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field of mastering are almost entirely dedicated to the purpose; engineered to a high standard, often possessing low signal-to-noise ratios and in many cases, the incorporation of parameter-recall, such as indented potentiometers, or in some more-sophisticated designs, via a digital-controller. Some advocates for digital software claim that plug-ins are capable of processing audio in a mastering context, though without the same degree of signal degradation as those introduced from processors within the analogue domain. The quality of the results varies according to the algorithms used within these processors, which in some cases, can introduce distortions entirely exclusive to the digital domain.
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The process of audio mastering varies depending on the specific needs of the audio to be processed. Mastering engineers need to examine the types of input media, the expectations of the source producer or recipient, the limitations of the end medium and process the subject accordingly. General rules
704:
The mastering engineer is responsible for a final edit of a product and preparation for manufacturing copies. Although there are no official requirements to work as an audio mastering engineer, practitioners often have comprehensive domain knowledge of audio engineering, and in many cases, may hold
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Although tape and other technical advances dramatically improved the audio quality of commercial recordings in the post-war years, the basic constraints of the electro-mechanical mastering process remained, and the inherent physical limitations of the main commercial recording media—the 78 rpm disc
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Generally, mastering engineers use a combination of specialized audio-signal processors, low-distortion-high-bandwidth loudspeakers (and corresponding amplifiers with which to drive them), within a dedicated, acoustically-optimized playback environment. The equipment and processors used within the
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Most mastering engineer accolades are given for their ability to make a mix consistent with respect to subjective factors based on the perception of listeners, regardless of their playback systems and the environment. This is a difficult task due to the varieties of systems now available and the
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each signal input is recorded to its own track on a multi-track recorder. This multi-track tape is mixed down to a mono or stereo master tape. A multi-track tape may be remixed many times, in different ways, by different engineers, giving the possibility of several masters (mono version, stereo
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and other signal restoration and enhancement processes can also be applied as part of the mastering stage. The source material is put in the proper order, commonly referred to as assembly (or 'track') sequencing. These operations prepare the music for either digital or analog, e.g. vinyl,
203:, the mastering process was usually controlled by specialist staff technicians who were conservative in their work practices. These big companies were often reluctant to make changes to their recording and production processes. For example, EMI was very slow in taking up innovations in
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in the mid-1920s, the mastering process became electro-mechanical, and electrically driven mastering lathes came into use for cutting master discs (the cylinder format by then having been superseded). Until the introduction of tape recording, master recordings were almost always cut
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If the material is destined for vinyl release, additional processing, such as dynamic range reduction or frequency-dependent stereo–to–mono fold-down and equalization may be applied to compensate for the limitations of that medium. For compact disc release,
100:, typically located in an adjoining room. The cutting head, driven by the energy transferred from the horn, inscribed a modulated groove into the surface of a rotating cylinder or disc. These masters were usually made from either a soft metal alloy or from
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After the advent of tape it was found that, especially for pop recordings, master recordings could be made so that the resulting record would sound better. This was done by making fine adjustments to the amplitude of sound at different frequency bands
247:(GUI). Although many digital processing tools are common during mastering, it is also very common to use analog media and processing equipment for the mastering stage. Just as in other areas of audio, the benefits and drawbacks of
62:
Mastering requires critical listening; however, software tools exist to facilitate the process. Results depend upon the intent of the engineer, their skills, the accuracy of the speaker monitors, and the listening environment.
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are still a matter for debate. However, in the field of audio mastering, the debate is usually over the use of digital versus analog signal processing rather than the use of digital technology for storage of audio.
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Dynamic range was limited by the fact that if the mastering level was set too high, the cutting head might be damaged during the cutting process or the stylus may jump out of the groove during playback.
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to process and produce a final master. Mastering engineers recommend leaving enough headroom on the mix to avoid distortion. The reduction of dynamics by the mix or mastering engineer has resulted in a
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From the 1950s until the advent of digital recording in the late 1970s, the mastering process typically went through several stages. Once the studio recording on multi-track tape was complete, a final
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Digital systems have higher performance and allow mixing to be performed at lower maximum levels. When mixing to 24-bits with peaks between −3 and −10 dBFS on a mix, the mastering engineer has enough
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in order to optimize sound translation on all playback systems. It is standard practice to make a copy of a master recording—known as a safety copy—in case the master is lost, damaged or stolen.
740:, and also peak, RMS, VU and K meters are frequently used within the audio analysis stage of the process as a means of rendering a visual representation of the audio, or signal, being analysed.
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could the technology be found outside Europe. The introduction of magnetic tape recording enabled master discs to be cut separately in time and space from the actual recording process.
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In the earliest days of the recording industry, all phases of the recording and mastering process were entirely achieved by mechanical processes. Performers sang or played into a large
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have become usual, although analog masters—such as audio tapes—are still being used by the manufacturing industry, particularly by a few engineers who specialize in analog mastering.
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have their own pre-duplication requirements for a finished master. Subsequently, it is rendered either to a physical medium, such as a CD-R or DVD-R, or to computer files, such as a
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Prolonged periods of listening to improperly mastered recordings usually leads to hearing fatigue that ultimately takes the pleasure out of the listening experience.
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Running times were constrained by the diameter of the disc and the density with which grooves could be inscribed on the surface without cutting into each other.
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tape. Prior to the cutting of the master disc, the master tape was often subjected to further electronic treatment by a specialist mastering engineer.
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until the late 1960s, more than a decade after the first commercial 8-track recorders were installed by
American independent studios.
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issues and improve the final sound. Generally, good mastering skills are based on experience, resulting from many years of practice.
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combination playing CD audio, may sound drastically different on a computer-based system playing back a low-
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audio to maximize the sound quality for the intended medium (e.g. applying specific EQ for vinyl)
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In the 1990s, electro-mechanical processes were largely superseded by digital technology, with
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and the master recording was created by the direct transfer of acoustic energy from the
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In the late 1940s, the recording industry was revolutionized by the introduction of
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master music or speech audio material. The best mastering engineers might possess
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Equalize audio across tracks for the purpose of optimized frequency distribution
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Sequence the separate songs or tracks as they will appear on the final release
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was prepared and dubbed down to the master tape, usually either a single-track
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1013:"What's actually going on when people talk about digital vs. analogue masters"
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domain as mono, stereo, or multichannel formats and preparing it for use in
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Transfer the audio to the final master format (CD-ROM, half-inch reel tape,
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1247:"Bernie Grundman wants to change the way you hear music — for the better"
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684:(typically musical content) that has been previously mixed in either the
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513: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1177:. Ontario, Canada: ETDR: University of Western Ontario. pp. 1–72.
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Optimum
Digital Levels with respect to the Full Digital Scale (dBFSD)
619:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
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1272:"Steve Hoffman: Mastering The Beach Boys, Miles Davis, & More"
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version, LP version, AM radio version, single version, etc.).
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effect it has on the apparent qualitative attributes of the
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and production skills, allowing them to "trouble-shoot"
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Steps of the process typically include the following:
328:(ISRC) and other information necessary to replicate a
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Examples of possible actions taken during mastering:
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and other processes. Additional operations, such as
136:. Magnetic tape was invented for recording sound by
1297:"George Marino, Legendary Mastering Engineer, Dies"
348:that will generate metal stampers for replication.
156:and later the 7-inch 45 rpm single and 33-1/3 rpm
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425:Arranging tracks in their final sequential order
359:Transferring the recorded audio tracks into the
249:digital technology compared to analog technology
324:are defined for playback navigation along with
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283:The source material, ideally at the original
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476:Learn how and when to remove these messages
398:to eliminate clicks, dropouts, hum and hiss
196:) prior to the cutting of the master disc.
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925:Grammy Award for Best Surround Sound Album
28:was commonly used to create master copies.
1760:Music technology (electronic and digital)
653:Learn how and when to remove this message
635:Learn how and when to remove this message
573:Learn how and when to remove this message
1270:Hanlon, Keith (September–October 2011).
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326:International Standard Recording Code
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199:In large recording companies such as
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511:adding citations to reliable sources
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172:Electro-mechanical mastering process
1174:Audio Mastering as Musical Practice
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1194:The Directory of Mastering Studios
428:Fading out the ending of each song
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1601:Recording studio as an instrument
1188:Vinatea, Edward (24 April 2010).
775:Notable audio mastering engineers
705:an audio or acoustic engineering
457:This section has multiple issues.
276:A common mastering processor for
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1155:How much headroom for mastering?
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352:of thumb can rarely be applied.
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148:in 1898. Not until the end of
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1090:"New Technique Aids LP Waxing"
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111:After the introduction of the
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1214:Southall, Nick (1 May 2006).
1029:Blair Jackson (May 1, 2006).
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96:of the recording horn to the
16:Form of audio post-production
1784:Record production portal
1031:"Issues in Modern Mastering"
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1755:Music technology (electric)
1295:Barnes, Mike (2012-06-04).
1245:Wood, Mikael (2017-10-27).
950:2008 Universal Studios fire
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615:the claims made and adding
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1116:. Macmillan. p. 143.
1112:; Hornsby, Jeremy (1994).
361:Digital Audio Workstation
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264:in commercial recordings.
128:Emergence of magnetic tape
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1216:"Imperfect Sound Forever"
1190:"Understanding Mastering"
338:Disc Description Protocol
278:dynamic range compression
241:digital audio workstation
73:dynamic range compression
1142:August 27, 2007, at the
1061:"Mastering Then and Now"
955:
700:Education and experience
245:graphical user interface
1171:Shelvock, Matt (2012).
142:magnetic wire recording
1814:Optical disc authoring
872:George "Porky" Peckham
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522:"Mastering" audio
401:Adjusting stereo width
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29:
1672:Ghostwriters in music
988:multi-track recording
744:Aspects of their work
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381:PCM 1630 U-matic tape
340:(DDP) file set or an
287:, is processed using
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205:multi-track recording
37:audio post production
24:
1137:Bob Katz Mixing Tips
1114:All you need is ears
507:improve this article
117:electronic amplifier
55:). In recent years,
1809:Mastering engineers
734:Real-time analyzers
671:disc cutting lathes
391:Editing minor flaws
65:Mastering engineers
45:data storage device
1586:Hip hop production
1301:Hollywood Reporter
1226:on 3 December 2017
1015:. 18 October 2017.
678:mastering engineer
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600:possibly contains
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229:digital recordings
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215:Digital technology
209:Abbey Road Studios
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1804:Audio engineering
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1393:Critical distance
1251:Los Angeles Times
852:Stephen Marcussen
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1067:. Archived from
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1413:Wah-wah pedal
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1071:on 2017-11-24
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882:Shadab Rayeen
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867:Mandy Parnell
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862:Randy Merrill
860:
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857:George Marino
855:
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822:Steve Hoffman
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802:Brian Gardner
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738:oscilloscopes
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625:February 2022
618:
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598:This section
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534:
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527:
524: –
523:
519:
518:Find sources:
512:
508:
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501:
496:This section
494:
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463:
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407:Adjust volume
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308:replication.
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184:or two-track
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169:
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162:dynamic range
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134:magnetic tape
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90:acoustic horn
76:
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58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
27:
26:Magnetic tape
23:
19:
1775:
1740:Loudness war
1707:Ghost singer
1682:Orchestrator
1677:Horn section
1560:Reverse echo
1520:Equalization
1490:Delay effect
1440:Punch in/out
1435:Ping-ponging
1403:Effects unit
1398:Effects loop
1388:Audio mixing
1382:
1378:Audio filter
1315:
1304:. Retrieved
1300:
1290:
1279:. Retrieved
1275:
1265:
1254:. Retrieved
1250:
1240:
1228:. Retrieved
1224:the original
1219:
1209:
1197:. Retrieved
1193:
1183:
1173:
1150:
1132:
1113:
1104:
1098:, 1950-03-25
1093:
1084:
1073:. Retrieved
1069:the original
1064:
1039:the original
1035:Mix Magazine
1034:
1007:
982:
973:
964:
935:Loudness war
797:P. A. Deepak
770:
747:
732:
728:
703:
694:distribution
677:
675:
649:
631:
622:
599:
569:
563:October 2008
560:
550:
543:
536:
529:
517:
505:Please help
500:verification
497:
473:
466:
460:
459:Please help
456:
386:
354:
350:
346:glass master
321:
318:end of track
317:
313:
310:
289:equalization
282:
262:loudness war
254:
226:
198:
194:equalization
190:
175:
166:compact disc
154:
150:World War II
131:
110:
105:
87:
69:equalization
67:often apply
64:
61:
35:, a form of
32:
31:
18:
1730:Click track
1714:Vocal coach
1657:Backup band
1637:professions
1611:Turntablism
1485:Compression
1470:Pitch shift
1430:Overdubbing
1370:Engineering
912:Leon Zervos
877:Eric Pillai
842:Emily Lazar
792:Tony Dawsey
715:arrangement
372:Process or
293:compression
53:replication
1798:Categories
1662:Bandleader
1621:Xenochrony
1576:aesthetics
1540:Noise gate
1500:Distortion
1462:processing
1425:Microphone
1306:2020-01-26
1281:2020-01-26
1256:2020-01-26
1230:2 February
1199:2 February
1075:2016-01-19
999:References
892:H. Sridhar
847:Bob Ludwig
837:Heba Kadry
827:Ted Jensen
812:Kevin Gray
787:Greg Calbi
609:improve it
533:newspapers
462:improve it
418:Inserting
414:Peak limit
285:resolution
231:stored on
113:microphone
1572:Practices
1475:Auto-Tune
1450:Tape loop
1420:Diffusion
1095:Billboard
1065:Recording
940:Album era
897:Ray Staff
759:amplifier
751:recording
725:Equipment
613:verifying
468:talk page
394:Applying
342:ISO image
334:cassettes
158:LP record
94:diaphragm
84:Pre-1940s
41:final mix
33:Mastering
1647:Arranger
1606:Sampling
1530:Flanging
1408:Talk box
1140:Archived
945:Remaster
919:See also
887:Doug Sax
832:Bob Katz
736:, phase
686:analogue
438:Engineer
297:limiting
257:headroom
1550:Pumping
1515:Ducking
1460:Signal
763:bitrate
755:speaker
709:. Most
690:digital
607:Please
547:scholar
383:, etc.)
374:sweeten
322:indexes
301:editing
268:Process
79:History
1750:Medley
1745:Mashup
1555:Reverb
1545:Phaser
1220:Stylus
1120:
707:degree
549:
542:
535:
528:
520:
432:Dither
320:, and
239:. The
186:stereo
106:waxing
49:master
1765:Remix
1723:Other
1633:Roles
1591:Lo-fi
1494:STEED
956:Notes
682:audio
554:JSTOR
540:books
363:(DAW)
47:(the
43:to a
1232:2018
1201:2018
1118:ISBN
930:PMCD
526:news
420:ISRC
182:mono
115:and
71:and
1509:ADT
986:In
766:MP3
719:mix
688:or
611:by
509:by
201:EMI
178:mix
144:by
102:wax
1800::
1667:DJ
1299:.
1274:.
1249:.
1218:.
1192:.
1161:^
1092:,
1063:.
1047:^
1033:.
1021:^
676:A
471:.
330:CD
316:,
295:,
291:,
237:CD
168:.
1511:)
1507:(
1496:)
1492:(
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561:(
551:·
544:·
537:·
530:·
503:.
478:)
474:(
192:(
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