:
101:
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https://web.archive.org/web/20120317194141/http://www.republicgold.com.au/documents/announcements/1010453.pdf
482:. In terms of administration, worker control eclipsed even technical and detailed administrative decisions.
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919:
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Suárez, who sold it to Allied Deals for US$ 14.7 million. The firm was re-nationalized on 9 February 2007.
735:
reserves. Private companies were responsible for all antimony production. The largest output came from the
510:
and the still unopened Karachipampa smelter in Potosí), or they were transferred to ministries such as the
244:
1480:
1346:
857:
suffered continual delays due to insufficient ore inputs and lack of investment. In 2010, protests by the
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and 300 tons of lead-silver ore per day, as of August 2010, by processing 40,000 to 50,000 tons of rock.
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1968:
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and the United States, with the balance going to various Latin American countries and Czechoslovakia.
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as well as Bolivian politics since 1557. Colonial era silver mining in Bolivia, particularly in
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739:(Empresa Minera Unificada), which controlled the two largest antimony mines, located at
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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Bolivia holds about a fifth of the world’s estimated total of 310,000 metric tons of
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market crashed in 1985. The mining sector in 1987 accounted for only 4 percent of
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Map of Bolivia, Showing Forest and Agriculture Areas, and Mineral Localities
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1427:"Evo destacó 4 años de nacionalización de la empresa metalúrgica de Vinto"
799:(Uyuni saltpan), estimated to be the largest of their kind in the world.
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711:, an open-pit silver, lead and zinc mine near the town of San Cristóbal,
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463:
1395:"The Place With the Most Lithium Is Blowing the Electric-Car Revolution"
1212:"Chinese Firms Awarded $ 50 Million Contract To Build Bolivia Tin Plant"
1314:"Related News: Japan Bolivia Protesters Seize San Cristobal Mine Power"
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230:, played a critical role in the Spanish Empire and the global economy.
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
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518:. The bureaucracy also underwent major administrative changes.
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215:
Map showing the location of European mines in Bolivia (1912).
1517:"2013 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor -Bolivia-"
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ton in 1985. In order to capture gold as a reserve for the
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In 2019, the country was the 8th largest world producer of
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719:, produces approximately 1,300 metric tons of zinc-silver
247:. Bolivian miners played a critical part to the country's
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471:. By 1986 Comibol employed more non-miners than miners.
1147:"La minería generó al menos 22.000 empleos el año 2010"
292:
miners represent the vast majority of mining workers.
704:, was once the sole producer of bismuth in the world.
1505:
List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor
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List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor
839:
584:
National Federation of Mining Cooperatives of Bolivia
1481:"San Cristóbal dará 25% de producción a metalúrgica"
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1125:Rex A. Hudson and Dennis M. Hanratty, ed. (1989).
927:, for the importance of the silver mines at Potosi
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707:Among Bolivia's largest mining facilities is the
172:may be compromised due to out-of-date information
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925:1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created
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1339:"Potosí pierde $ us 1 millón por paro minero"
775:Armed Forces National Development Corporation
512:Ministry of Social Services and Public Health
1899:South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
91:introducing citations to additional sources
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52:Learn how and when to remove these messages
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915:Union Federation of Bolivian Mine Workers
755:Bolivia was also the leading producer of
199:Learn how and when to remove this message
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210:
81:Relevant discussion may be found on the
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870:Gold production represents 2,2% of the
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1370:"Lithium. Mineral Commodity Summaries"
1216:Fox Business (via Dow Jones Newswires)
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251:movement from the 1940s to the 1980s.
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852:lead and silver smelting facility in
665:Bolivia was a founding member of the
286:The Ministry of Mining and Metallurgy
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1181:
1179:
1177:
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1173:
1171:
815:rising demand for lithium among the
444:Source: President Evo Morales Ayma,
153:
58:
17:
1279:USGS Tungsten Production Statistics
1257:USGS Antimony Production Statistics
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222:has been a dominant feature of the
13:
1312:Shahriari, Sara (12 August 2010).
937:
840:Processing and smelting industries
622:, and the 8th largest producer of
588:National Institute of Cooperatives
14:
1985:
1537:
1235:USGS Silver Production Statistics
1168:
681:
629:
516:Ministry of Education and Culture
502:and Oriente), and two autonomous
33:This article has multiple issues.
1775:
1742:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
1246:USGS Boron Production Statistics
1114:
898:Bolivian miners' protest of 2007
614:; 6th largest world producer of
610:; 5th largest world producer of
606:; 5th largest world producer of
602:; 4th largest world producer of
281:Structure of the mining industry
158:
74:relies largely or entirely on a
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22:
1509:
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1473:
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1419:
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1345:. 29 March 2011. Archived from
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1305:
1301:USGS Lead Production Statistics
1294:
1283:
808:Yacimientos de Litio Bolivianos
804:United States Geological Survey
702:International Bismuth Institute
41:or discuss these issues on the
1290:USGS ZincProduction Statistics
1272:
1268:USGS Tin Production Statistics
1261:
1250:
1239:
1228:
1139:
1:
931:
827:After years of planning, the
642:Bolivia's mines had produced
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460:Corporación Minera de Bolivia
1458:. 2011-01-25. Archived from
1153:. 2010-05-03. Archived from
920:Corocoro United Copper Mines
709:San Cristóbal mining complex
673:corruption by private owner
455:Comibol and the state sector
7:
1210:Romig, Shane (2011-07-11).
1189:2017-2018 Minerals Yearbook
891:
750:
726:
687:Silver and related minerals
660:European Economic Community
241:Bolivian Mining Corporation
10:
1990:
1368:Jaskula, Brian W. (2019).
1186:Fong-Sam, Yolanda (2021).
882:'s report that included a
862:as input to the facility.
790:
618:; 7th largest producer of
568:National Chamber of Mining
1917:
1884:Saint Pierre and Miquelon
1784:
1773:
1585:
1431:Agencia de Noticias Fides
1393:Dube, Ryan (2022-08-10).
1192:. U.S. Geological Survey.
1133:Federal Research Division
667:International Tin Council
564:Medium Miners Association
443:
302:
299:
1904:Turks and Caicos Islands
1128:Bolivia: A Country Study
880:U.S. Department of Labor
832:which was controlled by
715:. The mine, operated by
525:Private mining companies
272:Sumitomo's San Cristóbal
834:Bolivian Iron and Steel
822:
784:of South West Bolivia:
771:Central Bank of Bolivia
763:
446:Informe de Gestión 2013
1819:British Virgin Islands
1580:Mining in the Americas
859:Potosí Civic Committee
639:
572:Mining Bank of Bolivia
508:Vinto Smelting Company
216:
1732:Saint Kitts and Nevis
737:United Mining Company
637:
214:
717:Sumitomo Corporation
448:, p. 122, 138.
87:improve this article
1909:U.S. Virgin Islands
1752:Trinidad and Tobago
1597:Antigua and Barbuda
1399:Wall Street Journal
1382:on 18 January 2021.
1349:on 4 September 2012
578:Mining cooperatives
334:(millions of US$ )
328:(fine metric tons)
319:(millions of US$ )
313:(fine metric tons)
102:"Mining in Bolivia"
1974:Economy of Bolivia
1662:Dominican Republic
910:Thesis of Pulacayo
640:
243:that followed the
217:
1969:Mining in Bolivia
1956:
1955:
904:The Devil's Miner
802:According to the
652:Estalsa Boliviana
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220:Mining in Bolivia
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1981:
1874:Saint Barthélemy
1834:Falkland Islands
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1519:. Archived from
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872:Bolivian economy
866:Labor conditions
812:ACI Systems GmbH
476:prerevolutionary
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224:Bolivian economy
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1927:Central America
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1151:Página Siete
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35:Please help
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1864:Puerto Rico
1791:territories
1737:Saint Lucia
1672:El Salvador
876:child labor
644:cassiterite
480:exploration
1963:Categories
1859:Montserrat
1854:Martinique
1849:Guadeloupe
1647:Costa Rica
1527:2015-01-25
1491:2011-05-17
1466:2011-05-17
1456:FM Bolivia
1437:2011-05-17
1412:2023-07-11
1221:2011-07-12
1161:2011-05-03
932:References
741:Chilcobija
693:tin mining
594:Production
232:Tin mining
113:newspapers
38:improve it
1932:Caribbean
1844:Greenland
1767:Venezuela
1712:Nicaragua
1682:Guatemala
1602:Argentina
1587:Sovereign
1546:from 1912
1407:0099-9660
1318:Bloomberg
782:Altiplano
469:pulperías
326:Quantity
311:Quantity
239:into the
83:talk page
44:talk page
1799:Anguilla
1747:Suriname
1722:Paraguay
1697:Honduras
1657:Dominica
1642:Colombia
1612:Barbados
1485:La Razón
1353:29 March
1343:La Razón
1323:29 March
892:See also
757:tungsten
751:Tungsten
745:Caracota
733:antimony
727:Antimony
675:Glencore
616:tungsten
608:antimony
552:tungsten
540:antimony
504:smelting
500:Quechusa
439:135,352
407:119,340
401:124,000
392:108,000
378:581.000
369:182,000
366:Private
338:Workers
323:Workers
1829:Curaçao
1814:Bonaire
1809:Bermuda
1762:Uruguay
1702:Jamaica
1677:Grenada
1667:Ecuador
1622:Bolivia
1607:Bahamas
791:Lithium
698:Bismuth
656:Huanuni
548:cadmium
514:or the
430:732,000
418:290,000
398:50,150
355:27,000
308:Sector
127:scholar
1717:Panama
1707:Mexico
1687:Guyana
1632:Canada
1627:Brazil
1617:Belize
1589:states
1405:
1123:.
854:Potosí
713:Potosí
600:silver
558:, and
532:silver
496:Potosí
492:La Paz
384:8,110
381:2,112
375:5,450
361:7,902
343:State
332:Value
317:Value
228:Potosí
129:
122:
115:
108:
100:
1804:Aruba
1692:Haiti
1637:Chile
1380:(PDF)
1373:(PDF)
604:boron
488:Oruro
435:3,386
413:Total
303:2013
300:2005
134:JSTOR
120:books
1869:Saba
1789:and
1727:Peru
1652:Cuba
1403:ISSN
1355:2011
1325:2011
848:The
823:Iron
764:Gold
743:and
624:lead
620:zinc
556:gold
544:lead
536:zinc
404:982
395:283
372:347
358:292
352:117
106:news
721:ore
612:tin
560:tin
423:630
264:GDP
260:GDP
256:tin
89:by
1965::
1483:.
1454:.
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1397:.
1341:.
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1214:.
1198:^
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196:(
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141:(
131:·
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117:·
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54:)
50:(
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