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were that an individual's ability to retrieve information was heavily influenced on whether the task at encoding matched the task during retrieval. In the first task, which consisted of the rhyming group, subjects were given a target word and then asked to review a different set of words. During this process, they were asked whether the new words rhymed with the target word. They were solely focusing on the rhyming rather than the actual meaning of the words. In the second task, individuals were also given a target word, followed by a series of new words. Rather than identify the ones that rhymed, the individual was to focus more on the meaning. As it turns out, the rhyming group, who identified the words that rhymed, was able to recall more words than those in the meaning group, who focused solely on their meaning. This study suggests that those who were focusing on rhyming in the first part of the task and on the second, were able to encode more efficiently. In transfer-appropriate processing, encoding occurs in two different stages. This helps demonstrate how stimuli were processed. In the first phase, the exposure to stimuli is manipulated in a way that matches the stimuli. The second phase then pulls heavily from what occurred in the first phase and how the stimuli was presented; it will match the task during encoding.
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and increases one’s exposure to it. It is also a useful tool in connecting new information to information already stored in memory, as there is a close association between encoding and retrieval. Thus, creating practice tests allows the individual to process the information at a deeper level than simply reading over the material again or using a pre-made test. The benefits of using retrieval practice have been demonstrated in a study done where college students were asked to read a passage for seven minutes and were then given a two-minute break, during which they completed math problems. One group of participants was given seven minutes to write down as much of the passage as they could remember while the other group was given another seven minutes to reread the material. Later all participants were given a recall test at various increments (five minutes, 2 days, and one week) after the initial learning had taken place. The results of these tests showed that those who had been assigned to the group that had been given a recall test during their first day of the experiment were more likely to retain more information than those that had simply reread the text. This demonstrates that retrieval practice is a useful tool in encoding information into long term memory.
429:) has recently become an area of increasing interest. The task positive network deals with externally oriented processing whereas the task negative network deals with internally oriented processing. Research indicates that these networks are not exclusive and some tasks overlap in their activation. A study done in 2009 shows encoding success and novelty detection activity within the task-positive network have significant overlap and have thus been concluded to reflect common association of externally oriented processing. It also demonstrates how encoding failure and retrieval success share significant overlap within the task negative network indicating common association of internally oriented processing. Finally, a low level of overlap between encoding success and retrieval success activity and between encoding failure and novelty detection activity respectively indicate opposing modes or processing. In sum task positive and task negative networks can have common associations during the performance of different tasks.
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so by hearing individual sounds, one at a time. Hence the memory of the beginning of a new word is stored in our echoic memory until the whole sound has been perceived and recognized as a word. Studies indicate that lexical, semantic and phonological factors interact in verbal working memory. The phonological similarity effect (PSE), is modified by word concreteness. This emphasizes that verbal working memory performance cannot exclusively be attributed to phonological or acoustic representation but also includes an interaction of linguistic representation. What remains to be seen is whether linguistic representation is expressed at the time of recall or whether the representational methods used (such as recordings, videos, symbols, etc.) participate in a more fundamental role in encoding and preservation of information in memory. The brain relies primarily on acoustic (aka phonological) encoding for use in short-term storage and primarily semantic encoding for use in long-term storage.
829:, which reports that sequences of items that contain repeated items are harder to reproduce than sequences of unrepeated items. Associative chaining predicts that recall of lists containing repeated items is impaired because recall of any repeated item would cue not only its true successor but also the successors of all other instances of the item. However, experimental data have shown that spaced repetition of items resulted in impaired recall of the second occurrence of the repeated item. Furthermore, it had no measurable effect on the recall of the items that followed the repeated items, contradicting the prediction of associative chaining. Positional coding predicts that repeated items will have no effect on recall, since the positions for each item in the list act as independent cues for the items, including the repeated items. That is, there is no difference between the similarity between any two items and repeated items. This, again, is not consistent with the data.
758:, an individual is presented with a stimulus, such as a list of words and then asked to remember as many of those words as possible. They are then given cues, such as categories, to help them remember what the stimuli were. An example of this would be to give a subject words such as meteor, star, space ship, and alien to memorize. Then providing them with the cue of "outer space" to remind them of the list of words given. Giving the subject cues, even when never originally mentioned, helped them recall the stimulus much better. These cues help guide the subjects to recall the stimuli they could not remember for themselves prior to being given a cue. Cues can essentially be anything that will help a memory that is deemed forgotten to resurface. An experiment conducted by Tulvig suggests that when subjects were given cues, they were able to recall the previously presented stimuli.
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picture again but this time they were primed to see the black faces on the white background. Although this was the same picture as they had seen before, when asked if they had seen this picture before, they said no. The reason for this was that they had been primed to see the vase the first time the picture was presented, and it was therefore unrecognizable the second time as two faces. This demonstrates that the stimulus is understood within the context it is learned in as well the general rule that what really constitutes good learning are tests that test what has been learned in the same way that it was learned. Therefore, to truly be efficient at remembering information, one must consider the demands that future recall will place on this information and study in a way that will match those demands.
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considered salient. Research has shown that survival may be related to the self-reference effect due to evolutionary mechanisms. Researchers have discovered that even words that are high in survival value are encoded better than words that are ranked lower in survival value. Some research supports evolution, claiming that the human species remembers content associated with survival. Some researchers wanted to see for themselves whether or not the findings of other research was accurate. The researchers decided to replicate an experiment with results that supported the idea that survival content is encoded better than other content. The findings of the experiment further suggested that survival content has a higher advantage of being encoded than other content.
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remembered are State-dependent. In a 1975 study by Godden and
Baddeley the effects of State-dependent learning were shown. They asked deep sea divers to learn various materials while either under water or on the side of the pool. They found that those who were tested in the same condition that they had learned the information in were better able to recall that information, i.e. those who learned the material under water did better when tested on that material under water than when tested on land. Context had become associated with the material they were trying to recall and therefore was serving as a retrieval cue. Results similar to these have also been found when certain smells are present at encoding.
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deep processing. According to Craik and
Lockhart, the encoding of sensory information would be considered shallow processing, as it is highly automatic and requires very little focus. Deeper level processing requires more attention being given to the stimulus and engages more cognitive systems to encode the information. An exception to deep processing is if the individual has been exposed to the stimulus frequently and it has become common in the individual’s life, such as the person’s name. These levels of processing can be illustrated by maintenance and elaborate rehearsal.
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reinforced and those that are deemed unfavorable will be weakened. This shows that the synaptic modifications that occur can operate either way, in order to be able to make changes over time depending on the current situation of the organism. In the short term, synaptic changes may include the strengthening or weakening of a connection by modifying the preexisting proteins leading to a modification in synapse connection strength. In the long term, entirely new connections may form or the number of synapses at a connection may be increased, or reduced.
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to have a positive correlation with the improvement of retrieving information from memories. Self-reference effect has shown to be more effective when retrieving information after it has been encoded when being compared to other methods such as semantic encoding. Also, it is important to know that studies have concluded that self-reference effect can be used to encode information among all ages. However, they have determined that older adults are more limited in their use of the self-reference effect when being tested with younger adults.
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word pair for 5 seconds for each pair. One group was told to create a mental image of the two words in each pair in which the two items were interacting. The other group was told to use maintenance rehearsal to remember the information. When participants were later tested and asked to recall the second word in each word pairing, researchers found that those who had created visual images of the items interacting remembered over twice as many of the word pairings than those who used maintenance rehearsal.
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connections and may 'rewire'. The brain organizes and reorganizes itself in response to one's experiences, creating new memories prompted by experience, education, or training. Therefore, the use of a brain reflects how it is organised. This ability to re-organize is especially important if ever a part of the brain becomes damaged. Scientists are unsure of whether the stimuli of what we do not recall are filtered out at the sensory phase or if they are filtered out after the brain examines their significance.
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about the orientation of the face on their country's penny few recalled this with any degree of certainty. Despite the fact that it is a detail that is often seen, it is not remembered as there is no need to because the color discriminates the penny from other coins. The ineffectiveness of maintenance rehearsal, simply being repeatedly exposed to an item, in creating memories has also been found in people's lack of memory for the layout of the digits 0-9 on calculators and telephones.
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have yet to be identified. Furthermore, the learning process has been known to recruit a variety of modulatory transmitters in order to create and consolidate memories. These transmitters cause the nucleus to initiate processes required for neuronal growth and long-term memory, mark specific synapses for the capture of long-term processes, regulate local protein synthesis, and even appear to mediate attentional processes required for the formation and recall of memories.
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associated to its index +/- 1, even more weakly to +/- 2, and so forth. So banana is associated not only to its actual index 2, but also to 1, 3, and 4, with varying degrees of strength. For example, positional coding can be used to explain the effects of recency and primacy. Because items at the beginning and end of a list have fewer close neighbors compared to items in the middle of the list, they have less competition for correct recall.
277:. All perceived and striking sensations travel to the brain's thalamus where all these sensations are combined into one single experience. The hippocampus is responsible for analyzing these inputs and ultimately deciding if they will be committed to long-term memory; these various threads of information are stored in various parts of the brain. However, the exact way in which these pieces are identified and recalled later remains unknown.
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parietal cortex during recognition. Elderly people showed no significant activation in areas activated in young people during encoding, however they did show right prefrontal activation during recognition. Thus it may be concluded that as we grow old, failing memories may be the consequence of a failure to adequately encode stimuli as demonstrated in the lack of cortical and hippocampal activation during the encoding process.
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chunking is also seen in numbers. One of the most common forms of chunking seen on a daily basis is that of phone numbers. Generally speaking, phone numbers are separated into sections. An example of this would be 909 200 5890, in which numbers are grouped together to make up one whole. Grouping numbers in this manner, allows them to be recalled with more facility because of their comprehensible acquaintanceship.
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sections are analyzed and connections are made, information is weaved into meaningful associations and combined into fewer, but larger and more significant pieces of information. By doing so, the ability to hold more information in short-term memory increases. To be more specific, the use of chunking would increase recall from 5 to 8 items to 20 items or more as associations are made between these items.
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are stored in the memory matrix. Furthermore, cued recall can be modeled in a probabilistic manner such that for every item stored in the memory matrix, the more similar it is to the probe item, the more likely it is to be recalled. Because the items in the memory matrix contain noise in their values, this model can account for incorrect recalls, such as mistakenly calling a person by the wrong name.
790:(LTS). In brief, when an item is seen, it is pushed into STS where it resides with other items also in STS, until it displaced and put into LTS. The longer the item has been in STS, the more likely it is to be displaced by a new item. When items co-reside in STS, the links between those items are strengthened. Furthermore, SAM assumes that items in STS are always available for immediate recall.
305:(PET) demonstrates a consistent functional anatomical blueprint of hippocampal activation during episodic encoding and retrieval. Activation in the hippocampal region associated with episodic memory encoding has been shown to occur in the rostral portion of the region whereas activation associated with episodic memory retrieval occurs in the caudal portions. This is referred to as the
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108:. This model proposed that whether new information would be encoded was dependent on its consistency with prior knowledge (mental schemas). This model also suggested that information not present at the time of encoding would be added to memory if it was based on schematic knowledge of the world. In this way, encoding was found to be influenced by prior knowledge. With the advance of
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initial semantic encoding will also display decreasing activation with repetitive semantic encoding of the same words. This suggests the decrease in activation with repetition is process specific occurring when words are semantically reprocessed but not when they are nonsemantically reprocessed. Lesion and neuroimaging studies suggest that the
93:. He used these relatively meaningless words so that prior associations between meaningful words would not influence learning. He found that lists that allowed associations to be made and semantic meaning to be apparent were easier to recall. Ebbinghaus' results paved the way for experimental psychology in memory and other mental processes.
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sum of the similarities to each item in the matrix (which is inversely proportional to the sum of the distances between the probe vector and each item in the memory matrix) is computed. If the similarity is above a threshold value, one would respond, "Yes, I recognize that item." Given that context continually drifts by nature of a
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information, rather than passively selecting from information already available like in selecting an answer from a multiple-choice question In 1978, researchers
Slameka and Graf conducted an experiment to better understand this effect. In this experiment, the participants were assigned to one of two groups, the
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Computational models of memory encoding have been developed in order to better understand and simulate the mostly expected, yet sometimes wildly unpredictable, behaviors of human memory. Different models have been developed for different memory tasks, which include item recognition, cued recall, free
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Studies have shown that an effective tool to increase encoding during the process of learning is to create and take practice tests. Using retrieval in order to enhance performance is called the testing effect, as it actively involves creating and recreating the material that one is intending to learn
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is a process in which you relate new material to information already stored in Long-term memory. It's a deep form of processing information and involves thought of the object's meaning as well as making connections between the object, past experiences and the other objects of focus. Using the example
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in accordance with the new neural configuration. The encoding process has been found to be partially mediated by serotonergic interneurons, specifically in regard to sensitization as blocking these interneurons prevented sensitization entirely. However, the ultimate consequences of these discoveries
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to strengthen, weaken, destroy and create neural synapses and is the basis for learning. These molecular distinctions will identify and indicate the strength of each neural connection. The effect of a learning experience depends on the content of such an experience. Reactions that are favored will be
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has to be released and bound to the NMDA receptor site on postsynaptic neurons. Secondly, excitation has to take place in postsynaptic neurons. These cells also organize themselves into groups specializing in different kinds of information processing. Thus, with new experiences the brain creates more
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Acoustic encoding is the encoding of auditory impulses. According to
Baddeley, processing of auditory information is aided by the concept of the phonological loop, which allows input within our echoic memory to be sub vocally rehearsed in order to facilitate remembering. When we hear any word, we do
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looked at the neuroscience aspect of encoding and stated that "neurons that fire together wire together," implying that encoding occurred as connections between neurons were established through repeated use. The 1950s and 60's saw a shift to the information processing approach to memory based on the
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Positional coding theory suggests that every item in a list is associated to its position in the list. For example, if the list is "apple, banana, orange, mango" apple will be associated to list position 1, banana to 2, orange to 3, and mango to 4. Furthermore, each item is also, albeit more weakly,
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Associative chaining theory states that every item in a list is linked to its forward and backward neighbors, with forward links being stronger than backward links, and links to closer neighbors being stronger than links to farther neighbors. For example, associative chaining predicts the tendencies
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Cued recall can be explained by extending the attribute-similarity model used for item recognition. Because in cued recall, a wrong response can be given for a probe item, the model has to be extended accordingly to account for that. This can be achieved by adding noise to the item vectors when they
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and the attribute-similarity model. In brief, every item that one sees can be represented as a vector of the item's attributes, which is extended by a vector representing the context at the time of encoding, and is stored in a memory matrix of all items ever seen. When a probe item is presented, the
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Research has shown that after being encoded, self-reference effect is more effective when it comes to recalling memory than semantic encoding. Researchers have found that the self-reference effect goes more hand and hand with elaborative rehearsal. Elaborative rehearsal is more often than not, found
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The context of learning shapes how information is encoded. For instance, Kanizsa in 1979 showed a picture that could be interpreted as either a white vase on a black background or 2 faces facing each other on a white background. The participants were primed to see the vase. Later they were shown the
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most students learn the first letter of every color and impose their own meaning by associating it with a name such as Roy. G. Biv which stands for red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. In this way mnemonic devices not only help the encoding of specific items but also their sequence. For
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When memorizing simple material such as lists of words, mnemonics may be the best strategy, while "material already in long-term store unaffected". Mnemonic
Strategies are an example of how finding organization within a set of items helps these items to be remembered. In the absence of any apparent
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One study used PET to measure cerebral blood flow during encoding and recognition of faces in both young and older participants. Young people displayed increased cerebral blood flow in the right hippocampus and the left prefrontal and temporal cortices during encoding and in the right prefrontal and
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45, 46, and 47 (the left inferior prefrontal cortex or LIPC) showed significantly more activation during semantic encoding conditions compared to nonsemantic encoding conditions regardless of the difficulty of the nonsemantic encoding task presented. The same area showing increased activation during
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Visual encoding is the process of converting images and visual sensory information to memory stored in the brain. This means that people can convert the new information that they stored into mental pictures (Harrison, C., Semin, A.,(2009). Psychology. New York p. 222) Visual sensory information
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For optimal encoding, connections are not only formed between the items themselves and past experiences, but also between the internal state or mood of the encoder and the situation they are in. The connections that are formed between the encoders internal state or the situation and the items to be
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SAM explains both primacy and recency effects. Probabilistically, items at the beginning of the list are more likely to remain in STS, and thus have more opportunities to strengthen their links to other items. As a result, items at the beginning of the list are made more likely to be recalled in a
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In item recognition, one is asked whether or not a given probe item has been seen before. It is important to note that the recognition of an item can include context. That is, one can be asked whether an item has been seen in a study list. So even though one may have seen the word "apple" sometime
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When an item or idea is considered "salient", it means the item or idea appears to noticeably stand out. When information is salient, it may be encoded in memory more efficiently than if the information did not stand out to the learner. In reference to encoding, any event involving survival may be
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Transfer-appropriate processing is a strategy for encoding that leads to successful retrieval. An experiment conducted by Morris and coworkers in 1977 proved that successful retrieval was a result of matching the type of processing used during encoding. During their experiment, their main findings
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However, although the external environment is important at the time of encoding in creating multiple pathways for retrieval, other studies have shown that simply creating the same internal state that was present at the time of encoding is sufficient to serve as a retrieval cue. Therefore, being in
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Words are an example of chunking, where instead of simply perceiving letters we perceive and remember their meaningful wholes: words. The use of chunking increases the number of items we are able to remember by creating meaningful "packets" in which many related items are stored as one. The use of
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Another method used to enhance encoding is to associate images with words. Gordon Bower and David
Winzenz (1970) demonstrated the use of imagery and encoding in their research while using paired-associate learning. Researchers gave participants a list of 15-word-pairs, showing each participant the
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that is controlled by more than one gene. In fact, twin studies suggest that genetic differences are responsible for as much as 50% of the variance seen in memory tasks. Proteins identified in animal studies have been linked directly to a molecular cascade of reactions leading to memory formation,
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Another principle that may have the potential to aid encoding is the generation effect. The generation effect implies that learning is enhanced when individuals generate information or items themselves rather than reading the content. The key to properly apply the generation effect is to generate
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is also related to the organization of information. For example, the connections that are made between the to-be-remembered item, other to-be-remembered items, previous experiences, and context generate retrieval paths for the to-be-remembered item and can act as retrieval cues. These connections
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Different levels of processing influence how well information is remembered. This idea was first introduced by Craik and
Lockhart (1972). They claimed that the level of processing information was dependent upon the depth at which the information was being processed; mainly, shallow processing and
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Encoding is achieved using a combination of chemicals and electricity. Neurotransmitters are released when an electrical pulse crosses the synapse which serves as a connection from nerve cells to other cells. The dendrites receive these impulses with their feathery extensions. A phenomenon called
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Due to the deeper level of processing that occurs with elaborative rehearsal it is more effective than maintenance rehearsal in creating new memories. This has been demonstrated in people's lack of knowledge of the details in everyday objects. For example, in one study where
Americans were asked
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Chunking is a memory strategy used to maximize the amount of information stored in short term memory in order to combine it into small, meaningful sections. By organizing objects into meaningful sections, these sections are then remembered as a unit rather than separate objects. As larger
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is responsible for how we remember lists of things, in which ordering matters. For example, telephone numbers are an ordered list of one digit numbers. There are currently two main computational memory models that can be applied to sequence encoding: associative chaining and positional coding.
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Organization is key to memory encoding. Researchers have discovered that our minds naturally organize information if the information received is not organized. One natural way information can be organized is through hierarchies. For example, the grouping mammals, reptiles, and amphibians is a
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Studies have shown that the intention to learn has no direct effect on memory encoding. Instead, memory encoding is dependent on how deeply each item is encoded, which could be affected by intention to learn, but not exclusively. That is, intention to learn can lead to more effective learning
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A significant short-term biochemical change is the covalent modification of pre-existing proteins in order to modify synaptic connections that are already active. This allows data to be conveyed in the short term, without consolidating anything for permanent storage. From here a memory or an
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Recent findings in studies focusing on patients with post traumatic stress disorder demonstrate that amino acid transmitters, glutamate and GABA, are intimately implicated in the process of factual memory registration, and suggest that amine neurotransmitters, norepinephrine-epinephrine and
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Elaborative encoding is the process of actively relating new information to knowledge that is already in memory. Memories are a combination of old and new information, so the nature of any particular memory depends as much on the old information already in our memories as it does on the new
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the same mindset as in at the time of encoding will help with recalling in the same way that being in the same situation helps recall. This effect called context reinstatement was demonstrated by Fisher and Craik 1977 when they matched retrieval cues with the way information was memorized.
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is the idea that individuals will encode information more effectively if they can personally relate to the information. For example, some people may claim that some birth dates of family members and friends are easier to remember than others. Some researchers claim this may be due to the
346:. One study found that high central nervous system levels of acetylcholine during wakefulness aided in new memory encoding, while low levels of acetylcholine during slow-wave sleep aided in consolidation of memories. However, encoding can occur on different levels. The first step is
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There are two main approaches to coding information: the physiological approach, and the mental approach. The physiological approach looks at how a stimulus is represented by neurons firing in the brain, while the mental approach looks at how the stimulus is represented in the mind.
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Tactile encoding is the processing and encoding of how something feels, normally through touch. Neurons in the primary somatosensory cortex (S1) react to vibrotactile stimuli by activating in synchronization with each series of vibrations. Odors and tastes may also lead to encode.
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free-recall task (primacy effect). Because of the assumption that items in STS are always available for immediate recall, given that there were no significant distractors between learning and recall, items at the end of the list can be recalled excellently (recency effect).
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will interact and draw conclusions from the results of this interaction. These learning experiences have been known to trigger a cascade of molecular events leading to the formation of memories. These changes include the modification of neural synapses, modification of
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Although the models of associative chaining and positional coding are able to explain a great amount of behavior seen for sequence memory, they are far from perfect. For example, neither chaining nor positional coding is able to properly illustrate the details of the
474:, and word stem completion which are used to assess implicit learning. In general, however previous learning by maintenance rehearsal is not apparent when memory is being tested directly or explicitly with questions like " Is this the word you were shown earlier?"
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Krauel, Kerstin; Duzel, Emrah; Hinrichs, Hermann; Santel, Stephanie; Rellum, Thomas; Baving, Lioba (15 June 2007). "Impact of
Emotional Salience on Episodic Memory in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study".
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strategies, and consequently, better memory encoding, but if you learn something incidentally (i.e. without intention to learn) but still process and learn the information effectively, it will get encoded just as well as something learnt with intention.
289:, which influences the flow of information between neurons by controlling the initiation of long-term potentiation in most hippocampal pathways, need to come to the play. For these NMDA receptors to be activated, there must be two conditions. Firstly,
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is a shallow form of processing information which involves focusing on an object without thought to its meaning or its association with other objects. For example, the repetition of a series of numbers is a form of maintenance rehearsal. In contrast,
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Studies have shown that free recall is one of the most effective methods of studying and transferring information from short term memory to long term memory compared to item recognition and cued recall as greater relational processing is involved.
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and a sizable number of these proteins are encoded by genes that are expressed in humans as well. In fact, variations within these genes appear to be associated with memory capacity and have been identified in recent human genetic studies.
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Grady, CL., Horwitz, B., Haxby, JV., Maisog, JM., McIntosh, AR., Mentis, MJ., Pietrini, P., Schapiro, MB., & Underleider, LG. (1995) Age-related reductions in human recognition memory due to inpaired encoding. Science, 269:5221,
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information coming in through our senses. In other words, how we remember something depends on how we think about it at the time. Many studies have shown that long-term retention is greatly enhanced by elaborative encoding.
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Acheson, D.J., MacDonald, M.C., & Postle, B.R. (2010). The
Interaction of Concreteness and Phonological Similarity in Verbal Working Memory. Journal of Experimental Psychogy: Learning, Memory and Cognition; 36:1,
1047:, Vaidya, CJ., & Wagner, AD. Semantic encoding and retrieval in the left inferior prefrontal cortex: a functional MRI study of task difficulty and process specificity. The Journal of Neuroscience; 15, 5870-5878.
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Wagner, M. (2008). The His452Tyr variant of the gene encoding the 5-HT(2a) receptor is specifically associated with consolidation of episodic memory in humans. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 11,
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of numbers, one might associate them with dates that are personally significant such as your parents' birthdays (past experiences) or perhaps you might see a pattern in the numbers that helps you to remember them.
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Words studied in semantic or deep encoding conditions are better recalled as compared to both easy and hard groupings of nonsemantic or shallow encoding conditions with response time being the deciding variable.
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Cabeza, R., Daselaar, S.M., & Hongkeun, K. (2009). Overlapping brain activity between episodic memory encoding and retrieval: Roles of the task-positive and task-negative networks. Neuroimage;49: 1145–1154.
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is another complex structure that has an important role in visual encoding. It accepts visual input in addition to input, from other systems, and encodes the positive or negative values of conditioned stimuli.
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of transposition errors, which occur most often with items in nearby positions. An example of a transposition error would be recalling the sequence "apple, orange, banana" instead of "apple, banana, orange."
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Crawley, AP., Davis, KD., Mikulis. DJ. & Kwan, CL. (1998). Function MRI study of thalamic and cortical activation evoked by cutaneous heat, cold, and tactile stimuli. Journal of Neurophysiology: 80 (3):
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more complex concepts, understanding is the key to remembering. In a study done by Wiseman and Neisser in 1974 they presented participants with a picture (the picture was of a Dalmatian in the style of
395:. Finally, long term changes occur that allow consolidation of the target memory. These changes include new protein synthesis, the formation of new synaptic connections, and finally the activation of
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came the realization that memory for encoded information was often perceived as different from the stimuli that triggered it. It was also influenced by the context that the stimuli were embedded in.
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Belova, M.A., Morrison, S.E., Paton, J.J., & Salzman, C.D. (2006). The primate amygdala represents the positive and negative value of visual stimuli during learning. Nature; 439(7078): 865-870.
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Hyde, Thomas S. & Jenkins, James J. (1973). Recall for words as a function of semantic, graphic, and syntactic orienting tasks. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12(5), 471-480
746:, more recently seen items, which each share a similar context vector to the context vector at the time of the recognition task, are more likely to be recognized than items seen longer ago.
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Fisher, R. P., & Craik, F. I. (1977). Interaction between encoding and retrieval operations in cued recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 3(6), 701-711.
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suggests that visual information is stored in the visuo-spatial sketchpad. The visuo-spatial sketchpad is connected to the central executive, which is a key area of working memory. The
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The effects of elaborative rehearsal or deep processing can be attributed to the number of connections made while encoding that increase the number of pathways available for retrieval.
661:.The researchers discovered that the group that was asked to fill in the blanks had better recall for these word pairs than the group that was asked to simply remember the word pairs.
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which associates the to-be-remembered items with a list of easily remembered items. Another example of a mnemonic device commonly used is the first letter of every word system or
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association may be chosen to become a long-term memory, or forgotten as the synaptic connections eventually weaken. The switch from short to long-term is the same concerning both
774:, one is allowed to recall items that were learned in any order. For example, you could be asked to name as many countries in Europe as you can. Free recall can be modeled using
144:, which consists of the central executive, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and phonological loop as a method of encoding. In 2000, Baddeley added the episodic buffer. Simultaneously
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stores information for immediate use or manipulation, which is aided through hooking onto previously archived items already present in the long-term memory of an individual.
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The process of encoding is not yet well understood, however key advances have shed light on the nature of these mechanisms. Encoding begins with any novel situation, as the
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Godden, D. R., & Baddeley, A. D. (1975). Context-dependent memory in two natural environments: On land and underwater. British Journal of Psychology, 66(3), 325-331.
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Craik, F. I., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104(3), 268-294.
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Semantic encoding is the processing and encoding of sensory input that has particular meaning or can be applied to a context. Various strategies can be applied such as
85:(1850–1909). Ebbinghaus was a pioneer in the field of memory research. Using himself as a subject he studied how we learn and forget information by repeating a list of
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organization within a group, organization can be imposed with the same memory enhancing results. An example of a mnemonic strategy that imposes organization is the
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There are many types of mental encoding that are used, such as visual, elaborative, organizational, acoustic, and semantic. However, this is not an extensive list
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Kesebir, Selin; Oishi, Shigehiro (20 September 2010). "A Spontaneous Self-Reference Effect in Memory: Why Some Birthdays Are Harder to Remember Than Others".
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is responsible for initial encoding and that activity in the left lateral prefrontal cortex correlates with the semantic organization of encoded information.
104:. His research demonstrated the ability to create a semantic relationship between two unrelated items. In 1932, Frederic Bartlett proposed the idea of mental
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Wiseman, S., & Neisser, U. (1974). Perceptual organization as a determinant of visual recognition memory. American Journal of Psychology, 87(4), 675-681.
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Lepage, M., Habib, R. & Tulving. E. (1998). Hippocampal PET activations of memory encoding and retrieval: The HIPER model. Hippocampus, 8:4: 313-322
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Gutchess, Angela H.; Kensinger, Elizabeth A.; Yoon, Carolyn; Schacter, Daniel L. (November 2007). "Ageing and the self-reference effect in memory".
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Maintenance rehearsal has been demonstrated to be important in learning but its effects can only be demonstrated using indirect methods such as
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invention of computers, followed by the initial suggestion that encoding was the process by which information is entered into memory. In 1956,
2442:"Why is free recall practice more effective than recognition practice for enhancing memory? Evaluating the relational processing hypothesis"
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Klein, Stanley B. (30 January 2012). "Self, Memory, and the Self-Reference Effect: An Examination of Conceptual and Methodological Issues".
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making it difficult to see the image). They found that memory for the picture was better if the participants understood what was depicted.
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With advances in technology, the field of neuropsychology emerged and with it a biological basis for theories of encoding. In 1949, Donald
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Sacktor, T.C. (2008). PKMz, LTP Maintenance, and the dynamic molecular biology of memory storage. Progress in Brain Research, 169, Ch 2.
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allows a perceived item of use or interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored within the brain and recalled later from
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McDaniel, Mark A; Waddill, Paula J; Einstein, Gilles O (1988). "A contextual account of the generation effect: A three-factor theory".
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Rinck, M. (1999). Memory for everyday objects: Where are the digits on numerical keypads? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 13(4), 329-350.
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were asked to fill in the blank letters of one of the related words in the pair. In other words, if the participant was given the word
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Crowder, R. G. (1968). Intraserial repetition effects in immediate memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 7, 446-451.
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Cann, A., & Ross, D. A. (1989). Olfactory stimuli as context cues in human memory. American Journal of Psychology, 102(1), 91-102.
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Incidentally, the idea of STS and LTS was motivated by the architecture of computers, which contain short-term and long-term storage.
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Smith, S. M. (1979). Remembering in and out of context. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 5(5), 460-471.
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information. Memories give an organism the capability to learn and adapt from previous experiences as well as build relationships.
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Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
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Nairne, James S.; Thompson, Sarah R.; Pandeirada, Josefa N. S. (2007). "Adaptive memory: Survival processing enhances retention".
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allows a synapse to increase strength with increasing numbers of transmitted signals between the two neurons. For that to happen,
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Graf, P., Mandler, G., & Haden, P. E. (1982). Simulating amnesic symptoms in normal subjects. Science, 218(4578), 1243–1244.
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were asked to simply read a list of paired words that were related, for example, horse-saddle. The participants assigned to the
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Because no comprehensive model has been defined for sequence memory to this day, it makes for an interesting area of research.
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Nickerson, R. S. (., & Adams, M. J. (1979). Long-term memory for a common object. Cognitive Psychology, 11(3, pp. 287-307)
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Roediger, Henry L.; Karpicke, Jeffrey D. (2006). "Test-Enhanced Learning: Taking Memory Tests Improves Long-Term Retention".
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Kandel, E. (2004). The Molecular Biology of Memory Storage: A Dialog Between Genes and Synapses. Bioscience Reports, 24, 4-5.
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Oliphant, G. W. (1983). Repetition and recency effects in word recognition. Australian Journal of Psychology, 35(3), 393-403
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Organizational encoding is the course of classifying information permitting to the associations amid a sequence of terms.
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Tulving, Endel; Pearlstone, Zena (August 1966). "Availability versus accessibility of information in memory for words".
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Encoding is still relatively new and unexplored but the origins of encoding date back to age old philosophers such as
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Klein, Stanley B.; Kihlstrom, John F. (1986). "Elaboration, organization, and the self-reference effect in memory".
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Sperling, G. (1967). Successive approximations to a model for short term memory. Acta Psychologica, 27, 285-292.
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if the date is close to their own birth date or any other dates they deem important, such as anniversary dates.
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Karpicke, Jeffrey D. (1 June 2012). "Retrieval-Based Learning: Active Retrieval Promotes Meaningful Learning".
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to the rhythm of a metronome until they were committed to his memory. These experiments led him to suggest the
148:(1983) proposed the idea of encoding specificity whereby context was again noted as an influence on encoding.
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387:. This process is regulated by a number of inhibitory constraints, primarily the balance between protein
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Baddeley, A., Eysenck, M.W., & Anderson, M.C. (2009). Memory. London: Psychology Press. p. 27, 44-59
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Frey, S., & Petrides, M. (2002). Orbitofrontal cortex and memory formation. Neuron, 36(1), 171-176.
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revealed that seven, plus or minus two could also refer to seven "packets of information". In 1974,
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recall, and sequence memory, in an attempt to accurately explain experimentally observed behaviors.
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wrote his paper on how short-term memory is limited to seven items, plus-or-minus two, called
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Cunningham, Sheila J.; Brady-Van den Bos, Mirjam; Gill, Lucy; Turk, David J. (1 March 2013).
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Hughes, Robert W.; Chamberland, Cindy; Tremblay, SĂ©bastien; Jones, Dylan M. (October 2016).
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Tulving, E. (1983). Elements of episodic memory. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
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Craik, F. I. M., & Watkins, M. J. (1973). The role of rehearsal in short-term memory.
1143:"The Influence of Acoustic and Semantic Similarity on Long-term Memory for Word Sequences"
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778:(Search of Associative Memory) which is based on the dual-store model, first proposed by
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to aid in encoding, and in some cases, allow deep processing, and optimizing retrieval.
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2146:"Survival of the selfish: Contrasting self-referential and survival-based encoding"
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self-reference effect. For example, some birth dates are easier for individuals to
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Tulving, Endel; Craik, Fergus I. M. (5 May 2005). The Oxford Handbook of Memory.
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The idea that the brain is separated into two complementary processing networks (
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Mohs, Richard C. "How Human Memory Works." 8 May 2007. HowStuffWorks.com. <
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during their life, if it was not on the study list, it should not be recalled.
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Cognitive Psychology : Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience
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Sperling, G. (1963). A model for visual memory tasks. Human Factors, 5, 19-31.
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Cognitive psychology : connecting mind, research and everyday experience
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create organization on the to-be-remembered item, making it more memorable.
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2254:"Can the survival recall advantage be explained by basic memory processes?"
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1110:"Perceptual-motor determinants of auditory-verbal serial short-term memory"
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Cognitive Psychology; Connecting the Mind, Research and Everyday Experience
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The mnemonic "Roy G. Biv" can be used to remember the colors of the rainbow
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2011:
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Brown, Peter C.; Roediger, Henry L.; McDaniel, Mark A. (31 January 2014).
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Parker, Amanda; Bussey, Timothy J.; Wilding, Edward L. (18 August 2005).
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Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology.
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Research illustrates that the self-reference effect aids encoding. The
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An introduction to cognitive psychology : processes and disorders
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Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
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Human memory, including the process of encoding, is known to be a
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During the 1900s, further progress in memory research was made.
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Kanizsa, G. (1979). Organization in vision. New York: Praeger.
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they would need to fill in the last four letters of the word
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The Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory: Encoding and Retrieval
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Weinstein, Y.; Bugg, J. M.; Roediger, H. L. (1 July 2008).
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977:(Third ed.). Hove, East Sussex. pp. 176–177.
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before being encoded into permanent long-term storage.
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serotonin, are involved in encoding emotional memory.
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Rawson, Katherine A.; Zamary, Amanda (1 April 2019).
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354:, and then a long-term memory consolidation process.
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858:. Stamford, CT. USA: Cengage Learning. p. 122.
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Learning theories : an educational perspective
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1227:Schacter, D., Gilbert, D. & Wegner, D.(2011)
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1216:http://health.howstuffworks.com/human-memory.htm
273:Encoding is a biological event that begins with
128:. This number was appended when studies done on
1534:"Comparison of associative learning strategies"
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81:. A major figure in the history of encoding is
2406:Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior
1981:
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1415:Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior
782:in 1968. SAM consists of two main components:
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1851:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1823:(4th ed.). New york: Cengage learning.
1147:Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology
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2639:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
2303:Current Directions in Psychological Science
1984:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
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1080:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1009:) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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350:formation, followed by the conversion to a
126:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
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1855:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
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1070:. Pearson Education Canada. p. 233.
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1231:, 2nd edition, Chapter 6: Memory, p.232
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720:Computational Models of Memory Encoding
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1066:Carlson and Heth(2010). "Chapter 8".
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442:Maintenance and Elaborative Rehearsal
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1819:Goldstein, E. Bruce, 1941- (2015).
1628:(5th ed.). Mason OH: Cengage.
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639:. The participants assigned to the
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452:elaborative or relational rehearsal
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179:Baddeley's model of working memory
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2920:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm
1494:(6th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
1291:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
842:
549:. When learning the colours in a
500:hierarchy of the animal kingdom.
169:is temporarily stored within our
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594:Transfer-appropriate processing
588:Transfer-Appropriate Processing
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3130:Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model
3003:Memory and social interactions
2446:Journal of Memory and Language
2115:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.08.051
1738:Journal of Memory and Language
1386:Canadian Journal of Psychology
1114:Journal of Memory and Language
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69:Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909)
13:
1:
2418:10.1016/S0022-5371(66)80048-8
1624:Goldstein, E. Bruce. (2018).
973:Groome, David, 1946- (2013).
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100:began research pertaining to
3667:Perception as interpretation
2839:Retrieval-induced forgetting
2162:10.1016/j.concog.2012.12.005
1750:10.1016/0749-596x(88)90023-x
854:Goldstein, E. Bruce (2015).
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303:Positron emission tomography
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2150:Consciousness and Cognition
691:
561:
10:
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3177:Levels of Processing model
3102:World Memory Championships
2935:Lost in the mall technique
2782:dissociative (psychogenic)
2208:10.1037/0278-7393.33.2.263
1996:10.1037/0096-3445.115.1.26
1303:10.1162/jocn.2006.18.5.793
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2042:10.1080/09658210701701394
1377:Lockhart, Robert (1990).
1159:10.1080/14640746608400047
1127:10.1016/j.jml.2016.04.006
1039:Demb, JB., Desmond, JE.,
3215:The Seven Sins of Memory
3160:Intermediate-term memory
2965:Indirect tests of memory
2942:Recovered-memory therapy
2892:Misattribution of memory
2315:10.1177/0963721412443552
1940:10.1177/0956797610383436
1884:10.1177/1088868311434214
1581:. Academic Press. 1968.
1490:Schunk, Dale H. (2012).
1141:Baddeley, A. D. (1966).
575:State-Dependent Learning
151:
3788:Relational frame theory
3763:Higher nervous activity
2902:Source-monitoring error
2080:"Definition of Salient"
702:Salience (neuroscience)
417:Complementary Processes
142:model of working memory
3758:Experiential avoidance
3309:George Armitage Miller
3269:Patricia Goldman-Rakic
2258:Memory & Cognition
1532:Bower, Gordon (1970).
1218:> 23 February 2010.
1027:Brown and Craik (2000)
612:
535:
472:lexical decision tasks
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365:is the ability of the
309:model or HIPER model.
283:long-term potentiation
269:Long-term potentiation
264:
255:Long-Term Potentiation
122:George Armitage Miller
102:classical conditioning
70:
3773:Ironic process theory
3538:Cognitive flexibility
3472:Philosophy portal
3460:Psychology portal
3324:Henry L. Roediger III
2925:False memory syndrome
2897:Misinformation effect
2877:Imagination inflation
2346:Psychological Science
2103:Biological Psychiatry
1928:Psychological Science
1781:10.4159/9780674419377
780:Atkinson and Shiffrin
739:Multiple trace theory
677:self-reference effect
671:Self-reference effect
665:Self-Reference Effect
610:
533:
461:
447:Maintenance rehearsal
404:Encoding and Genetics
321:Molecular Perspective
262:
68:
2829:Motivated forgetting
925:. Psychology Press.
603:Encoding Specificity
374:The Encoding Process
228:orbitofrontal cortex
196:Elaborative encoding
190:Elaborative encoding
3803:Thought suppression
3339:Arthur P. Shimamura
3239:Richard C. Atkinson
3056:Effects of exercise
2930:Memory implantation
2814:Interference theory
2730:Selective retention
2710:Meaningful learning
2271:10.3758/MC.36.5.913
698:Salience (language)
504:Depth of processing
433:Depth of Processing
363:Synaptic plasticity
358:Synaptic Plasticity
263:Early LPT Mechanism
33:has the ability to
3436:Andriy Slyusarchuk
3259:Hermann Ebbinghaus
3165:Involuntary memory
3066:Memory improvement
3051:Effects of alcohol
3013:Transactive memory
2991:Politics of memory
2960:Exceptional memory
1554:10.3758/BF03335632
711:Retrieval Practice
613:
536:
478:Intention to Learn
464:
334:, creation of new
265:
87:nonsense syllables
83:Hermann Ebbinghaus
71:
3816:
3815:
3575:Critical thinking
3543:Cognitive liberty
3480:
3479:
3444:
3443:
3431:Cosmos Rossellius
3279:Marcia K. Johnson
3150:Exosomatic memory
3135:Context-dependent
3125:Absent-mindedness
3008:Memory conformity
2986:Collective memory
2887:Memory conformity
2824:Memory inhibition
2743:
2742:
2735:Tip of the tongue
2109:(12): 1370–1379.
1934:(10): 1525–1531.
1830:978-1-285-76388-0
1790:978-0-674-41937-7
1635:978-1-337-67043-2
1588:978-0-08-086353-5
1501:978-0-13-707195-1
984:978-1-317-97609-7
932:978-1-135-43073-3
827:Ranschburg effect
626:Generation effect
620:Generation Effect
393:dephosphorylation
348:short-term memory
344:protein synthesis
234:Acoustic encoding
205:Semantic encoding
16:(Redirected from
3836:
3513:Mental processes
3507:
3500:
3493:
3484:
3483:
3470:
3469:
3468:
3458:
3457:
3456:
3411:Jonathan Hancock
3364:Robert Stickgold
3334:Richard Shiffrin
3289:Elizabeth Loftus
3229:
3228:
3145:Childhood memory
2952:Research methods
2834:Repressed memory
2809:Forgetting curve
2797:transient global
2668:Autobiographical
2578:
2577:
2517:
2510:
2503:
2494:
2493:
2487:
2484:
2478:
2477:
2437:
2431:
2428:
2422:
2421:
2401:
2395:
2392:
2386:
2385:
2341:
2335:
2334:
2298:
2292:
2291:
2273:
2249:
2236:
2235:
2191:
2182:
2181:
2141:
2135:
2134:
2097:
2091:
2090:
2088:
2086:
2076:
2070:
2069:
2025:
2016:
2015:
1979:
1968:
1967:
1923:
1912:
1911:
1867:
1861:
1860:
1850:
1842:
1816:
1803:
1802:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1733:
1724:
1721:
1712:
1709:
1703:
1700:
1694:
1691:
1685:
1682:
1676:
1673:
1667:
1654:
1648:
1647:
1621:
1602:
1599:
1593:
1592:
1573:
1567:
1566:
1556:
1538:
1529:
1523:
1520:
1514:
1513:
1487:
1476:
1473:
1467:
1464:
1458:
1455:
1449:
1446:
1440:
1437:
1431:
1428:
1422:
1411:
1402:
1401:
1398:10.1037/h0084237
1383:
1374:
1368:
1365:
1354:
1351:
1345:
1342:
1331:
1330:
1286:
1280:
1276:
1265:
1262:
1256:
1252:
1241:
1238:
1232:
1225:
1219:
1212:
1197:
1193:
1187:
1186:
1138:
1132:
1131:
1129:
1105:
1099:
1095:
1086:
1085:
1079:
1071:
1063:
1057:
1054:
1048:
1037:
1028:
1025:
1019:
1018:
1004:
996:
970:
964:
961:
955:
952:
946:
943:
937:
936:
916:
910:
907:
894:
891:
882:
879:
870:
869:
851:
784:short-term store
729:Item recognition
490:Optimal Encoding
352:long-term memory
338:, activation of
298:Mapping Activity
223:Brodmann's areas
51:long-term memory
21:
3844:
3843:
3839:
3838:
3837:
3835:
3834:
3833:
3819:
3818:
3817:
3812:
3741:
3708:
3616:
3595:Problem solving
3580:Decision-making
3514:
3511:
3481:
3476:
3466:
3464:
3454:
3452:
3440:
3421:Dominic O'Brien
3399:
3368:
3349:Susumu Tonegawa
3329:Daniel Schacter
3304:Eleanor Maguire
3294:Geoffrey Loftus
3249:Stephen J. Ceci
3244:Robert A. Bjork
3220:
3139:state-dependent
3113:
3085:
3017:
2998:Cultural memory
2974:
2970:Memory disorder
2946:
2906:
2848:
2739:
2649:
2624:
2569:
2526:
2521:
2491:
2490:
2485:
2481:
2438:
2434:
2429:
2425:
2402:
2398:
2393:
2389:
2342:
2338:
2299:
2295:
2250:
2239:
2192:
2185:
2142:
2138:
2098:
2094:
2084:
2082:
2078:
2077:
2073:
2026:
2019:
1980:
1971:
1924:
1915:
1868:
1864:
1844:
1843:
1831:
1817:
1806:
1791:
1769:
1765:
1734:
1727:
1722:
1715:
1710:
1706:
1701:
1697:
1692:
1688:
1683:
1679:
1674:
1670:
1655:
1651:
1636:
1622:
1605:
1600:
1596:
1589:
1575:
1574:
1570:
1536:
1530:
1526:
1521:
1517:
1502:
1488:
1479:
1474:
1470:
1465:
1461:
1456:
1452:
1447:
1443:
1438:
1434:
1429:
1425:
1412:
1405:
1381:
1375:
1371:
1366:
1357:
1352:
1348:
1343:
1334:
1287:
1283:
1277:
1268:
1263:
1259:
1253:
1244:
1239:
1235:
1226:
1222:
1213:
1200:
1194:
1190:
1139:
1135:
1106:
1102:
1096:
1089:
1073:
1072:
1064:
1060:
1055:
1051:
1038:
1031:
1026:
1022:
998:
997:
985:
971:
967:
962:
958:
953:
949:
944:
940:
933:
917:
913:
908:
897:
892:
885:
880:
873:
866:
852:
843:
838:
810:Sequence memory
807:
805:Sequence Memory
788:long-term store
768:
752:
731:
722:
713:
704:
696:Main articles:
694:
673:
667:
628:
622:
605:
596:
590:
577:
564:
542:peg-word system
528:
522:
513:
497:
492:
480:
444:
435:
419:
410:heritable trait
406:
397:gene expression
389:phosphorylation
385:explicit memory
381:implicit memory
376:
360:
340:gene expression
323:
300:
271:
257:
245:
236:
207:
198:
192:
166:
164:Visual encoding
154:
140:proposed their
63:
28:
23:
22:
18:Memory encoding
15:
12:
11:
5:
3842:
3832:
3831:
3814:
3813:
3811:
3810:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3783:Mental fatigue
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3749:
3747:
3743:
3742:
3740:
3739:
3734:
3729:
3724:
3718:
3716:
3710:
3709:
3707:
3706:
3701:
3700:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3643:
3642:
3632:
3626:
3624:
3618:
3617:
3615:
3614:
3609:
3608:
3607:
3602:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3556:
3555:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3524:
3522:
3516:
3515:
3510:
3509:
3502:
3495:
3487:
3478:
3477:
3475:
3474:
3462:
3449:
3446:
3445:
3442:
3441:
3439:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3416:Paul R. McHugh
3413:
3407:
3405:
3401:
3400:
3398:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3376:
3374:
3370:
3369:
3367:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3274:Ivan Izquierdo
3271:
3266:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3235:
3233:
3226:
3222:
3221:
3219:
3218:
3211:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3173:
3172:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3132:
3127:
3121:
3119:
3115:
3114:
3112:
3111:
3106:
3105:
3104:
3093:
3091:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3047:
3046:
3041:
3031:
3025:
3023:
3019:
3018:
3016:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2994:
2993:
2982:
2980:
2976:
2975:
2973:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2956:
2954:
2948:
2947:
2945:
2944:
2939:
2938:
2937:
2927:
2922:
2916:
2914:
2908:
2907:
2905:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2872:Hindsight bias
2869:
2864:
2858:
2856:
2850:
2849:
2847:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2819:Memory erasure
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2800:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2777:post-traumatic
2774:
2769:
2764:
2753:
2751:
2745:
2744:
2741:
2740:
2738:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2715:Personal-event
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2691:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2670:
2665:
2659:
2657:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2647:
2645:Working memory
2642:
2634:
2632:
2626:
2625:
2623:
2622:
2617:
2615:Motor learning
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2586:
2584:
2575:
2571:
2570:
2568:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2551:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2534:
2532:
2531:Basic concepts
2528:
2527:
2520:
2519:
2512:
2505:
2497:
2489:
2488:
2479:
2432:
2423:
2412:(4): 381–391.
2396:
2387:
2352:(3): 249–255.
2336:
2309:(3): 157–163.
2293:
2264:(5): 913–919.
2237:
2202:(2): 263–273.
2183:
2156:(1): 237–244.
2136:
2092:
2071:
2036:(8): 822–837.
2017:
1969:
1913:
1878:(3): 283–300.
1862:
1829:
1804:
1789:
1763:
1744:(5): 521–536.
1725:
1713:
1704:
1695:
1686:
1677:
1668:
1649:
1634:
1603:
1594:
1587:
1568:
1547:(2): 119–120.
1524:
1515:
1500:
1477:
1468:
1459:
1450:
1441:
1432:
1423:
1403:
1369:
1355:
1346:
1332:
1297:(5): 793–802.
1281:
1266:
1257:
1242:
1233:
1220:
1198:
1188:
1153:(4): 302–309.
1133:
1100:
1087:
1058:
1049:
1029:
1020:
983:
965:
956:
947:
938:
931:
911:
895:
883:
871:
864:
840:
839:
837:
834:
806:
803:
767:
764:
751:
748:
730:
727:
721:
718:
712:
709:
693:
690:
669:Main article:
666:
663:
637:generate group
624:Main article:
621:
618:
611:Vase or faces?
604:
601:
592:Main article:
589:
586:
576:
573:
563:
560:
524:Main article:
521:
518:
512:
509:
496:
493:
491:
488:
479:
476:
462:American Penny
443:
440:
434:
431:
418:
415:
405:
402:
375:
372:
359:
356:
322:
319:
299:
296:
267:Main article:
256:
253:
244:
241:
235:
232:
206:
203:
194:Main article:
191:
188:
175:working memory
165:
162:
153:
150:
110:Gestalt theory
91:learning curve
62:
59:
55:Working memory
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3841:
3830:
3827:
3826:
3824:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3750:
3748:
3744:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3722:Consolidation
3720:
3719:
3717:
3715:
3711:
3705:
3702:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3684:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3662:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3641:
3638:
3637:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3627:
3625:
3623:
3619:
3613:
3610:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3597:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3570:Consciousness
3568:
3566:
3565:Comprehension
3563:
3561:
3558:
3554:
3551:
3550:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3525:
3523:
3521:
3517:
3508:
3503:
3501:
3496:
3494:
3489:
3488:
3485:
3473:
3463:
3461:
3451:
3450:
3447:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3408:
3406:
3402:
3396:
3395:Clive Wearing
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3377:
3375:
3371:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3359:Endel Tulving
3357:
3355:
3354:Anne Treisman
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3314:Brenda Milner
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3299:James McGaugh
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3264:Sigmund Freud
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3236:
3234:
3230:
3227:
3223:
3217:
3216:
3212:
3209:
3208:retrospective
3205:
3202:
3198:
3195:
3194:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3187:Muscle memory
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3171:
3168:
3167:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3140:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3122:
3120:
3116:
3110:
3107:
3103:
3100:
3099:
3098:
3095:
3094:
3092:
3088:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3036:
3035:
3034:Art of memory
3032:
3030:
3027:
3026:
3024:
3020:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2992:
2989:
2988:
2987:
2984:
2983:
2981:
2977:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2957:
2955:
2953:
2949:
2943:
2940:
2936:
2933:
2932:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2917:
2915:
2913:
2909:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2882:Memory biases
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2862:Confabulation
2860:
2859:
2857:
2855:
2854:Memory errors
2851:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2772:post-hypnotic
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2759:
2758:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2750:
2746:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2725:Rote learning
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2700:Hyperthymesia
2698:
2696:
2693:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2675:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2663:Active recall
2661:
2660:
2658:
2656:
2652:
2646:
2643:
2640:
2636:
2635:
2633:
2631:
2627:
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2560:Consolidation
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2035:
2031:
2024:
2022:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1978:
1976:
1974:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1909:
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1773:Make It Stick
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1663:9780190292867
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1497:
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1427:
1421:(6), 599–607.
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1111:
1104:
1094:
1092:
1083:
1077:
1069:
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1053:
1046:
1042:
1041:Gabrieli, JD.
1036:
1034:
1024:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1002:
994:
990:
986:
980:
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865:9781285763880
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559:
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517:
511:Visual Images
508:
505:
501:
487:
484:
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473:
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460:
456:
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448:
439:
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428:
427:task negative
424:
423:task positive
414:
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371:
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353:
349:
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341:
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328:
318:
314:
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295:
292:
288:
287:NMDA receptor
284:
278:
276:
270:
261:
252:
249:
240:
231:
229:
224:
218:
216:
212:
202:
197:
187:
184:
180:
176:
172:
171:iconic memory
161:
158:
149:
147:
146:Endel Tulving
143:
139:
135:
134:Alan Baddeley
131:
127:
123:
118:
113:
111:
107:
103:
99:
94:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
67:
58:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
19:
3726:
3426:Ben Pridmore
3344:Larry Squire
3254:Susan Clancy
3213:
3097:Memory sport
3022:Other topics
2912:False memory
2867:Cryptomnesia
2844:Weapon focus
2804:Decay theory
2565:Neuroanatomy
2537:
2524:Human memory
2482:
2449:
2445:
2435:
2426:
2409:
2405:
2399:
2390:
2349:
2345:
2339:
2306:
2302:
2296:
2261:
2257:
2199:
2195:
2153:
2149:
2139:
2106:
2102:
2095:
2083:. Retrieved
2074:
2033:
2029:
1990:(1): 26–38.
1987:
1983:
1931:
1927:
1875:
1871:
1865:
1820:
1772:
1766:
1741:
1737:
1707:
1698:
1689:
1680:
1671:
1656:
1652:
1625:
1597:
1577:
1571:
1544:
1541:Psychon. Sci
1540:
1527:
1518:
1491:
1471:
1462:
1453:
1444:
1435:
1426:
1418:
1414:
1389:
1385:
1372:
1349:
1294:
1290:
1284:
1260:
1236:
1228:
1223:
1191:
1150:
1146:
1136:
1117:
1113:
1103:
1067:
1061:
1052:
1023:
974:
968:
959:
950:
941:
921:
914:
855:
831:
823:
819:
815:
808:
800:
796:
792:
769:
760:
753:
736:
732:
723:
714:
705:
686:
674:
658:
654:
650:
647:
643:
640:
636:
632:
629:
614:
597:
582:
578:
569:
565:
540:
537:
514:
502:
498:
495:Organization
485:
481:
469:
465:
451:
446:
445:
436:
420:
407:
377:
361:
324:
315:
311:
301:
279:
272:
250:
246:
243:Other senses
237:
219:
208:
199:
167:
159:
155:
138:Graham Hitch
114:
95:
72:
46:
34:
29:
3612:Prospection
3585:Imagination
3548:Forecasting
3528:Association
3284:Eric Kandel
3232:Researchers
3204:Prospective
3155:Free recall
3109:Shas Pollak
2762:anterograde
2678:Declarative
2452:: 141–152.
1120:: 126–146.
1045:Glover, GH.
772:free recall
766:Free Recall
756:cued recall
750:Cued Recall
744:random walk
556:pointillism
98:Ivan Pavlov
3793:Mental set
3672:Peripheral
3622:Perception
3605:strategies
3319:Lynn Nadel
3197:intertrial
3182:Metamemory
3170:flashbacks
3090:In society
2787:retrograde
2749:Forgetting
2720:Procedural
2630:Short-term
2600:Eyewitness
1644:1120695526
1279:1163–1167.
1229:Psychology
836:References
786:(STS) and
633:read group
275:perception
3768:Intention
3753:Attention
3687:Harmonics
3640:RGB model
3590:Intuition
3560:Foresight
3553:affective
3533:Awareness
3520:Cognition
3071:Nutrition
2979:In groups
2792:selective
2767:childhood
2695:Flashbulb
2655:Long-term
2555:Attention
2474:149703416
2466:0749-596X
2366:0956-7976
2323:0963-7214
2280:0090-502X
2216:1939-1285
2050:0965-8211
2004:1939-2222
1948:0956-7976
1892:1088-8683
1847:cite book
1839:885178247
1799:147985528
1758:0749-596X
1510:688559444
1311:0898-929X
1167:0033-555X
1076:cite book
1001:cite book
993:867050087
526:Mnemonics
520:Mnemonics
291:glutamate
215:mnemonics
75:Aristotle
3823:Category
3808:Volition
3798:Thinking
3778:Learning
3727:Encoding
3373:Patients
3044:mnemonic
3039:chunking
2705:Implicit
2688:Semantic
2683:Episodic
2673:Explicit
2538:Encoding
2382:16067307
2374:16507066
2331:16521013
2288:18630198
2224:17352610
2178:14230747
2170:23357241
2131:23255107
2123:17210138
2085:12 March
2058:18033620
1964:22859904
1956:20855903
1908:25305083
1900:22291045
1563:54088295
1319:16768378
1255:218-221.
1183:39981510
692:Salience
648:generate
562:Chunking
547:acronyms
342:and new
336:synapses
332:proteins
211:chunking
183:amygdala
130:chunking
47:Encoding
3732:Storage
3600:methods
3192:Priming
3118:Related
3061:Emotion
2757:Amnesia
2595:Eidetic
2582:Sensory
2543:Storage
2232:2924502
2066:3744804
2012:2937872
1327:7584537
1196:1533–46
1175:5956072
635:or the
551:rainbow
106:schemas
61:History
3829:Memory
3737:Recall
3714:Memory
3704:Visual
3697:Speech
3677:Social
3657:Haptic
3630:Amodal
3225:People
3210:memory
3141:memory
3081:Trauma
2620:Visual
2610:Iconic
2605:Haptic
2590:Echoic
2548:Recall
2472:
2464:
2380:
2372:
2364:
2329:
2321:
2286:
2278:
2230:
2222:
2214:
2176:
2168:
2129:
2121:
2064:
2056:
2048:
2030:Memory
2010:
2002:
1962:
1954:
1946:
1906:
1898:
1890:
1837:
1827:
1797:
1787:
1756:
1661:
1642:
1632:
1585:
1561:
1508:
1498:
1392:: 88.
1325:
1317:
1309:
1181:
1173:
1165:
1098:17-36.
991:
981:
929:
862:
682:recall
659:saddle
655:horse,
43:recall
35:encode
31:Memory
3746:Other
3692:Pitch
3682:Sound
3661:Touch
3647:Depth
3635:Color
3404:Other
3076:Sleep
3029:Aging
2574:Types
2470:S2CID
2378:S2CID
2327:S2CID
2228:S2CID
2174:S2CID
2127:S2CID
2062:S2CID
1960:S2CID
1904:S2CID
1795:S2CID
1559:S2CID
1537:(PDF)
1382:(PDF)
1323:S2CID
1179:S2CID
651:group
644:group
367:brain
327:brain
152:Types
79:Plato
39:store
3652:Form
3206:and
3137:and
2462:ISSN
2370:PMID
2362:ISSN
2319:ISSN
2284:PMID
2276:ISSN
2220:PMID
2212:ISSN
2166:PMID
2119:PMID
2087:2020
2054:PMID
2046:ISSN
2008:PMID
2000:ISSN
1952:PMID
1944:ISSN
1896:PMID
1888:ISSN
1857:link
1853:link
1835:OCLC
1825:ISBN
1785:ISBN
1754:ISSN
1659:ISBN
1640:OCLC
1630:ISBN
1583:ISBN
1506:OCLC
1496:ISBN
1315:PMID
1307:ISSN
1171:PMID
1163:ISSN
1082:link
1015:link
1011:link
1007:link
989:OCLC
979:ISBN
927:ISBN
860:ISBN
700:and
641:read
425:and
391:and
383:and
213:and
173:and
136:and
117:Hebb
77:and
41:and
2454:doi
2450:105
2414:doi
2354:doi
2311:doi
2266:doi
2204:doi
2158:doi
2111:doi
2038:doi
1992:doi
1988:115
1936:doi
1880:doi
1777:doi
1746:doi
1549:doi
1394:doi
1299:doi
1155:doi
1122:doi
776:SAM
770:In
754:In
3825::
3390:NA
3385:KC
3380:HM
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2460:.
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