Methodology - Knowledge

1553:, one at a time, until the solution to the initial problem is found. An important advantage of the synthetic method is its clear and short logical exposition. One disadvantage is that it is usually not obvious in the beginning that the steps taken lead to the intended conclusion. This may then come as a surprise to the reader since it is not explained how the mathematician knew in the beginning which steps to take. The analytic method often reflects better how mathematicians actually make their discoveries. For this reason, it is often seen as the better method for teaching mathematics. It starts with the intended conclusion and tries to find another formula from which it can be deduced. It then goes on to apply the same process to this new formula until it has traced back all the way to already proven theorems. The difference between the two methods concerns primarily how mathematicians think and present their 895:

between hierarchical approaches, which consider one task at a time in a hierarchical manner, and concurrent approaches, which consider them all simultaneously. Methodologies are a little more specific. They are general strategies needed to realize an approach and may be understood as guidelines for how to make choices. Often the term "framework" is used as a synonym. A method is a still more specific way of practically implementing the approach. Methodologies provide the guidelines that help researchers decide which method to follow. The method itself may be understood as a sequence of techniques. A technique is a step taken that can be observed and measured. Each technique has some immediate result. The whole sequence of steps is termed a "procedure". A similar but less complex characterization is sometimes found in the field of

760:. In this regard, methodology comes after formulating a research question and helps the researchers decide what methods to use in the process. For example, methodology should assist the researcher in deciding why one method of sampling is preferable to another in a particular case or which form of data analysis is likely to bring the best results. Methodology achieves this by explaining, evaluating and justifying methods. Just as there are different methods, there are also different methodologies. Different methodologies provide different approaches to how methods are evaluated and explained and may thus make different suggestions on what method to use in a particular case. 1226:, but various closely related aims have also been proposed, like understanding, explanation, or predictive success. Strictly speaking, there is no one single scientific method. In this regard, the expression "scientific method" refers not to one specific procedure but to different general or abstract methodological aspects characteristic of all the aforementioned fields. Important features are that the problem is formulated in a clear manner and that the evidence presented for or against a theory is public, reliable, and replicable. The last point is important so that other researchers are able to repeat the experiments to 1098:, for example, criticized the focus on methodology during his time while making significant contributions to it himself. Spirkin believes that one important reason for this development is that contemporary society faces many global problems. These problems cannot be solved by a single researcher or a single discipline but are in need of collaborative efforts from many fields. Such interdisciplinary undertakings profit a lot from methodological advances, both concerning the ability to understand the methods of the respective fields and in relation to developing more homogeneous methods equally used by all of them. 1010:

with the goal of formulating new hypotheses. This is especially relevant when the existing knowledge of the subject is inadequate. Important advantages of quantitative methods include precision and reliability. However, they have often difficulties in studying very complex phenomena that are commonly of interest to the social sciences. Additional problems can arise when the data is misinterpreted to defend conclusions that are not directly supported by the measurements themselves. In recent decades, many researchers in the social sciences have started combining both methodologies. This is known as

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members express and discuss their personal views. An important advantage of focus groups is that they can provide insight into how ideas and understanding operate in a cultural context. However, it is usually difficult to use these insights to discern more general patterns true for a wider public. One advantage of focus groups is that they can help the researcher identify a wide range of distinct perspectives on the issue in a short time. The group interaction may also help clarify and expand interesting contributions. One disadvantage is due to the moderator's personality and

994:. For qualitative research, the sample size is usually rather small, while quantitative research tends to focus on big groups and collecting a lot of data. After the collection, the data needs to be analyzed and interpreted to arrive at interesting conclusions that pertain directly to the research question. This way, the wealth of information obtained is summarized and thus made more accessible to others. Especially in the case of quantitative research, this often involves the application of some form of statistics to make sense of the numerous individual measurements. 47: 1283:. The core disagreement between these two approaches concerns their understanding of the confirmation of scientific theories. The inductive approach holds that a theory is confirmed or supported by all its positive instances, i.e. by all the observations that exemplify it. For example, the observations of many white swans confirm the universal hypothesis that "all swans are white". The hypothetico-deductive approach, on the other hand, focuses not on positive instances but on deductive consequences of the theory. This way, the researcher uses 1375:, or in a controlled setting such as a laboratory. Controlled settings carry with them the risk of distorting the results due to their artificiality. Their advantage lies in precisely controlling the relevant factors, which can help make the observations more reliable and repeatable. Non-participatory observation involves a distanced or external approach. In this case, the researcher focuses on describing and recording the observed phenomena without causing or changing them, in contrast to 1333:

the investigation in many ways. Depending on the type and depth of the interview, this method belongs either to quantitative or to qualitative research. The terms research conversation and muddy interview have been used to describe interviews conducted in informal settings which may not occur purely for the purposes of data collection. Some researcher employ the go-along method by conducting interviews while they and the participants navigate through and engage with their environment.

988:. It involves the selection of a subset of individuals or phenomena to be measured. Important in this regard is that the selected samples are representative of the whole population, i.e. that no significant biases were involved when choosing. If this is not the case, the data collected does not reflect what the population as a whole is like. This affects generalizations and predictions drawn from the biased data. The number of individuals selected is called the 1231:

aims at obtaining numerical data. This data is often described using mathematical formulas. The goal is usually to arrive at some universal generalizations that apply not just to the artificial situation of the experiment but to the world at large. Some data can only be acquired using advanced measurement instruments. In cases where the data is very complex, it is often necessary to employ sophisticated statistical techniques to draw conclusions from it.

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methodology. This phenomenon can be interpreted in different ways. Some see it as a positive indication of the topic's theoretical and practical importance. Others interpret this interest in methodology as an excessive preoccupation that draws time and energy away from doing research on concrete subjects by applying the methods instead of researching them. This ambiguous attitude towards methodology is sometimes even exemplified in the same person.

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focus on the quantitative approach, specifically when it is treated as the only viable approach. Nonetheless, there are also more fundamental criticisms of methodology in general. They are often based on the idea that there is little value to abstract discussions of methods and the reasons cited for and against them. In this regard, it may be argued that what matters is the correct employment of methods and not their meticulous study.

1433:. These methods structure how philosophers conduct their research, acquire knowledge, and select between competing theories. It concerns both descriptive issues of what methods have been used by philosophers in the past and normative issues of which methods should be used. Many philosophers emphasize that these methods differ significantly from the methods found in the natural sciences in that they usually do not rely on 1184: 1027:

Formal methodologies, on the other hand, are based on a variety of studies and try to arrive at more general principles applying to different fields. They may also give particular prominence to the analysis of the language of science and the formal structure of scientific explanation. A closely related classification distinguishes between philosophical, general scientific, and special scientific methods.

1657:. But in its widest sense, it encompasses all forms of education, both inside and outside schools. In this wide sense, pedagogy is concerned with "any conscious activity by one person designed to enhance learning in another". The teaching happening this way is a process taking place between two parties: teachers and learners. Pedagogy investigates how the teacher can help the learner undergo 1002:. The success of the natural sciences was often seen as an indication of the superiority of the quantitative methodology and used as an argument to apply this approach to other fields as well. However, this outlook has been put into question in the more recent methodological discourse. In this regard, it is often argued that the paradigm of the natural sciences is a one-sided development of 1742:. It consists of a number of basic concepts and general theories, that determine how the studied phenomena are to be conceptualized and which scientific methods are considered reliable for studying them. Various theorists emphasize similar aspects of methodologies, for example, that they shape the general outlook on the studied phenomena and help the researcher see them in a new light. 1126:, "e run, as a rule, worse, not better, if we think a lot about our feet". A less severe version of this criticism does not reject methodology per se but denies its importance and rejects an intense focus on it. In this regard, methodology has still a limited and subordinate utility but becomes a diversion or even counterproductive by hindering practice when given too much emphasis. 1296:) between whatever is being observed. It is up to the researcher to do all they can to disprove their own hypothesis through relevant methods or techniques, documented in a clear and replicable process. If they fail to do so, it can be concluded that the null hypothesis is false, which provides support for their own hypothesis about the relation between the observed phenomena. 1312:, interviews, focus groups, and the nominal group technique. Surveys belong to quantitative research and usually involve some form of questionnaire given to a large group of individuals. It is paramount that the questions are easily understandable by the participants since the answers might not have much value otherwise. Surveys normally restrict themselves to 764:

scheme based on views, beliefs, and values, that guides the choices researchers make". Ginny E. Garcia and Dudley L. Poston understand methodology either as a complex body of rules and postulates guiding research or as the analysis of such rules and procedures. As a body of rules and postulates, a methodology defines the subject of analysis as well as the

1478:. It studies concepts by breaking them down into their most fundamental constituents to clarify their meaning. Common sense philosophy uses common and widely accepted beliefs as a philosophical tool. They are used to draw interesting conclusions. This is often employed in a negative sense to discredit radical philosophical positions that go against 1090:

these techniques to improve them as well as to make it easier to use them and pass them on. In the field of research, for example, the goal of this process is to find reliable means to acquire knowledge in contrast to mere opinions acquired by unreliable means. In this regard, "methodology is a way of obtaining and building up ... knowledge".

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acceptable for some forms of quantitative research, it fails for qualitative research. One argument for this position is based on the claim that research is not a technique but a craft that cannot be achieved by blindly following a method. In this regard, research depends on forms of creativity and improvisation to amount to good science.

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issues. The initial responses are often given in written form by each participant without a prior conversation between them. In this manner, group effects potentially influencing the expressed opinions are minimized. In later steps, the different responses and comments may be discussed and compared to each other by the group as a whole.

1014:. A central motivation for this is that the two approaches can complement each other in various ways: some issues are ignored or too difficult to study with one methodology and are better approached with the other. In other cases, both approaches are applied to the same issue to produce more comprehensive and well-rounded results. 1411:. It is based on the assumption that many of the phenomena studied using the other approaches are mere distortions or surface illusions. It seeks to uncover deeper structures of the material world hidden behind these distortions. This approach is often guided by the goal of helping people effect social changes and improvements. 1441:. Which method one follows can have wide implications for how philosophical theories are constructed, what theses are defended, and what arguments are cited in favor or against. In this regard, many philosophical disagreements have their source in methodological disagreements. Historically, the discovery of new methods, like 1537:, various methods can be distinguished, such as synthetic, analytic, deductive, inductive, and heuristic methods. For example, the difference between synthetic and analytic methods is that the former start from the known and proceed to the unknown while the latter seek to find a path from the unknown to the known. 1386:

agree with this characterization, in contrast to interpretive and critical perspectives on the social sciences. According to William Neumann, positivism can be defined as "an organized method for combining deductive logic with precise empirical observations of individual behavior in order to discover

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is similar to focus groups with a few important differences. The group often consists of experts in the field in question. The group size is similar but the interaction between the participants is more structured. The goal is to determine how much agreement there is among the experts on the different

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Another line of criticism concerns more the general and abstract nature of methodology. It states that the discussion of methods is only useful in concrete and particular cases but not concerning abstract guidelines governing many or all cases. Some anti-methodologists reject methodology based on the

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Most criticism of methodology is directed at one specific form or understanding of it. In such cases, one particular methodological theory is rejected but not methodology at large when understood as a field of research comprising many different theories. In this regard, many objections to methodology

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Aleksandr Georgievich Spirkin argues that methodology, when understood in a wide sense, is of great importance since the world presents us with innumerable entities and relations between them. Methods are needed to simplify this complexity and find a way of mastering it. On the theoretical side, this

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Which method is more appropriate often depends on the goal of the research. For example, quantitative methods usually excel for evaluating preconceived hypotheses that can be clearly formulated and measured. Qualitative methods, on the other hand, can be used to study complex individual issues, often

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Many discussions in methodology concern the question of whether the quantitative approach is superior, especially whether it is adequate when applied to the social domain. A few theorists reject methodology as a discipline in general. For example, some argue that it is useless since methods should be

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before conducting an experiment to infer what observations they expect. These expectations are then compared to the observations they actually make. This approach often takes a negative form based on falsification. In this regard, positive instances do not confirm a hypothesis but negative instances

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and solving problems. On the practical side, this concerns skills of influencing nature and dealing with each other. These different methods are usually passed down from one generation to the next. Spirkin holds that the interest in methodology on a more abstract level arose in attempts to formalize

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philosophy. They start with certain particular observations. It is then argued that the observed phenomena can only exist if their conditions of possibility are fulfilled. This way, the researcher may draw general psychological or metaphysical conclusions based on the claim that the phenomenon would

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Qualitative and quantitative research are often associated with different research paradigms and background assumptions. Qualitative researchers often use an interpretive or critical approach while quantitative researchers tend to prefer a positivistic approach. Important disagreements between these

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to distinguish the term "methodology" from the closely related terms "approach", "method", "procedure", and "technique". On their view, "approach" is the most general term. It can be defined as "a way or direction used to address a problem based on a set of assumptions". An example is the difference

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writing as well as whether research studies objective facts rather than constructing the phenomena it claims to study. In the latter sense, some methodologists have even claimed that the goal of science is less to represent a pre-existing reality and more to bring about some kind of social change in

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to be used under certain circumstances, usually expressable as a sequence of repeatable instructions. The goal of following the steps of a method is to bring about the result promised by it. In the context of inquiry, methods may be defined as systems of rules and procedures to discover regularities

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constitute a middle ground: they include both predetermined questions and questions not planned in advance. Structured interviews make it easier to compare the responses of the different participants and to draw general conclusions. However, they also limit what may be discovered and thus constrain

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are often seen as the driving force behind the success and prominence of the natural sciences. In some cases, the choice of methodology may have a severe impact on a research project. The reason is that very different and sometimes even opposite conclusions may follow from the same factual material

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One type of methodological outlook is called "proceduralism". According to it, the goal of methodology is to boil down the research process to a simple set of rules or a recipe that automatically leads to good research if followed precisely. However, it has been argued that, while this ideal may be

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Various other classifications have been proposed. One distinguishes between substantive and formal methodologies. Substantive methodologies tend to focus on one specific area of inquiry. The findings are initially restricted to this specific field but may be transferrable to other areas of inquiry.

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Quantitative methods dominate in the natural sciences but both methodologies are used in the social sciences. Some social scientists focus mostly on one method while others try to investigate the same phenomenon using a variety of different methods. It is central to both approaches how the group of

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discipline. The key difference in this regard is whether methodology just provides a value-neutral description of methods or what scientists actually do. Many methodologists practice their craft in a normative sense, meaning that they express clear opinions about the advantages and disadvantages of

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for and against them, and what the general goal of researching them is. So in this wider sense, methodology overlaps with philosophy by making these assumptions explicit and presenting arguments for and against them. According to C. S. Herrman, a good methodology clarifies the structure of the data

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from this sample, and interpreting the data. The study of methods concerns a detailed description and analysis of these processes. It includes evaluative aspects by comparing different methods. This way, it is assessed what advantages and disadvantages they have and for what research goals they may

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The choice of which specific method is best to use depends on various factors, such as the subject matter and the learner's age. Interest and curiosity on the side of the student are among the key factors of learning success. This means that one important aspect of the chosen teaching method is to

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Various influential pedagogical theories have been proposed. Mental-discipline theories were already common in ancient Greek and state that the main goal of teaching is to train intellectual capacities. They are usually based on a certain ideal of the capacities, attitudes, and values possessed by

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According to Aleksandr Georgievich Spirkin, " methodology is a system of principles and general ways of organising and structuring theoretical and practical activity, and also the theory of this system". Helen Kara defines methodology as "a contextual framework for research, a coherent and logical

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or disconfirm the initial study. For this reason, various factors and variables of the situation often have to be controlled to avoid distorting influences and to ensure that subsequent measurements by other researchers yield the same results. The scientific method is a quantitative approach that

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It has been argued that a proper understanding of methodology is important for various issues in the field of research. They include both the problem of conducting efficient and reliable research as well as being able to validate knowledge claims by others. Method is often seen as one of the main

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Qualitative research is characterized in various ways in the academic literature but there are very few precise definitions of the term. It is often used in contrast to quantitative research for forms of study that do not quantify their subject matter numerically. However, the distinction between

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Some theorists prefer an even wider understanding of methodology that involves not just the description, comparison, and evaluation of methods but includes additionally more general philosophical issues. One reason for this wider approach is that discussions of when to use which method often take

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similar people. Researchers can use this method to collect data based on the interactions and responses of the participants. The interview often starts by asking the participants about their opinions on the topic under investigation, which may, in turn, lead to a free exchange in which the group

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with a participant from a new experimental therapy to assess its potential benefits and drawbacks. It is also used to improve quantitative research, such as informing data collection materials and questionnaire design. Qualitative research is frequently employed in fields where the pre-existing

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of researchers. Methodologists often respond to these objections by claiming that a good methodology helps researchers arrive at reliable theories in an efficient way. The choice of method often matters since the same factual material can lead to different conclusions depending on one's method.

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identifies five essential components of teaching: preparation, presentation, association, generalization, and application. They correspond to different phases of the educational process: getting ready for it, showing new ideas, bringing these ideas in relation to known ideas, understanding the

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Various theorists have observed that the interest in methodology has risen significantly in the 20th century. This increased interest is reflected not just in academic publications on the subject but also in the institutionalized establishment of training programs focusing specifically on

874:. This means that there is no overarching framework to assess the conflicting theoretical and methodological assumptions. This critique puts into question various presumptions of the quantitative approach associated with scientific progress based on the steady accumulation of data. 947:. It is based on precise numerical measurements, which are then used to arrive at exact general laws. This precision is also reflected in the goal of making predictions that can later be verified by other researchers. Examples of quantitative research include physicists at the 1162:. He is quite critical of methodologists based on the claim that they usually act as advocates of one particular method usually associated with quantitative research. An often-cited quotation in this regard is that "ethodology is too important to be left to methodologists". 749:. It also includes evaluative aspects: forms of data collection, measurement strategies, and ways to analyze data are compared and their advantages and disadvantages relative to different research goals and situations are assessed. In this regard, methodology provides the 1461:

to construct a comprehensive philosophical system based on them. Phenomenology gives particular importance to how things appear to be. It consists in suspending one's judgments about whether these things actually exist in the external world. This technique is known as

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designed for this specific hypothesis. The actual results of the experiment are then compared to the expected results based on one's hypothesis. The findings may then be interpreted and published, either as a confirmation or disconfirmation of the initial hypothesis.

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has rejected this negative outlook on methodology. He holds that Becker's criticism can be avoided by understanding methodology as an inclusive inquiry into all kinds of methods and not as a mere doctrine for converting non-believers to one's preferred method.

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and of how to go about the data collection itself, like surveys, interviews, or observation. There are also numerous methods of how the collected data can be analyzed using statistics or other ways of interpreting it to extract interesting conclusions.

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educated people. According to naturalistic theories, there is an inborn natural tendency in children to develop in a certain way. For them, pedagogy is about how to help this process happen by ensuring that the required external conditions are set up.

1611:. Inferential statistics, on the other hand, uses this data based on a sample to draw inferences about the population at large. That can take the form of making generalizations and predictions or by assessing the probability of a concrete hypothesis. 1154:

However, these criticisms of methodology in general are not always accepted. Many methodologists defend their craft by pointing out how the efficiency and reliability of research can be improved through a proper understanding of methodology.

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actively "puts questions to nature". While the distinction is usually clear in the paradigmatic cases, there are also many intermediate cases where it is not obvious whether they should be characterized as observation or as experimentation.

1714:. Many forms of education also include regular assessment of the learner's progress, for example, in the form of tests. This helps to ensure that the teaching process is successful and to make adjustments to the chosen method if necessary. 997:

Many discussions in the history of methodology center around the quantitative methods used by the natural sciences. A central question in this regard is to what extent they can be applied to other fields, like the social sciences and

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and gives less prominence to exact numerical measurements. It aims more at an in-depth understanding of the meaning of the studied phenomena and less at universal and predictive laws. Common methods found in the social sciences are

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to be analyzed and helps the researchers see the phenomena in a new light. In this regard, a methodology is similar to a paradigm. A similar view is defended by Spirkin, who holds that a central aspect of every methodology is the

1599:. Descriptive statistics restricts itself to the data at hand. It tries to summarize the most salient features and present them in insightful ways. This can happen, for example, by visualizing its distribution or by calculating 664:

while methodologies are more general research strategies that determine how to conduct a research project. In this sense, methodologies include various theoretical commitments about the intended outcomes of the investigation.

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A great variety of methods has been employed throughout the history of philosophy. Methodological skepticism gives special importance to the role of systematic doubt. This way, philosophers try to discover absolutely certain

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various background assumptions for granted, for example, concerning the goal and nature of research. These assumptions can at times play an important role concerning which method to choose and how to follow it. For example,

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or to techniques of verifying and falsifying pre-existing knowledge claims. This encompasses various issues pertaining both to the collection of data and their analysis. Concerning the collection, it involves the problem of

1255:. This distinction is based on the idea that experimentation involves some form of manipulation or intervention. This way, the studied phenomena are actively created or shaped. For example, a biologist inserting viral 1142:

to be provocative and insightful, which is prohibited by a strictly codified approach. Chamberlain uses the neologism "methodolatry" to refer to this alleged overemphasis on methodology. Similar arguments are given in

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The scientific method is often broken down into several steps. In a typical case, the procedure starts with regular observation and the collection of information. These findings then lead the scientist to formulate a

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of the principles of methods, rules, and postulates employed by a discipline". This study or analysis involves uncovering assumptions and practices associated with the different methods and a detailed description of

1267:. The scientific revolution in the 16th and 17th century affected a paradigm change that gave a much more central role to experimentation in the scientific methodology. This is sometimes expressed by stating that 1399:, for example, argues that the method of the natural sciences is inadequate for the social sciences. Instead, more importance is placed on meaning and how people create and maintain their social worlds. The 963:

these two types is not always obvious and various theorists have argued that it should be understood as a continuum and not as a dichotomy. A lot of qualitative research is concerned with some form of human

971:, in which case it tends to focus on a few individuals and their in-depth understanding of the meaning of the studied phenomena. Examples of the qualitative method are a market researcher conducting a 1175:

Part of the importance of methodology is reflected in the number of fields to which it is relevant. They include the natural sciences and the social sciences as well as philosophy and mathematics.

753:, knowledge, and practical guidance needed to conduct scientific research in an efficient manner. It acts as a guideline for various decisions researchers need to take in the scientific process. 768:

tools used by the analysis and the limits of the analysis. Research projects are usually governed by a structured procedure known as the research process. The goal of this process is given by a

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into a bacterium is engaged in a form of experimentation. Pure observation, on the other hand, involves studying independent entities in a passive manner. This is the case, for example, when

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However, many theorists emphasize the differences between the terms "method" and "methodology". In this regard, methodology may be defined as "the study or description of methods" or as "the

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that determines which questions are asked and what counts as good science. This concerns philosophical disagreements both about how to conceptualize the phenomena studied, what constitutes

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Other discussions of abstract theoretical issues in the philosophy of science are also sometimes included. This can involve questions like how and whether scientific research differs from

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An important methodological debate in the field of social sciences concerns the question of whether they deal with hard, objective, and value-neutral facts, as the natural sciences do.

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disconfirm it. Positive indications that the hypothesis is true are only given indirectly if many attempts to find counterexamples have failed. A cornerstone of this approach is the

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from many particular observations to arrive at general conclusions, often in the form of universal laws. Deductive methods, also referred to as axiomatic methods, are often found in

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knowledge is inadequate. This way, it is possible to get a first impression of the field and potential theories, thus paving the way for investigating the issue in further studies.

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that work best when the agent focuses only on employing them. In this regard, reflection may interfere with the process and lead to avoidable mistakes. According to an example by

1006:, which is not equally well suited to all areas of inquiry. The divide between quantitative and qualitative methods in the social sciences is one consequence of this criticism. 627:. They differ from each other concerning their sample size, the types of questions asked, and the general setting. In recent decades, many social scientists have started using 673:

The term "methodology" is sometimes used as a synonym for the term "method". A method is a way of reaching some predefined goal. It is a planned and structured procedure for

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approaches concern the role of objectivity and hard empirical data as well as the research goal of predictive success rather than in-depth understanding or social change.

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method. The term "technique" is often used as a synonym both in the academic and the everyday discourse. Methods usually involve a clearly defined series of decisions and

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The term "methodology" is associated with a variety of meanings. In its most common usage, it refers either to a method, to the field of inquiry studying methods, or to

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Some even hold that methodological reflection is not just a waste of time but actually has negative side effects. Such an argument may be defended by analogy to other

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discussions of background assumptions involved in these processes. Some researchers distinguish methods from methodologies by holding that methods are modes of

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with a finite number of steps. Each step has to be precisely defined so it can be carried out in an unambiguous manner for each application. For example, the

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settings, cultural and linguistic adaptations and group composition considerations are important to encourage greater participation in the group discussion.

1328:, which are closer to a free-flow conversation and require more improvisation on the side of the interviewer for finding interesting and relevant questions. 4857: 190: 1575:. It plays a central role in many forms of quantitative research that have to deal with the data of many observations and measurements. In such cases, 1134:

to do their work effectively. But this freedom may be constrained and stifled by "inflexible and inappropriate guidelines". For example, according to

1111:, for example, compared methodologists to "people who clean their glasses so thoroughly that they never have time to look through them". According to 4992: 453: 603:. Further steps are to test the hypothesis using an experiment, to compare the measurements to the expected results, and to publish the findings. 1678:

focus primarily on how learning takes place and formulate the proper methods of teaching based on these insights. One of them is apperception or

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Other types include inductive, deductive, and transcendental methods. Inductive methods are common in the empirical sciences and proceed through

4533: 1501:, which involve imagining situations to assess their possible consequences in order to confirm or refute philosophical theories. The method of 5235: 756:

Methodology can be understood as the middle ground between concrete particular methods and the abstract and general issues discussed by the

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Sha, Mandy (2020-04-30). "Cross-cultural comparisons of focus groups as a research method (Chapter 8)". In Sha, Mandy; Gabel, Tim (eds.).

522: 1320:. They contrast in this regard to interviews, which put more emphasis on the individual participant and often involve open questions. 899:, where the teaching process may be described through a three-level conceptualization based on "approach", "method", and "technique". 547:

discussion of associated background assumptions. A method is a structured procedure for bringing about a certain goal, like acquiring

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for or against them. When understood in the widest sense, methodology also includes the discussion of these more abstract issues.

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the data to arrive at practically useful conclusions. There are numerous methods of data analysis. They are usually divided into

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Theorists often distinguish various general types or approaches to methodology. The most influential classification contrasts

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has a very similar method: it approaches philosophical questions by looking at how the corresponding terms are used in

6046: 5588: 3917: 3426: 3075: 1308:, where both quantitative and qualitative approaches are used. They employ various forms of data collection, such as 3317:

Baynes, Kenneth (22 December 2016). "Interpretivism and Critical Theory". In McIntyre, Lee; Rosenberg, Alex (eds.).

5413:"Common Sense and Philosophical Methodology: Some Metaphilosophical Reflections on Analytic Philosophy and Deleuze" 8472: 3443: 677:. In this regard, methods stand in contrast to free and unstructured approaches to problem-solving. For example, 458: 4706:"Issues in the Analysis of Focus Groups: Generalisability, Quantifiability, Treatment of Context and Quotations" 4678: 560:

be used. These descriptions and evaluations depend on philosophical background assumptions. Examples are how to

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One question concerning the definition of methodology is whether it should be understood as a descriptive or a

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is often associated with an emphasis on empirical data collection and a more distanced and objective attitude.

515: 4317: 9265: 9054: 485: 138: 5954:. Intelligent Systems Reference Library. Vol. 176. Springer International Publishing. pp. 63–131. 1505:

tries to form a coherent perspective by examining and reevaluating all the relevant beliefs and intuitions.

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issues in cases where they have important implications for the proper research methodology. For example, a

443: 3667:

Spirkin, Aleksandr Georgievich (1990). "XVI.2. The Dialectics of World Development in the Present Epoch".

8382: 6669: 3519:

Stevenson, Michael; Witschge, Tamara (2020). "Methods we live by: Proceduralism, process, and pedagogy".

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focus on the practical consequences of philosophical theories to assess whether they are true or false.

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in order to learn how people react to a new product or a medical researcher performing an unstructured

20: 2777:"Distinguishing approach, methodology, method, procedure and technique in process systems engineering" 1324:

are planned in advance and have a fixed set of questions given to each individual. They contrast with

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Mishra, Prabhaker; Pandey, ChandraMani; Singh, Uttam; Keshri, Amit; Sabaretnam, Mayilvaganan (2019).

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Howell, K. E. (2013) Introduction to the Philosophy of Methodology. London, UK: Sage Publications.

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Herrman, C. S. (2009). "Fundamentals of Methodology - Part I: Definitions and First Principles".

1765:. It is based on simple steps like comparing the two numbers and subtracting one from the other. 1758: 1510: 1360: 624: 425: 6142: 5947: 5170: 4010:"Observation Versus Experiment: An Adequate Framework for Analysing Scientific Experimentation?" 9401: 9059: 8742: 8606: 7863: 7591: 7531: 7501: 7210: 7078: 7071: 7066: 6602: 6438:

Action Research for Business, Nonprofit, and Public Administration - A Tool for Complex Times .

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laws that can be used to predict general patterns of human activity". This view is rejected by

1325: 1011: 694: 678: 628: 300: 247: 5744: 5511: 5460: 5048: 4735:"Not just another focus group: making the case for the nominal group technique in criminology" 4415: 1947: 1859: 9309: 9133: 8950: 8663: 8121: 7977: 7650: 7645: 7334: 7243: 7160: 7143: 7123: 6974: 6832: 6810: 6612: 6466: 5613: 4794:"Focus Group meets Nominal Group Technique: an effective combination for student evaluation?" 4677:

Kusenbach, Margarethe (29 January 2016). "The Go-Along Method". In Schwanhäußer, Anja (ed.).

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Challenging the qualitative-quantitative divide: explorations in case-focused causal analysis

2864: 2497: 2323: 2289: 1979: 1828: 1785: 1077: 985: 956: 948: 928: 870:. According to Kuhn, an important factor in such debates is that the different paradigms are 843: 835: 816: 757: 724: 572: 475: 448: 354: 185: 125: 6305: 5783: 5133: 5105: 1694:. Learning is a form of developing the mind by helping it establish the right associations. 1115:, the practice of methodology often degenerates into a "fetishism of method and technique". 831:

and tend, therefore, to include more subjective tendencies in the research process as well.

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A criticism of more specific forms of methodology is found in the works of the sociologist

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Murphy, Patricia (2 September 2003). "1. Defining Pedagogy". In Gipps, Caroline V. (ed.).

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Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, Second Edition, Unabridged

1674:

general principle behind their instances, and putting what one has learned into practice.

1263:

observe the orbits of astronomical objects far away. Observation played the main role in

1239:

describing and explaining the observed phenomena. The next step consists in conducting an

1050:

or first principles and use deduction to infer interesting conclusions from these axioms.

8: 9114: 9039: 8727: 8576: 8539: 8138: 8106: 7994: 7804: 7690: 7586: 7521: 7459: 7421: 7327: 7275: 7248: 7039: 7019: 6887: 6872: 6733: 6617: 6544: 6356: 5537: 2734: 1754: 1584: 1475: 1471: 1458: 1457:

that are indubitable. The geometric method starts from such first principles and employs

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Interest in methodology has risen in the 20th century due to the increased importance of

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or verifying knowledge claims. This normally involves various steps, like choosing a

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Sociologogically imagined: The decentering of C. Wright Mills, the postmodern cowboy

3254: 591:

about future events. The dominant methodology in the natural sciences is called the

9343: 9123: 8997: 8897: 8877: 8772: 8752: 8717: 8011: 7929: 7770: 7747: 7685: 7491: 7486: 7449: 7200: 7133: 7098: 7044: 6927: 6877: 6805: 6743: 6496: 6486: 6150: 6034: 6004: 5955: 5918: 5908: 5827: 5779: 5709: 5652: 5576: 5432: 5424: 5352: 5303: 5182: 5141: 5101: 5060: 4889: 4805: 4756: 4746: 4718: 4713: 4705: 4651: 4612: 4554: 4470: 4454: 4380: 4291: 4236: 4232: 4193: 4154: 4121: 4113: 4021: 3818: 3563: 3528: 3455: 3414: 3407:

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in order to avoid various problems that come with the interpretation of answers to

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Qualitative-quantitative research methodology: exploring the interactive continuum

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different methods. In this regard, methodology is not just about what researchers

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used rather than studied. Others hold that it is harmful because it restricts the

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textbooks often proceed using the synthetic method. They start by listing known

827:, on the other hand, hold that external reality is not fully independent of the 9440: 9368: 9255: 9173: 9064: 8907: 8842: 8807: 8797: 8387: 8155: 7848: 7838: 7625: 7596: 7551: 7190: 7118: 7083: 6907: 6820: 6748: 6728: 6718: 6524: 6462:, Third Edition. London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi, Singapore: Sage Publications 6331: 5308: 4878:"Integrating Positivist and Interpretive Approaches to Organizational Research" 4558: 3822: 3809:

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individuals used for the data collection is selected. This process is known as

968: 607: 401: 344: 242: 195: 175: 145: 8977: 6116: 5186: 5064: 4751: 4734: 4158: 4026: 3532: 3358: 3285: 3100: 2989: 2695: 2543: 2143: 2012:

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perspective considering the observed phenomena as an external and independent

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methods. However, the term can also refer to the methods themselves or to the

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New Methodological Perspectives on Observation and Experimentation in Science

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conducting an online survey to determine the correlation between income and

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is a more externally oriented learning theory. It identifies learning with

1479: 1123: 851: 838:, philosophical debates in methodology include the distinction between the 808: 718:. In this sense, methodology can refer to procedures used to arrive at new 620: 237: 6437: 6038: 6027:

Watkins, Chris; Mortimore, Peter (1999). "1: Pedagogy: What do we Know?".

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Statistics investigates the analysis, interpretation, and presentation of

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Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches

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Introduction to Probabilistic and Statistical Methods with Examples in R

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Richards, Jack C.; Dudeney, Gavin; Rodgers, Theodore S. (9 April 2001).

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A central discussion in this field concerns the distinction between the

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Understanding Research: Coping with the Quantitative-Qualitative Divide

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Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions

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Equity in the Classroom: Towards Effective Pedagogy for Girls and Boys

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between ideas and experiences. On this view, the mind is initially a

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developments of experimental methods in the 16th and 17th century

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independent of assumptions about their causes. The method of

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(2005). "Methodologie". 2039:Enzyklopädie Philosophie und Wissenschaftstheorie 1854: 1852: 1813: 1474:came to particular prominence with the advent of 1292:, which assumes that there is no connection (see 1247:Two central aspects of the scientific method are 9466: 6475:"Why Most Published Research Findings Are False" 6467:Handbook of Research Methods in Military Studies 6026: 5097:The Oxford Handbook of Philosophical Methodology 4957: 4942: 4940: 4938: 4936: 4553:. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 492–505. 3063: 2917:International Journal for Quality in Health Care 2770: 2768: 2031: 2029: 2027: 2025: 1984:An Introduction to the Philosophy of Methodology 1952:An Introduction to the Philosophy of Methodology 1941: 1939: 1937: 1935: 1933: 1931: 1833:An Introduction to the Philosophy of Methodology 1493:Many methods in philosophy rely on some form of 1339:are a qualitative research method often used in 6402:. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. 6395:. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. 6312:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University 6022: 6020: 5997:Evidence Based Library and Information Practice 5751:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University 5620:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University 5544:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University 5234:Nadler, Steven (2006). "The geometric method". 5127: 5125: 4422:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University 4298:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University 4076:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University 3984:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University 3975: 3799: 2597:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University 2369: 2367: 2322:Mills, Jane; Birks, Melanie (20 January 2014). 2203: 2184: 2159: 2157: 2155: 2153: 2071: 2069: 1929: 1927: 1925: 1923: 1921: 1919: 1917: 1915: 1913: 1911: 938: 6418:. Newbury Park, California: Sage Publications. 6068: 6066: 6064: 6062: 6060: 6058: 5663: 5240:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–51. 5175:International Journal of Philosophical Studies 5138:The Palgrave Handbook of Philosophical Methods 5049:"How To Think About Philosophical Methodology" 4984: 4497: 4440: 3971: 3969: 3967: 3845: 3782:Collected Essays 1929 - 1968: Collected Papers 3487: 3485: 3179: 3177: 2906: 2365: 2363: 2361: 2359: 2357: 2355: 2353: 2351: 2349: 2347: 2230: 2067: 2065: 2063: 2061: 2059: 2057: 2055: 2053: 2051: 2049: 1973: 1971: 1849: 1429:field of inquiry studying the methods used in 791:that sciences operate within a framework or a 6552: 6191: 6147:Principles and Pedagogies in Jewish Education 5536:Brown, James Robert; Fehige, Yiftach (2019). 4933: 4732: 3905: 3758:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–10. 3435: 3406: 3219:Shorten, Allison; Smith, Joanna (July 2017). 2974:"What is Qualitative in Qualitative Research" 2967: 2965: 2911:Powell, Richard A.; Single, Helen M. 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They are used, for example, to evaluate 675:solving a theoretical or practical problem 523: 509: 45: 6500: 6490: 6472: 6093: 6008: 5922: 5912: 5562: 5436: 5307: 4760: 4750: 4717: 4676: 4474: 4256: 4254: 4147:Journal for General Philosophy of Science 4127:1983/79e68032-e432-47de-adb5-e7ca3ff2841d 4125: 4095: 4093: 4091: 4067: 4025: 4014:Journal for General Philosophy of Science 3912:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3687: 3643:Methodology of Social Sciences: Max Weber 3633: 3293: 3236: 3155: 3005: 2928: 2839: 2560: 2542: 2411: 2384: 2308: 1641:. These aims include the transmission of 6197: 5948:"Descriptive and Inferential Statistics" 5763: 5410: 5285: 5283: 5140:. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 1–30. 5087: 5020: 5011: 4967:An Introduction to Philosophical Methods 4598: 4550:Handbook of Practical Program Evaluation 4413: 4285: 4283: 4040: 4003: 4001: 3999: 3976:Hepburn, Brian; Andersen, Hanne (2021). 3521:NECSUS European Journal of Media Studies 3345: 2828:Journal of Ocean Engineering and Science 2732: 2577: 2163: 2075: 1625:Pedagogy can be defined as the study or 1182: 1046:. They start from a set of self-evident 454:Library and information science software 6310:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 5769: 5749:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 5689: 5632: 5618:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 5611: 5542:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 5484: 5338: 4923:McKeon, R. 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Introduction: Problems Identified" 1977: 1945: 1826: 1170: 882:favor of repressed groups in society. 731: 449:Geographic information system software 8651: 6780: 6578: 6540: 5990: 5813: 5784:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935314.013.17 5280: 5106:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199668779.013.34 4733:Vander Laenen, Freya (4 March 2015). 4546: 4366: 4360: 4289: 4280: 4140: 4134: 4007: 3996: 3639: 3139: 3137: 2677: 2393: 1978:Howell, Kerry E. (13 November 2012). 1946:Howell, Kerry E. (13 November 2012). 1827:Howell, Kerry E. (13 November 2012). 1525:and justifying philosophical claims. 1403:in social science is associated with 1187:The methodology underlying a type of 6527:, usage note on the word Methodology 5669: 5393: 5131: 5046: 4963: 4638:Lena Lippke; Lene Tanggaard (2014). 4581: 3778: 3720: 3640:Finch, Henry A. 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London and New York: Routledge. 5581:10.1163/ej.9789004201767.i-233.35 5263:"Phenomenological Reduction, The" 5260: 3556:Philosophy of the Social Sciences 2616:Kuhn, Thomas S. (18 April 2012). 2531:Life Sciences, Society and Policy 1712:intrinsic or extrinsic motivation 1704:response pattern to this stimulus 1425:Philosophical methodology is the 1281:hypothetico-deductive methodology 1081:based on the chosen methodology. 6349: 6324: 6297: 6272: 6179:from the original on 12 May 2022 6134: 6114: 5991:Byrne, Gillian (14 March 2007). 5984: 5939: 5888: 5871: 5854: 5504: 5429:10.1111/j.1467-9191.2010.00361.x 5411:REYNOLDS, JACK (4 August 2010). 5404: 5332: 5027:Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews 4683:. Birkhäuser. pp. 154–158. 3410:The Discovery of Grounded Theory 1948:"13. Methods of Data Collection" 1864:The American Heritage Dictionary 1194:The dominant methodology in the 6458:Silverman, David (Ed). 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Cambridge University Press. 2733:Goldkuhl, Göran (March 2012). 1528: 1138:, a good interpretation needs 1085:concerns ways of forming true 651: 1: 9055:Traditional African religions 6566: 5901:Annals of Cardiac Anaesthesia 5816:"The Teaching of Mathematics" 4810:10.1080/14703297.2015.1058721 4617:10.1080/07294360.2015.1011087 3448:Journal of Services Marketing 3357:Ryan, Gemma (16 March 2018). 3157:10.3768/rtipress.bk.0023.2004 2394:Oduor, Rmj (10 August 2010). 1806: 1738:, a paradigm is a conceptual 1560: 1414: 1066: 1063:not be observable otherwise. 8652: 6492:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124 6444:Joubish, Farooq Dr. (2009). 6416:Fourth Generation Evaluation 5512:"ordinary language analysis" 5461:"philosophy of common sense" 5339:SHAFFER, MICHAEL J. (2015). 4991:Williamson, Timothy (2020). 4856:"Observation, Participant". 4719:10.46743/2160-3715/2010.1143 3811:Journal of Health Psychology 2498:"2. Social Research Methods" 2324:"3. Methodology and Methods" 2224:10.1016/0167-4048(91)90094-T 1796:Software development process 1484:Ordinary language philosophy 1130:claim that researchers need 1101: 939:Quantitative and qualitative 693:is a method of cooking, and 668: 583:. It uses precise numerical 7: 8383:Food and drink prohibitions 6781: 6451:Patton, M. Q. (2002). 6155:10.1007/978-3-030-83925-3_3 5960:10.1007/978-3-030-45799-0_2 4997:. Oxford University Press. 1768: 1614: 892:process systems engineering 10: 9491: 5946:Stapor, Katarzyna (2020). 5309:10.1007/s11229-018-02051-2 4559:10.1002/9781119171386.ch19 4414:Thornton, Stephen (2021). 4373:Journal of Literary Theory 3885:. Transaction Publishers. 3823:10.1177/135910530000500306 3670:Fundamentals of Philosophy 3646:. Transaction Publishers. 3495:Fundamentals of Philosophy 2841:10.1016/j.joes.2021.02.006 2793:10.1007/s10098-020-01819-w 2291:Methodology: Who Needs It? 1618: 1564: 1418: 1330:Semi-structured interviews 535:In its most common sense, 18: 9073: 8921: 8700: 8662: 8658: 8647: 8235: 7938: 7756: 7435: 7271:Cross-cultural psychology 7229: 7089:Manipulation (psychology) 6955: 6791: 6787: 6776: 6585: 6574: 6473:Ioannidis, J. P. (2005). 5772:"Experimental Philosophy" 5745:"Experimental Philosophy" 5696:Bawden, H. Heath (1904). 5187:10.1080/09672559308570774 5065:10.1007/s40961-017-0116-8 4926:New Catholic Encyclopedia 4842:A Dictionary of Sociology 4752:10.1186/s40163-014-0016-z 4585:A Dictionary of Sociology 4159:10.1007/s10838-006-1065-0 4027:10.1007/s10838-016-9335-y 3852:Feyerabend, Paul (1993). 3700:. Routledge. p. 32. 3286:10.1007/s11577-017-0454-1 3186:Southern Economic Journal 3064:Newman, Isadore. (1998). 2990:10.1007/s11133-019-9413-7 2696:10.1017/S0031819100051287 2544:10.1186/s40504-017-0057-7 2195:"Methodology Usage Notes" 2144:10.1108/17465640810900568 1781:Philosophical methodology 1466:and can be used to study 1443:methodological skepticism 1421:Philosophical methodology 1377:participatory observation 1021: 599:and the formulation of a 595:. It includes steps like 476:Qualitative data analysis 16:Study of research methods 7621:Mass psychogenic illness 7472:Collective effervescence 6913:Self-fulfilling prophecy 6599:Collective consciousness 6441:Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 5814:Young, J. W. A. (1968). 5614:"Reflective Equilibrium" 5612:Daniels, Norman (2020). 4950:Enzyklopädie Philosophie 4656:10.1177/1077800413510869 4290:Crupi, Vincenzo (2021). 4219:Stemmer, Nathan (1981). 4180:Culler, Madison (1995). 3785:. Taylor & Francis. 3568:10.1177/0048393113479142 3460:10.1108/JSM-04-2019-0158 3113:10.4135/9781506335193.n9 2678:Smart, J. J. C. (1986). 2645:The Philosophical Review 2589:Bird, Alexander (2018). 2212:Computers & Security 2015:Enzyklopädie Philosophie 1682:, which understands the 957:self-assessed well-being 922: 886:Related terms and issues 19:Not to be confused with 8961:Eastern Orthodox Church 7502:Culture-bound syndromes 7477:Collective intelligence 6405:Franklin, M.I. (2012). 5820:The Mathematics Teacher 5776:Oxford Handbooks Online 5639:Little, Daniel (1984). 5417:The Philosophical Forum 5146:10.1057/9781137344557_1 4498:Hollis, Martin (2014). 4459:10.5152/TJAR.2016.34711 4347:Encyclopedia Britannica 3673:. Progress Publishers. 3533:10.25969/mediarep/15344 3498:. Progress Publishers. 3419:10.4324/9780203793206-5 3099:Niglas, Katrin (2010), 2377:Dialectical Materialism 1894:SSRN Electronic Journal 1759:greatest common divisor 1511:Experimental philosophy 1447:phenomenological method 1361:nominal group technique 1326:unstructured interviews 933:qualitative methodology 625:nominal group technique 9402:Social constructionism 9060:Unitarian Universalism 7864:Observational learning 7592:In-group and out-group 7532:False consensus effect 7211:Suppression of dissent 7109:Moral entrepreneurship 7079:Ideological repression 7067:Historical revisionism 6603:Collective unconscious 6384:Berg, Bruce L., 2009, 6143:"What is "Education"?" 6141:Chazan, Barry (2022). 5914:10.4103/aca.ACA_248_18 4876:Lee, Allen S. (1991). 4710:The Qualitative Report 3906:Lakatos, Imre (1978). 3238:10.1136/eb-2017-102699 3225:Evidence Based Nursing 3029:Cooper, Barry (2012). 2930:10.1093/intqhc/8.5.499 2380:. Progress Publishers. 1700:classical conditioning 1686:primarily in terms of 1597:inferential statistics 1593:descriptive statistics 1549:and proceed by taking 1503:reflective equilibrium 1191: 1052:Transcendental methods 1012:mixed-methods research 953:positive psychologists 695:project-based learning 679:descriptive statistics 629:mixed-methods research 355:Inferential statistics 301:Descriptive statistics 248:Human subject research 8951:Chinese folk religion 7651:Political correctness 7646:Pluralistic ignorance 7335:Identity (philosophy) 7161:Religious persecution 7144:Psychological warfare 7124:Political engineering 6975:Argumentum ad populum 6833:Collective narcissism 6811:Attitude polarization 6398:Creswell, J. (2003). 6391:Creswell, J. (1998). 6357:"Euclidean algorithm" 6039:10.4135/9781446219454 5698:"What is Pragmatism?" 5538:"Thought Experiments" 5438:10536/DRO/DU:30061043 4385:10.1515/jlt-2016-0003 4186:Philosophy of Science 4141:Dogan, Aysel (2005). 4118:10.1093/analys/anr014 4008:Malik, Saira (2017). 3378:10.7748/nr.2018.e1466 3329:10.4324/9781315410098 2978:Qualitative Sociology 2680:"Realism v. Idealism" 2413:10.4314/tp.v2i1.59969 2170:. SAGE Publications. 1786:Political methodology 1751:solution of a problem 1645:as well as fostering 1322:Structured interviews 1186: 949:Large Hadron Collider 844:hypothetico-deductive 836:quantitative approach 758:philosophy of science 139:Philosophical schools 9315:Naturalism (Western) 9310:Naturalism (Chinese) 9222:Renaissance humanism 7778:Conceptual framework 7743:System justification 7582:Hysterical contagion 7166:Religious uniformity 7149:Religious conversion 7005:Cognitive dissonance 6903:Selective perception 6754:Theory of everything 6724:Primal world beliefs 6709:Philosophical theory 6469:New York: Routledge. 6446:Educational Research 5832:10.5951/MT.61.3.0287 5485:Parker-Ryan, Sally. 5210:"Geometrical Method" 5208:Goldenbaum, Ursula. 5132:Daly, Chris (2015). 4894:10.1287/orsc.2.4.342 4882:Organization Science 3909:Philosophical papers 3721:Kerr, Keith (2007). 2751:10.1057/ejis.2011.54 2427:Kara, Helen (2015). 1902:10.2139/ssrn.1373976 1734:. In the context of 1401:critical methodology 911:but about what they 848:qualitative research 804:that comes with it. 577:qualitative research 464:Reference management 414:Scientific modelling 156:Critical rationalism 8728:Christian democracy 7691:Social facilitation 7587:Information cascade 7522:Emotional contagion 7460:Collective behavior 7422:Symbolic boundaries 7276:Cultural psychology 7020:Cultural dissonance 6893:Observer-expectancy 6888:Observational error 6873:In-group favoritism 6618:Conventional wisdom 6253:Kimble, Gregory A. 5670:McDermid, Douglas. 4970:. Broadview Press. 4644:Qualitative Inquiry 4100:Okasha, S. (2011). 3978:"Scientific Method" 3947:"scientific method" 3413:. pp. 79–100. 1755:Euclidean algorithm 1661:that promote their 1499:thought experiments 1476:analytic philosophy 1472:conceptual analysis 1459:deductive reasoning 1439:measuring equipment 1171:In different fields 1074:scientific progress 1036:inductive reasoning 732:As study of methods 444:Argument technology 9426:Post-structuralism 8180:natural philosophy 7562:Group polarization 7547:Group cohesiveness 7196:Social engineering 7094:Media manipulation 7015:Crowd manipulation 7000:Circular reporting 6918:Clever Hans effect 6898:Selective exposure 6361:www.britannica.com 6336:www.britannica.com 6284:www.britannica.com 6259:www.britannica.com 6230:www.britannica.com 6121:www.britannica.com 5575:. Brill: 165–191. 5563:Goffi, Jean-Yves; 5516:www.britannica.com 5465:www.britannica.com 5357:10.1111/meta.12158 3951:www.britannica.com 2958:. OECD Publishing. 1801:Survey methodology 1680:association theory 1609:standard deviation 1523:empirical evidence 1519:cognitive sciences 1192: 977:in-depth interview 915:or how to perform 747:hypothesis testing 687:radiocarbon dating 438:Tools and software 382:Secondary research 306:Discourse analysis 9462: 9461: 9458: 9457: 9454: 9453: 9436:Transcendentalism 9392:Neo-scholasticism 9373:Neopythagoreanism 8823:Industrialisation 8763:Constitutionalism 8643: 8642: 8639: 8638: 8461:political freedom 7978:mind–body problem 7771:tacit assumptions 7723:Spontaneous order 7713:Social psychology 7666:Self-organization 7010:Critical thinking 6772: 6771: 6739:School of thought 6628:Cultural movement 6608:Conceptual system 6255:"Learning theory" 6211:978-0-8204-7858-6 6164:978-3-030-83925-3 6086:978-1-135-71682-0 5969:978-3-030-45799-0 5793:978-0-19-993531-4 5247:978-0-521-83620-3 5155:978-1-137-34455-7 5115:978-0-19-966877-9 5004:978-0-19-184724-0 4977:978-1-55111-934-2 4690:978-3-0356-0735-2 4599:Ryan, J. (2015). 4568:978-1-119-17138-6 4511:978-1-139-07679-1 4054:978-84-9745-530-5 3892:978-1-4128-3470-4 3882:Sociological Work 3865:978-0-86091-646-8 3792:978-0-203-87530-8 3765:978-1-107-54736-0 3707:978-1-351-72286-5 3680:978-5-01-002582-3 3653:978-1-4128-4383-6 3505:978-5-01-002582-3 3338:978-1-138-82575-8 3167:978-1-934831-24-3 3122:978-1-4129-7266-6 3042:978-1-4411-0063-4 3035:. A&C Black. 2876:978-0-521-80365-6 2629:978-0-226-45814-4 2511:978-3-319-64950-4 2440:978-1-4473-1627-5 2337:978-1-4739-0445-3 2301:978-1-4462-1012-3 2177:978-1-4833-2149-3 1993:978-1-4462-9062-0 1961:978-1-4462-9062-0 1842:978-1-4462-9062-0 1791:Scientific method 1676:Learning theories 1639:aims of education 1551:inferential steps 1515:social psychology 1488:ordinary language 1437:obtained through 1435:experimental data 1427:metaphilosophical 1220:scientific method 1136:Kerry Chamberlain 897:language teaching 770:research question 646:interdisciplinary 593:scientific method 533: 532: 499:Philosophy portal 407:Systematic review 392:Literature review 350:Historical method 333:Social experiment 268:Scientific method 253:Narrative inquiry 104:Interdisciplinary 98:Research strategy 69:Research question 64:Research proposal 9482: 9124:New Confucianism 8998:Korean shamanism 8968:Ethnic religions 8898:Social democracy 8773:Environmentalism 8753:Communitarianism 8718:Authoritarianism 8660: 8659: 8649: 8648: 8279:Codes of conduct 7930:World disclosure 7918:consensus theory 7686:Social exclusion 7492:Crowd psychology 7487:Consensus theory 7450:Bandwagon effect 7387:Rites of passage 7201:Social influence 7134:Propaganda model 7099:Media regulation 6928:wishful thinking 6878:Magical thinking 6789: 6788: 6778: 6777: 6641:World folk-epics 6576: 6575: 6561: 6554: 6547: 6538: 6537: 6514: 6504: 6494: 6372: 6371: 6369: 6367: 6353: 6347: 6346: 6344: 6342: 6328: 6322: 6321: 6319: 6317: 6301: 6295: 6294: 6292: 6290: 6280:"Thomas S. Kuhn" 6276: 6270: 6269: 6267: 6265: 6250: 6241: 6240: 6238: 6236: 6222: 6216: 6215: 6195: 6189: 6188: 6186: 6184: 6138: 6132: 6131: 6129: 6127: 6112: 6091: 6090: 6070: 6053: 6052: 6024: 6015: 6014: 6012: 5988: 5982: 5981: 5943: 5937: 5936: 5926: 5916: 5892: 5886: 5885: 5875: 5869: 5868: 5858: 5852: 5851: 5811: 5805: 5804: 5802: 5800: 5767: 5761: 5760: 5758: 5756: 5740: 5734: 5733: 5693: 5687: 5686: 5684: 5682: 5667: 5661: 5660: 5636: 5630: 5629: 5627: 5625: 5609: 5603: 5602: 5560: 5554: 5553: 5551: 5549: 5533: 5527: 5526: 5524: 5522: 5508: 5502: 5501: 5499: 5497: 5482: 5476: 5475: 5473: 5471: 5457: 5451: 5450: 5440: 5408: 5402: 5401: 5391: 5385: 5384: 5351:(4/5): 555–563. 5336: 5330: 5329: 5311: 5287: 5278: 5277: 5275: 5273: 5258: 5252: 5251: 5231: 5225: 5224: 5222: 5220: 5205: 5199: 5198: 5166: 5160: 5159: 5129: 5120: 5119: 5091: 5085: 5084: 5044: 5038: 5037: 5035: 5033: 5018: 5009: 5008: 4988: 4982: 4981: 4961: 4955: 4954: 4944: 4931: 4930: 4920: 4914: 4913: 4873: 4864: 4863: 4853: 4847: 4846: 4836: 4830: 4829: 4789: 4783: 4782: 4764: 4754: 4730: 4724: 4723: 4721: 4701: 4695: 4694: 4680:Sensing the City 4674: 4668: 4667: 4635: 4629: 4628: 4611:(5): 1001–1013. 4596: 4590: 4589: 4579: 4573: 4572: 4544: 4538: 4537: 4531: 4523: 4495: 4489: 4488: 4478: 4438: 4432: 4431: 4429: 4427: 4411: 4405: 4404: 4364: 4358: 4357: 4355: 4353: 4339: 4333: 4332: 4330: 4328: 4322:Oxford Reference 4314: 4308: 4307: 4305: 4303: 4287: 4278: 4277: 4275: 4273: 4261:DiFate, Victor. 4258: 4249: 4248: 4216: 4210: 4209: 4177: 4171: 4170: 4138: 4132: 4131: 4129: 4097: 4086: 4085: 4083: 4081: 4065: 4059: 4058: 4038: 4032: 4031: 4029: 4005: 3994: 3993: 3991: 3989: 3973: 3962: 3961: 3959: 3957: 3943: 3932: 3931: 3903: 3897: 3896: 3876: 3870: 3869: 3849: 3843: 3842: 3806: 3797: 3796: 3776: 3770: 3769: 3749: 3732: 3731: 3729: 3718: 3712: 3711: 3691: 3685: 3684: 3664: 3658: 3657: 3637: 3631: 3630: 3620: 3614: 3613: 3603: 3597: 3596: 3586: 3580: 3579: 3551: 3545: 3544: 3516: 3510: 3509: 3489: 3480: 3479: 3439: 3433: 3432: 3404: 3398: 3397: 3366:Nurse Researcher 3363: 3354: 3343: 3342: 3314: 3308: 3307: 3297: 3265: 3259: 3258: 3240: 3216: 3210: 3209: 3181: 3172: 3171: 3159: 3141: 3132: 3131: 3130: 3129: 3096: 3090: 3089: 3061: 3055: 3054: 3026: 3020: 3019: 3009: 2969: 2960: 2959: 2949: 2943: 2942: 2932: 2908: 2881: 2880: 2860: 2854: 2853: 2843: 2819: 2813: 2812: 2772: 2763: 2762: 2730: 2724: 2723: 2690:(237): 295–312. 2675: 2669: 2668: 2640: 2634: 2633: 2613: 2607: 2606: 2604: 2602: 2586: 2575: 2574: 2564: 2546: 2522: 2516: 2515: 2493: 2487: 2486: 2476: 2453: 2452: 2424: 2418: 2417: 2415: 2391: 2382: 2381: 2371: 2342: 2341: 2319: 2306: 2305: 2285: 2228: 2227: 2207: 2201: 2188: 2182: 2181: 2161: 2148: 2147: 2127: 2106: 2105: 2095: 2084: 2083: 2073: 2044: 2043: 2033: 2020: 2019: 2009: 1998: 1997: 1975: 1966: 1965: 1943: 1906: 1905: 1889: 1876: 1875: 1873: 1871: 1856: 1847: 1846: 1824: 1747:computer science 1718:Related concepts 1651:character traits 1631:teaching methods 1533:In the field of 1455:first principles 1314:closed questions 1218:) is called the 1196:natural sciences 1179:Natural sciences 1160:Howard S. Becker 945:natural sciences 743:research designs 581:natural sciences 539:is the study of 525: 518: 511: 471:Science software 370:Cultural mapping 338:Quasi-experiment 328:Field experiment 296:Content analysis 191:Critical realism 109:Multimethodology 49: 26: 25: 9490: 9489: 9485: 9484: 9483: 9481: 9480: 9479: 9465: 9464: 9463: 9450: 9281:Megarian school 9232:Illuminationism 9208:New historicism 9184:Foundationalism 9169:Eretrian school 9129:Critical theory 9090:Aristotelianism 9085:Agriculturalism 9075: 9069: 9003:Modern paganism 8917: 8828:Intellectualism 8702: 8696: 8654: 8635: 8483:Meaning of life 8388:unclean animals 8245:Aesthetic taste 8231: 8187:Problem of evil 8129:National mythoi 7934: 7752: 7748:Viral phenomena 7738:Swarm behaviour 7681:Social emotions 7676:Social behavior 7656:Pseudoconsensus 7607:Majoritarianism 7507:Deindividuation 7445:Abilene paradox 7431: 7367:Myth and ritual 7225: 7206:Social progress 7181:Self-censorship 7057:Excommunication 6980:Attitude change 6957: 6951: 6783: 6768: 6719:Presuppositions 6581: 6570: 6565: 6521: 6381: 6379:Further reading 6376: 6375: 6365: 6363: 6355: 6354: 6350: 6340: 6338: 6330: 6329: 6325: 6315: 6313: 6302: 6298: 6288: 6286: 6278: 6277: 6273: 6263: 6261: 6251: 6244: 6234: 6232: 6226:"Herbartianism" 6224: 6223: 6219: 6212: 6196: 6192: 6182: 6180: 6165: 6139: 6135: 6125: 6123: 6115:Peel, Edwin A. 6113: 6094: 6087: 6071: 6056: 6049: 6025: 6018: 6010:10.18438/B8FW2H 5989: 5985: 5970: 5944: 5940: 5893: 5889: 5876: 5872: 5859: 5855: 5812: 5808: 5798: 5796: 5794: 5768: 5764: 5754: 5752: 5741: 5737: 5714:10.2307/2011902 5708:(16): 421–427. 5694: 5690: 5680: 5678: 5668: 5664: 5637: 5633: 5623: 5621: 5610: 5606: 5591: 5561: 5557: 5547: 5545: 5534: 5530: 5520: 5518: 5510: 5509: 5505: 5495: 5493: 5483: 5479: 5469: 5467: 5459: 5458: 5454: 5409: 5405: 5392: 5388: 5337: 5333: 5288: 5281: 5271: 5269: 5259: 5255: 5248: 5232: 5228: 5218: 5216: 5206: 5202: 5167: 5163: 5156: 5130: 5123: 5116: 5092: 5088: 5045: 5041: 5031: 5029: 5019: 5012: 5005: 4994:1. Introduction 4989: 4985: 4978: 4962: 4958: 4945: 4934: 4921: 4917: 4874: 4867: 4855: 4854: 4850: 4838: 4837: 4833: 4790: 4786: 4762:1854/LU-5877565 4731: 4727: 4702: 4698: 4691: 4675: 4671: 4636: 4632: 4597: 4593: 4580: 4576: 4569: 4545: 4541: 4525: 4524: 4512: 4496: 4492: 4439: 4435: 4425: 4423: 4412: 4408: 4365: 4361: 4351: 4349: 4341: 4340: 4336: 4326: 4324: 4316: 4315: 4311: 4301: 4299: 4288: 4281: 4271: 4269: 4259: 4252: 4217: 4213: 4178: 4174: 4139: 4135: 4098: 4089: 4079: 4077: 4066: 4062: 4055: 4039: 4035: 4006: 3997: 3987: 3985: 3974: 3965: 3955: 3953: 3945: 3944: 3935: 3920: 3904: 3900: 3893: 3877: 3873: 3866: 3850: 3846: 3807: 3800: 3793: 3777: 3773: 3766: 3750: 3735: 3727: 3719: 3715: 3708: 3692: 3688: 3681: 3665: 3661: 3654: 3638: 3634: 3621: 3617: 3604: 3600: 3587: 3583: 3552: 3548: 3517: 3513: 3506: 3490: 3483: 3440: 3436: 3429: 3405: 3401: 3361: 3355: 3346: 3339: 3315: 3311: 3280:(S2): 107–131. 3266: 3262: 3217: 3213: 3198:10.2307/1055084 3182: 3175: 3168: 3142: 3135: 3127: 3125: 3123: 3097: 3093: 3078: 3062: 3058: 3043: 3027: 3023: 2970: 2963: 2950: 2946: 2909: 2884: 2877: 2861: 2857: 2820: 2816: 2773: 2766: 2731: 2727: 2676: 2672: 2657:10.2307/2178175 2641: 2637: 2630: 2614: 2610: 2600: 2598: 2587: 2578: 2523: 2519: 2512: 2494: 2490: 2477: 2456: 2441: 2425: 2421: 2392: 2385: 2372: 2345: 2338: 2320: 2309: 2302: 2286: 2231: 2208: 2204: 2199:Merriam–Webster 2189: 2185: 2178: 2162: 2151: 2128: 2109: 2096: 2087: 2074: 2047: 2034: 2023: 2010: 2001: 1994: 1976: 1969: 1962: 1944: 1909: 1890: 1879: 1869: 1867: 1866:. HarperCollins 1858: 1857: 1850: 1843: 1825: 1814: 1809: 1771: 1720: 1623: 1617: 1569: 1563: 1531: 1423: 1417: 1393:interpretivists 1345:demographically 1341:market research 1306:social sciences 1302: 1300:Social sciences 1290:null hypothesis 1265:ancient science 1253:experimentation 1181: 1173: 1145:Paul Feyerabend 1113:C. Wright Mills 1104: 1069: 1040:formal sciences 1024: 941: 925: 888: 872:incommensurable 864:critical theory 778: 734: 681:is a method of 671: 662:data collection 654: 608:social sciences 557:collecting data 529: 493: 492: 439: 431: 430: 377:Phenomenography 316:Autoethnography 281: 273: 272: 233:Grounded theory 228:Critical theory 223:Art methodology 218:Action research 213: 203: 202: 141: 131: 130: 99: 91: 90: 59: 57:Research design 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 9488: 9478: 9477: 9460: 9459: 9456: 9455: 9452: 9451: 9449: 9448: 9443: 9441:Utilitarianism 9438: 9433: 9428: 9419: 9414: 9409: 9404: 9399: 9394: 9385: 9380: 9375: 9369:Pythagoreanism 9366: 9361: 9356: 9351: 9346: 9341: 9332: 9327: 9322: 9317: 9312: 9307: 9302: 9297: 9292: 9283: 9278: 9273: 9268: 9263: 9258: 9256:Neo-Kantianism 9249: 9244: 9239: 9234: 9229: 9224: 9215: 9210: 9201: 9196: 9191: 9186: 9181: 9176: 9174:Existentialism 9171: 9166: 9161: 9156: 9151: 9146: 9141: 9136: 9131: 9126: 9117: 9112: 9107: 9102: 9097: 9092: 9087: 9081: 9079: 9071: 9070: 9068: 9067: 9065:Zoroastrianism 9062: 9057: 9052: 9047: 9042: 9037: 9032: 9027: 9010: 9005: 9000: 8995: 8990: 8985: 8980: 8975: 8970: 8965: 8964: 8963: 8953: 8948: 8943: 8938: 8933: 8927: 8925: 8919: 8918: 8916: 8915: 8910: 8908:Utilitarianism 8905: 8900: 8895: 8890: 8885: 8880: 8875: 8870: 8865: 8860: 8855: 8850: 8845: 8843:Libertarianism 8840: 8835: 8830: 8825: 8820: 8815: 8810: 8808:Green politics 8805: 8800: 8798:Fundamentalism 8795: 8790: 8785: 8780: 8775: 8770: 8765: 8760: 8755: 8750: 8745: 8740: 8735: 8730: 8725: 8720: 8715: 8709: 8707: 8698: 8697: 8695: 8694: 8689: 8684: 8679: 8674: 8668: 8666: 8656: 8655: 8645: 8644: 8641: 8640: 8637: 8636: 8634: 8633: 8628: 8623: 8614: 8612:Unspoken rules 8609: 8604: 8599: 8594: 8589: 8584: 8579: 8574: 8569: 8564: 8559: 8558: 8557: 8547: 8542: 8537: 8532: 8527: 8522: 8517: 8512: 8507: 8502: 8497: 8496: 8495: 8485: 8480: 8475: 8470: 8465: 8464: 8463: 8453: 8452: 8451: 8446: 8436: 8431: 8426: 8421: 8416: 8411: 8406: 8397: 8392: 8391: 8390: 8380: 8375: 8370: 8365: 8360: 8355: 8354: 8353: 8343: 8338: 8337: 8336: 8331: 8321: 8316: 8311: 8306: 8301: 8296: 8291: 8286: 8281: 8276: 8271: 8266: 8261: 8252: 8247: 8241: 8239: 8233: 8232: 8230: 8229: 8224: 8219: 8214: 8209: 8204: 8199: 8194: 8189: 8184: 8183: 8182: 8172: 8171: 8170: 8160: 8159: 8158: 8148: 8143: 8142: 8141: 8131: 8126: 8125: 8124: 8114: 8109: 8104: 8099: 8094: 8089: 8084: 8079: 8074: 8069: 8064: 8059: 8054: 8045: 8040: 8035: 8026: 8021: 8016: 8015: 8014: 8004: 7999: 7998: 7997: 7987: 7982: 7981: 7980: 7970: 7965: 7960: 7955: 7950: 7944: 7942: 7936: 7935: 7933: 7932: 7927: 7926: 7925: 7920: 7910: 7909: 7908: 7898: 7893: 7888: 7887: 7886: 7881: 7871: 7866: 7861: 7856: 7851: 7849:Meta-knowledge 7846: 7841: 7839:Meaning-making 7836: 7831: 7826: 7825: 7824: 7814: 7809: 7808: 7807: 7802: 7792: 7791: 7790: 7780: 7775: 7774: 7773: 7762: 7760: 7754: 7753: 7751: 7750: 7745: 7740: 7735: 7730: 7725: 7720: 7715: 7710: 7705: 7700: 7699: 7698: 7688: 7683: 7678: 7673: 7668: 7663: 7658: 7653: 7648: 7643: 7638: 7633: 7628: 7626:Milieu control 7623: 7618: 7613: 7604: 7599: 7597:Invisible hand 7594: 7589: 7584: 7579: 7574: 7569: 7564: 7559: 7554: 7552:Group dynamics 7549: 7544: 7539: 7534: 7529: 7524: 7519: 7514: 7509: 7504: 7499: 7494: 7489: 7484: 7479: 7474: 7469: 7468: 7467: 7457: 7452: 7447: 7441: 7439: 7433: 7432: 7430: 7429: 7424: 7419: 7414: 7401: 7396: 7395: 7394: 7384: 7379: 7374: 7369: 7364: 7359: 7354: 7349: 7344: 7343: 7342: 7332: 7331: 7330: 7320: 7315: 7310: 7301: 7296: 7283: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7263: 7258: 7253: 7252: 7251: 7246: 7235: 7233: 7227: 7226: 7224: 7223: 7218: 7213: 7208: 7203: 7198: 7193: 7191:Social control 7188: 7183: 7178: 7173: 7168: 7163: 7158: 7157: 7156: 7146: 7141: 7136: 7131: 7126: 7121: 7119:Polite fiction 7116: 7111: 7106: 7101: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7084:Indoctrination 7081: 7076: 7075: 7074: 7064: 7059: 7054: 7049: 7048: 7047: 7042: 7032: 7027: 7022: 7017: 7012: 7007: 7002: 6997: 6992: 6987: 6982: 6977: 6972: 6967: 6961: 6959: 6953: 6952: 6950: 6949: 6948: 6947: 6937: 6932: 6931: 6930: 6925: 6923:placebo effect 6920: 6910: 6908:Self-deception 6905: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6885: 6880: 6875: 6870: 6865: 6860: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6829: 6828: 6818: 6813: 6808: 6803: 6797: 6795: 6785: 6784: 6774: 6773: 6770: 6769: 6767: 6766: 6761: 6756: 6751: 6749:Social reality 6746: 6741: 6736: 6731: 6729:Reality tunnel 6726: 6721: 6716: 6711: 6706: 6701: 6696: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6672: 6667: 6662: 6657: 6652: 6643: 6637:National epics 6630: 6625: 6620: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6596: 6586: 6583: 6582: 6572: 6571: 6564: 6563: 6556: 6549: 6541: 6535: 6534: 6531:Researcherbook 6528: 6525:Freedictionary 6520: 6519:External links 6517: 6516: 6515: 6470: 6463: 6456: 6449: 6442: 6433: 6430: 6419: 6412: 6403: 6396: 6389: 6380: 6377: 6374: 6373: 6348: 6323: 6296: 6271: 6242: 6217: 6210: 6204:. Peter Lang. 6190: 6163: 6133: 6092: 6085: 6054: 6047: 6016: 5983: 5968: 5938: 5907:(3): 297–301. 5887: 5870: 5853: 5826:(3): 287–295. 5806: 5792: 5762: 5735: 5688: 5662: 5651:(3): 373–387. 5631: 5604: 5589: 5555: 5528: 5503: 5477: 5452: 5423:(3): 231–258. 5403: 5386: 5345:Metaphilosophy 5331: 5302:(3): 915–923. 5279: 5253: 5246: 5226: 5200: 5181:(2): 302–312. 5161: 5154: 5121: 5114: 5086: 5059:(3): 447–463. 5039: 5010: 5003: 4983: 4976: 4956: 4932: 4915: 4888:(4): 342–365. 4865: 4848: 4831: 4804:(4): 289–300. 4784: 4725: 4696: 4689: 4669: 4650:(2): 136–143. 4630: 4591: 4574: 4567: 4539: 4510: 4504:. Cambridge . 4490: 4453:(4): 212–218. 4433: 4406: 4359: 4334: 4309: 4292:"Confirmation" 4279: 4250: 4231:(3): 395–404. 4211: 4198:10.1086/289886 4192:(4): 561–579. 4172: 4153:(2): 243–259. 4133: 4112:(2): 222–232. 4087: 4060: 4053: 4033: 3995: 3963: 3933: 3918: 3898: 3891: 3871: 3864: 3855:Against Method 3844: 3817:(3): 285–296. 3798: 3791: 3771: 3764: 3733: 3713: 3706: 3686: 3679: 3659: 3652: 3632: 3615: 3598: 3581: 3562:(3): 316–348. 3546: 3527:(2): 117–138. 3511: 3504: 3481: 3454:(5): 572–575. 3434: 3427: 3399: 3344: 3337: 3309: 3260: 3211: 3192:(3): 173–184. 3173: 3166: 3133: 3121: 3091: 3076: 3056: 3041: 3021: 2984:(2): 139–160. 2961: 2944: 2923:(5): 499–504. 2913:"Focus Groups" 2882: 2875: 2855: 2834:(4): 340–359. 2814: 2787:(3): 547–555. 2764: 2745:(2): 135–146. 2725: 2670: 2651:(3): 284–303. 2635: 2628: 2608: 2576: 2517: 2510: 2488: 2454: 2439: 2419: 2383: 2343: 2336: 2307: 2300: 2229: 2218:(8): 749–764. 2202: 2183: 2176: 2149: 2138:(2): 159–168. 2107: 2085: 2045: 2021: 1999: 1992: 1967: 1960: 1907: 1877: 1848: 1841: 1811: 1810: 1808: 1805: 1804: 1803: 1798: 1793: 1788: 1783: 1778: 1770: 1767: 1719: 1716: 1619:Main article: 1616: 1613: 1565:Main article: 1562: 1559: 1530: 1527: 1521:for gathering 1419:Main article: 1416: 1413: 1354:cross-cultural 1318:open questions 1301: 1298: 1269:modern science 1189:DNA sequencing 1180: 1177: 1172: 1169: 1149:Against Method 1103: 1100: 1068: 1065: 1054:are common in 1023: 1020: 940: 937: 924: 921: 887: 884: 785:argues in his 777: 774: 733: 730: 670: 667: 653: 650: 531: 530: 528: 527: 520: 513: 505: 502: 501: 495: 494: 491: 490: 489: 488: 483: 478: 468: 467: 466: 461: 451: 446: 440: 437: 436: 433: 432: 429: 428: 423: 422: 421: 411: 410: 409: 404: 402:Scoping review 399: 394: 389: 379: 374: 373: 372: 362: 357: 352: 347: 345:Field research 342: 341: 340: 335: 330: 320: 319: 318: 308: 303: 298: 293: 288: 282: 279: 278: 275: 274: 271: 270: 265: 260: 255: 250: 245: 243:Historiography 240: 235: 230: 225: 220: 214: 209: 208: 205: 204: 201: 200: 199: 198: 196:Subtle realism 193: 183: 178: 176:Postpositivism 173: 168: 163: 158: 153: 151:Constructivism 148: 146:Antipositivism 142: 137: 136: 133: 132: 129: 128: 123: 122: 121: 111: 106: 100: 97: 96: 93: 92: 89: 88: 87: 86: 81: 71: 66: 60: 55: 54: 51: 50: 42: 41: 35: 34: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9487: 9476: 9473: 9472: 9470: 9447: 9444: 9442: 9439: 9437: 9434: 9432: 9429: 9427: 9423: 9422:Structuralism 9420: 9418: 9415: 9413: 9410: 9408: 9405: 9403: 9400: 9398: 9395: 9393: 9389: 9388:Scholasticism 9386: 9384: 9381: 9379: 9376: 9374: 9370: 9367: 9365: 9362: 9360: 9357: 9355: 9352: 9350: 9347: 9345: 9342: 9340: 9336: 9333: 9331: 9330:Phenomenology 9328: 9326: 9323: 9321: 9318: 9316: 9313: 9311: 9308: 9306: 9303: 9301: 9298: 9296: 9293: 9291: 9290:Postmodernism 9287: 9284: 9282: 9279: 9277: 9274: 9272: 9269: 9267: 9264: 9262: 9259: 9257: 9253: 9250: 9248: 9245: 9243: 9242:Individualism 9240: 9238: 9237:ʿIlm al-Kalām 9235: 9233: 9230: 9228: 9225: 9223: 9219: 9216: 9214: 9211: 9209: 9205: 9202: 9200: 9197: 9195: 9192: 9190: 9187: 9185: 9182: 9180: 9177: 9175: 9172: 9170: 9167: 9165: 9162: 9160: 9157: 9155: 9152: 9150: 9147: 9145: 9142: 9140: 9137: 9135: 9132: 9130: 9127: 9125: 9121: 9118: 9116: 9113: 9111: 9108: 9106: 9103: 9101: 9098: 9096: 9093: 9091: 9088: 9086: 9083: 9082: 9080: 9078: 9072: 9066: 9063: 9061: 9058: 9056: 9053: 9051: 9048: 9046: 9043: 9041: 9038: 9036: 9033: 9031: 9028: 9026: 9022: 9018: 9014: 9011: 9009: 9006: 9004: 9001: 8999: 8996: 8994: 8991: 8989: 8986: 8984: 8981: 8979: 8976: 8974: 8971: 8969: 8966: 8962: 8959: 8958: 8957: 8954: 8952: 8949: 8947: 8944: 8942: 8939: 8937: 8934: 8932: 8929: 8928: 8926: 8924: 8920: 8914: 8911: 8909: 8906: 8904: 8901: 8899: 8896: 8894: 8891: 8889: 8888:Republicanism 8886: 8884: 8881: 8879: 8876: 8874: 8873:Progressivism 8871: 8869: 8866: 8864: 8861: 8859: 8856: 8854: 8851: 8849: 8846: 8844: 8841: 8839: 8836: 8834: 8831: 8829: 8826: 8824: 8821: 8819: 8818:Individualism 8816: 8814: 8811: 8809: 8806: 8804: 8801: 8799: 8796: 8794: 8791: 8789: 8786: 8784: 8781: 8779: 8776: 8774: 8771: 8769: 8766: 8764: 8761: 8759: 8756: 8754: 8751: 8749: 8746: 8744: 8741: 8739: 8736: 8734: 8731: 8729: 8726: 8724: 8721: 8719: 8716: 8714: 8711: 8710: 8708: 8706: 8699: 8693: 8690: 8688: 8685: 8683: 8680: 8678: 8675: 8673: 8670: 8669: 8667: 8665: 8661: 8657: 8650: 8646: 8632: 8629: 8627: 8624: 8622: 8618: 8615: 8613: 8610: 8608: 8605: 8603: 8600: 8598: 8595: 8593: 8590: 8588: 8585: 8583: 8580: 8578: 8575: 8573: 8570: 8568: 8567:Social stigma 8565: 8563: 8560: 8556: 8553: 8552: 8551: 8548: 8546: 8543: 8541: 8538: 8536: 8533: 8531: 8528: 8526: 8523: 8521: 8518: 8516: 8513: 8511: 8508: 8506: 8503: 8501: 8498: 8494: 8491: 8490: 8489: 8486: 8484: 8481: 8479: 8476: 8474: 8471: 8469: 8466: 8462: 8459: 8458: 8457: 8454: 8450: 8447: 8445: 8444:jurisprudence 8442: 8441: 8440: 8437: 8435: 8432: 8430: 8427: 8425: 8422: 8420: 8417: 8415: 8412: 8410: 8407: 8405: 8401: 8398: 8396: 8393: 8389: 8386: 8385: 8384: 8381: 8379: 8378:Family values 8376: 8374: 8371: 8369: 8366: 8364: 8361: 8359: 8358:Entertainment 8356: 8352: 8349: 8348: 8347: 8344: 8342: 8339: 8335: 8332: 8330: 8327: 8326: 8325: 8322: 8320: 8317: 8315: 8312: 8310: 8307: 8305: 8302: 8300: 8297: 8295: 8292: 8290: 8287: 8285: 8282: 8280: 8277: 8275: 8272: 8270: 8267: 8265: 8262: 8260: 8256: 8253: 8251: 8248: 8246: 8243: 8242: 8240: 8238: 8234: 8228: 8227:Unobservables 8225: 8223: 8220: 8218: 8215: 8213: 8210: 8208: 8205: 8203: 8200: 8198: 8195: 8193: 8190: 8188: 8185: 8181: 8178: 8177: 8176: 8173: 8169: 8166: 8165: 8164: 8161: 8157: 8154: 8153: 8152: 8149: 8147: 8144: 8140: 8139:philosophical 8137: 8136: 8135: 8132: 8130: 8127: 8123: 8120: 8119: 8118: 8115: 8113: 8110: 8108: 8105: 8103: 8100: 8098: 8095: 8093: 8090: 8088: 8085: 8083: 8080: 8078: 8075: 8073: 8070: 8068: 8065: 8063: 8060: 8058: 8055: 8053: 8049: 8046: 8044: 8041: 8039: 8036: 8034: 8030: 8027: 8025: 8022: 8020: 8017: 8013: 8010: 8009: 8008: 8005: 8003: 8002:Creation myth 8000: 7996: 7993: 7992: 7991: 7988: 7986: 7983: 7979: 7976: 7975: 7974: 7973:Consciousness 7971: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7961: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7945: 7943: 7941: 7937: 7931: 7928: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7915: 7914: 7911: 7907: 7904: 7903: 7902: 7899: 7897: 7894: 7892: 7889: 7885: 7882: 7880: 7877: 7876: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7823: 7820: 7819: 7818: 7815: 7813: 7810: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7797: 7796: 7793: 7789: 7786: 7785: 7784: 7781: 7779: 7776: 7772: 7769: 7768: 7767: 7764: 7763: 7761: 7759: 7755: 7749: 7746: 7744: 7741: 7739: 7736: 7734: 7731: 7729: 7726: 7724: 7721: 7719: 7716: 7714: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7701: 7697: 7694: 7693: 7692: 7689: 7687: 7684: 7682: 7679: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7671:Social action 7669: 7667: 7664: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7649: 7647: 7644: 7642: 7641:Peer pressure 7639: 7637: 7634: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7612: 7608: 7605: 7603: 7600: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7580: 7578: 7575: 7573: 7572:Herd behavior 7570: 7568: 7565: 7563: 7560: 7558: 7557:Group emotion 7555: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7520: 7518: 7515: 7513: 7510: 7508: 7505: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7466: 7463: 7462: 7461: 7458: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7448: 7446: 7443: 7442: 7440: 7438: 7434: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7409: 7408:Social status 7405: 7402: 7400: 7397: 7393: 7390: 7389: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7345: 7341: 7338: 7337: 7336: 7333: 7329: 7326: 7325: 7324: 7321: 7319: 7316: 7314: 7311: 7309: 7305: 7302: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7291: 7287: 7284: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7242: 7241: 7240: 7237: 7236: 7234: 7232: 7228: 7222: 7221:Woozle effect 7219: 7217: 7216:Systemic bias 7214: 7212: 7209: 7207: 7204: 7202: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7187: 7186:Social change 7184: 7182: 7179: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7155: 7152: 7151: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7102: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7085: 7082: 7080: 7077: 7073: 7070: 7069: 7068: 7065: 7063: 7062:Fearmongering 7060: 7058: 7055: 7053: 7050: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7037: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7025:Deprogramming 7023: 7021: 7018: 7016: 7013: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6963: 6962: 6960: 6954: 6946: 6943: 6942: 6941: 6938: 6936: 6933: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6915: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6884: 6881: 6879: 6876: 6874: 6871: 6869: 6866: 6864: 6863:Filter bubble 6861: 6859: 6858:Ethnocentrism 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6827: 6824: 6823: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6798: 6796: 6794: 6790: 6786: 6779: 6775: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6732: 6730: 6727: 6725: 6722: 6720: 6717: 6715: 6714:Point of view 6712: 6710: 6707: 6705: 6702: 6700: 6697: 6695: 6692: 6690: 6689:Metanarrative 6687: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6658: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6638: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6591: 6590:Basic beliefs 6588: 6587: 6584: 6580:Related terms 6577: 6573: 6569: 6562: 6557: 6555: 6550: 6548: 6543: 6542: 6539: 6532: 6529: 6526: 6523: 6522: 6512: 6508: 6503: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6484: 6480: 6479:PLOS Medicine 6476: 6471: 6468: 6464: 6461: 6457: 6454: 6450: 6447: 6443: 6440: 6439: 6434: 6431: 6428: 6424: 6420: 6417: 6413: 6410: 6409: 6404: 6401: 6397: 6394: 6390: 6387: 6383: 6382: 6362: 6358: 6352: 6337: 6333: 6327: 6311: 6307: 6300: 6285: 6281: 6275: 6260: 6256: 6249: 6247: 6231: 6227: 6221: 6213: 6207: 6203: 6202: 6194: 6178: 6174: 6170: 6166: 6160: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6144: 6137: 6122: 6118: 6111: 6109: 6107: 6105: 6103: 6101: 6099: 6097: 6088: 6082: 6079:. Routledge. 6078: 6077: 6069: 6067: 6065: 6063: 6061: 6059: 6050: 6048:9781853964534 6044: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6031: 6023: 6021: 6011: 6006: 6002: 5998: 5994: 5987: 5979: 5975: 5971: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5942: 5934: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5915: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5891: 5883: 5882: 5874: 5866: 5865: 5857: 5849: 5845: 5841: 5837: 5833: 5829: 5825: 5821: 5817: 5810: 5795: 5789: 5785: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5766: 5750: 5746: 5739: 5731: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5699: 5692: 5677: 5673: 5666: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5635: 5619: 5615: 5608: 5600: 5596: 5592: 5590:9789004201774 5586: 5582: 5578: 5574: 5570: 5566: 5559: 5543: 5539: 5532: 5517: 5513: 5507: 5492: 5488: 5481: 5466: 5462: 5456: 5448: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5430: 5426: 5422: 5418: 5414: 5407: 5399: 5398: 5390: 5382: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5342: 5335: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5315: 5310: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5286: 5284: 5268: 5264: 5261:Cogan, John. 5257: 5249: 5243: 5239: 5238: 5230: 5215: 5211: 5204: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5165: 5157: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5139: 5135: 5128: 5126: 5117: 5111: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5098: 5090: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5043: 5028: 5024: 5017: 5015: 5006: 5000: 4996: 4995: 4987: 4979: 4973: 4969: 4968: 4960: 4952: 4951: 4943: 4941: 4939: 4937: 4928: 4927: 4919: 4911: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4872: 4870: 4861: 4860: 4852: 4844: 4843: 4835: 4827: 4823: 4819: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4788: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4739:Crime Science 4736: 4729: 4720: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4700: 4692: 4686: 4682: 4681: 4673: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4634: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4595: 4587: 4586: 4578: 4570: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4551: 4543: 4535: 4529: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4507: 4503: 4502: 4494: 4486: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4437: 4421: 4417: 4410: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4363: 4348: 4344: 4338: 4323: 4319: 4313: 4297: 4293: 4286: 4284: 4268: 4264: 4257: 4255: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4215: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4176: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4137: 4128: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4096: 4094: 4092: 4075: 4071: 4064: 4056: 4050: 4046: 4045: 4037: 4028: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4004: 4002: 4000: 3983: 3979: 3972: 3970: 3968: 3952: 3948: 3942: 3940: 3938: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3919:0-521-21644-3 3915: 3911: 3910: 3902: 3894: 3888: 3884: 3883: 3875: 3867: 3861: 3857: 3856: 3848: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3805: 3803: 3794: 3788: 3784: 3783: 3775: 3767: 3761: 3757: 3756: 3748: 3746: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3738: 3726: 3725: 3717: 3709: 3703: 3699: 3698: 3690: 3682: 3676: 3672: 3671: 3663: 3655: 3649: 3645: 3644: 3636: 3628: 3627: 3619: 3611: 3610: 3602: 3594: 3593: 3585: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3550: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3515: 3507: 3501: 3497: 3496: 3488: 3486: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3438: 3430: 3428:9780203793206 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3411: 3403: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3360: 3353: 3351: 3349: 3340: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3321: 3313: 3305: 3301: 3296: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3264: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3239: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3215: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3180: 3178: 3169: 3163: 3158: 3153: 3149: 3148: 3140: 3138: 3124: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3095: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3077:0-585-17889-5 3073: 3069: 3068: 3060: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3038: 3034: 3033: 3025: 3017: 3013: 3008: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2968: 2966: 2957: 2956: 2948: 2940: 2936: 2931: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2907: 2905: 2903: 2901: 2899: 2897: 2895: 2893: 2891: 2889: 2887: 2878: 2872: 2868: 2867: 2859: 2851: 2847: 2842: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2818: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2771: 2769: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2729: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2674: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2639: 2631: 2625: 2621: 2620: 2612: 2596: 2592: 2591:"Thomas Kuhn" 2585: 2583: 2581: 2572: 2568: 2563: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2545: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2521: 2513: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2492: 2484: 2483: 2475: 2473: 2471: 2469: 2467: 2465: 2463: 2461: 2459: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2436: 2432: 2431: 2423: 2414: 2409: 2406:(1): 87–118. 2405: 2401: 2397: 2390: 2388: 2379: 2378: 2370: 2368: 2366: 2364: 2362: 2360: 2358: 2356: 2354: 2352: 2350: 2348: 2339: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2318: 2316: 2314: 2312: 2303: 2297: 2293: 2292: 2284: 2282: 2280: 2278: 2276: 2274: 2272: 2270: 2268: 2266: 2264: 2262: 2260: 2258: 2256: 2254: 2252: 2250: 2248: 2246: 2244: 2242: 2240: 2238: 2236: 2234: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2206: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2187: 2179: 2173: 2169: 2168: 2160: 2158: 2156: 2154: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2126: 2124: 2122: 2120: 2118: 2116: 2114: 2112: 2103: 2102: 2094: 2092: 2090: 2081: 2080: 2072: 2070: 2068: 2066: 2064: 2062: 2060: 2058: 2056: 2054: 2052: 2050: 2041: 2040: 2032: 2030: 2028: 2026: 2017: 2016: 2008: 2006: 2004: 1995: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1974: 1972: 1963: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1942: 1940: 1938: 1936: 1934: 1932: 1930: 1928: 1926: 1924: 1922: 1920: 1918: 1916: 1914: 1912: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1888: 1886: 1884: 1882: 1865: 1861: 1860:"methodology" 1855: 1853: 1844: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1823: 1821: 1819: 1817: 1812: 1802: 1799: 1797: 1794: 1792: 1789: 1787: 1784: 1782: 1779: 1776: 1773: 1772: 1766: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1743: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1732: 1727: 1726: 1715: 1713: 1707: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1672: 1671:Herbartianism 1666: 1664: 1663:understanding 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1622: 1612: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1577:data analysis 1574: 1568: 1558: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1526: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1491: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1460: 1456: 1450: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1422: 1412: 1410: 1409:Sigmund Freud 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1385: 1380: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1365: 1362: 1357: 1355: 1351: 1350:group effects 1346: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1297: 1295: 1291: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1273: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1245: 1242: 1238: 1232: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1190: 1185: 1176: 1168: 1165: 1161: 1156: 1152: 1150: 1146: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1127: 1125: 1121: 1116: 1114: 1110: 1109:Sigmund Freud 1099: 1097: 1091: 1088: 1082: 1079: 1075: 1064: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1032: 1028: 1019: 1015: 1013: 1007: 1005: 1001: 995: 993: 992: 987: 981: 978: 974: 970: 966: 960: 958: 954: 950: 946: 936: 934: 930: 920: 918: 914: 910: 905: 900: 898: 893: 883: 880: 875: 873: 869: 868:postmodernism 865: 861: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 832: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 805: 803: 798: 794: 790: 789: 784: 773: 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Retrieved 1863: 1832: 1744: 1729: 1723: 1721: 1708: 1688:associations 1667: 1624: 1603:such as the 1570: 1532: 1492: 1480:common sense 1451: 1424: 1381: 1372: 1366: 1358: 1349: 1337:Focus groups 1335: 1303: 1274: 1246: 1233: 1193: 1174: 1157: 1153: 1128: 1124:Gilbert Ryle 1117: 1105: 1092: 1083: 1070: 1060:post-Kantian 1033: 1029: 1025: 1016: 1008: 996: 989: 982: 961: 942: 929:quantitative 926: 916: 912: 908: 901: 889: 876: 852:hermeneutics 833: 809:metaphysical 806: 786: 779: 762: 755: 735: 672: 655: 633: 621:focus groups 605: 585:measurements 573:quantitative 570: 536: 534: 238:Hermeneutics 210: 126:Quantitative 9475:Methodology 9397:Sentientism 9378:Rationalism 9325:Peripatetic 9305:Natural law 9276:Materialism 9204:Historicism 9194:Hegelianism 9144:Determinism 9021:Agnosticism 8893:Sentientism 8863:Nationalism 8813:Imperialism 8743:Communalism 8738:Colonialism 8692:Weltschmerz 8672:Misanthropy 8572:Stewardship 8500:Obligations 8404:Culpability 8395:Golden Rule 8289:Common good 8207:Supernature 8163:Otherworlds 8122:comparative 8092:Information 8087:Incarnation 8024:Eschatology 7958:Anima mundi 7940:Metaphysics 7859:Observation 7854:Methodology 7636:Moral panic 7616:Mass action 7512:Doublethink 7455:Collectives 7377:Pilgrimages 7266:Coronations 7171:Revolutions 7139:Proselytism 7072:negationism 6958:maintenance 6806:Attentional 6665:Life stance 6633:Epic poetry 6623:Conventions 6485:(8): e124. 6332:"Algorithm" 5681:22 February 5624:28 February 5521:28 February 5496:28 February 5470:27 February 5272:27 February 5219:17 February 5032:22 February 2197:, entry at 1870:20 February 1696:Behaviorism 1692:blank slate 1659:experiences 1579:is used to 1543:definitions 1535:mathematics 1529:Mathematics 1507:Pragmatists 1468:appearances 1384:Positivists 1369:observation 1261:astronomers 1249:observation 1164:Alan Bryman 1072:factors of 991:sample size 973:focus group 913:ought to do 909:actually do 813:ontological 783:Thomas Kuhn 699:educational 652:Definitions 597:observation 589:predictions 537:methodology 311:Ethnography 211:Methodology 166:Fallibilism 114:Qualitative 84:Referencing 9364:Pyrrhonism 9354:Pragmatism 9349:Positivism 9252:Kantianism 9159:Empiricism 9077:philosophy 9074:Schools of 9017:Irreligion 9013:Secularity 8946:Cheondoism 8878:Radicalism 8858:Monarchism 8853:Militarism 8838:Liberalism 8783:Fanaticism 8723:Capitalism 8705:ideologies 8703:political 8631:Wrongdoing 8535:Repentance 8525:Punishment 8520:Principles 8515:Praxeology 8304:Creativity 8294:Conscience 8255:Almsgiving 8168:axes mundi 8052:Nonfiction 8029:Everything 7891:Revelation 7879:fallacious 7869:Perception 7805:scientific 7728:Status quo 7567:Groupshift 7482:Conformity 7437:Groupthink 7352:Liminality 7286:Employment 7261:Ceremonies 7129:Propaganda 7114:Persuasion 6990:Censorship 6956:Change and 6935:Status quo 6843:Congruence 6117:"pedagogy" 5884:. Metzler. 5867:. Metzler. 5548:29 October 4263:"Evidence" 3629:. Metzler. 3612:. Metzler. 3595:. Metzler. 3128:2020-10-28 2684:Philosophy 2104:. Metzler. 2042:. Metzler. 1807:References 1567:Statistics 1561:Statistics 1431:philosophy 1415:Philosophy 1241:experiment 1237:hypothesis 1212:geoscience 1140:creativity 1067:Importance 1042:, such as 965:experience 919:research. 856:pragmatism 802:world view 766:conceptual 641:creativity 623:, and the 617:interviews 601:hypothesis 486:Statistics 481:Simulation 419:Simulation 360:Interviews 323:Experiment 291:Case study 263:Pragmatism 181:Pragmatism 171:Positivism 161:Empiricism 9412:Spinozism 9344:Pluralism 9335:Platonism 9286:Modernism 9271:Logicians 9139:Cyrenaics 9100:Averroism 9040:Spiritism 9008:Rastafari 8923:Religions 8903:Socialism 8883:Reformism 8848:Masculism 8803:Globalism 8778:Extremism 8748:Communism 8713:Anarchism 8687:Reclusion 8682:Pessimism 8664:Attitudes 8587:Suffering 8550:Sexuality 8540:Reverence 8530:Qualities 8449:religious 8429:Judgement 8409:Happiness 8373:Étiquette 8363:Eroticism 8351:Aesthetic 8334:religious 8329:emotional 8319:Economics 8250:Aesthetic 8212:Teleology 8156:political 8117:Mythology 8082:Illusions 8057:Free will 8043:Existence 8038:Evolution 8012:existence 7995:religious 7990:Cosmology 7985:Cosmogony 7963:Causality 7953:Afterlife 7901:Tradition 7896:Testimony 7874:Reasoning 7834:Intuition 7800:anecdotal 7758:Knowledge 7733:Stigmergy 7718:Sociology 7517:Emergence 7256:Calendars 7052:Euphemism 7040:religious 7035:Education 6868:Homophily 6821:Cognitive 6670:Lifestyle 6568:Worldview 6366:21 August 6341:21 August 6316:21 August 6289:21 August 6264:20 August 6235:20 August 6173:239896844 6126:15 August 5978:219519804 5840:0025-5769 5722:0160-9335 5599:260640180 5447:0031-806X 5381:148551744 5365:0026-1068 5318:1573-0964 5195:0967-2559 5081:171569977 5073:2363-9962 4953:. Meiner. 4902:1047-7039 4826:142680233 4818:1470-3297 4779:195583226 4771:2193-7680 4664:144894764 4625:143918006 4528:cite book 4520:782950418 4467:2149-0937 4401:147343629 4393:1862-8990 4245:148236513 4206:121195603 4167:120030170 3858:. Verso. 3576:144760415 3541:234945328 3476:199325682 3468:0887-6045 3394:207540799 3051:793207861 2998:1573-7837 2850:233835386 2809:211074515 2801:1618-9558 2720:170501178 2704:0031-8191 2553:2195-7819 2537:(1): 11. 2449:908273802 2018:. Meiner. 1829:"Preface" 1740:worldview 1731:algorithm 1643:knowledge 1635:education 1585:transform 1495:intuition 1405:Karl Marx 1397:Max Weber 1294:causality 1285:deduction 1277:inductive 1224:knowledge 1208:chemistry 1200:astronomy 1147:'s book " 1102:Criticism 1096:Max Weber 904:normative 879:fictional 840:inductive 825:Idealists 720:knowledge 669:As method 549:knowledge 119:Art-based 21:Methodism 9469:Category 9417:Stoicism 9320:Nihilism 9266:Legalism 9261:Kokugaku 9227:Idealism 9218:Humanism 9189:Hedonism 9179:Fatalism 9154:Eleatics 9134:Cynicism 9050:Tenrikyo 8973:Hinduism 8941:Caodaism 8936:Buddhism 8913:Veganism 8868:Pacifism 8833:Islamism 8793:Feminism 8677:Optimism 8653:Examples 8602:Theodicy 8592:Sympathy 8488:Morality 8346:Emotions 8341:Elegance 8269:Autonomy 8264:Altruism 8217:Theology 8146:Ontology 8112:Miracles 7968:Concepts 7948:Ætiology 7923:criteria 7906:folklore 7795:Evidence 7611:Mob rule 7602:Lynching 7362:Marriage 7340:cultural 7318:Holidays 7304:Funerals 7299:Families 7281:Doctrine 7244:cultural 7176:Rhetoric 6995:Charisma 6970:Argument 6965:Activism 6853:Cultural 6801:Academic 6734:Schemata 6704:Paradigm 6679:Memeplex 6660:Ideology 6650:factoids 6511:16060722 6425:(SSRN), 6177:Archived 5933:31274493 5848:27957829 5567:(2011). 5373:26602327 5326:54631297 5296:Synthese 4745:(1): 5. 4485:27909596 4106:Analysis 3839:10224789 3831:22049137 3386:29546962 3304:28989188 3255:42235471 3247:28615184 3086:44962443 3016:31105362 2571:28804806 2330:. SAGE. 2294:. SAGE. 1986:. SAGE. 1954:. SAGE. 1835:. SAGE. 1775:Paradigm 1769:See also 1763:integers 1725:paradigm 1621:Pedagogy 1615:Pedagogy 1539:Geometry 1517:and the 1445:and the 1279:and the 1044:geometry 986:sampling 969:behavior 842:and the 834:For the 797:evidence 793:paradigm 738:analysis 725:sampling 691:sautéing 566:evidence 541:research 286:Analysis 79:Argument 39:Research 31:a series 29:Part of 9446:Yangism 9431:Thomism 9407:Sophism 9149:Dualism 9110:Cārvāka 9095:Atomism 9035:Sikhism 9025:Atheism 8993:Judaism 8988:Jainism 8978:Hòa Hảo 8788:Fascism 8617:Virtues 8456:Liberty 8434:Justice 8414:Harmony 8324:Ecstasy 8309:Disgust 8299:Consent 8259:Charity 8192:Reality 8175:Physics 8067:History 8048:Fiction 8033:Nothing 8019:Destiny 8007:Deities 7822:fideism 7788:outline 7631:Mobbing 7427:Worship 7417:Symbols 7399:Rituals 7392:secular 7357:Liturgy 7323:Hygiene 7294:Slavery 7290:Serfdom 7231:Culture 6782:Aspects 6694:Mindset 6655:Framing 6613:Context 6594:Beliefs 6502:1182327 5924:6639881 5799:1 March 5755:1 March 5730:2011902 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