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field of mastering are almost entirely dedicated to the purpose; engineered to a high standard, often possessing low signal-to-noise ratios and in many cases, the incorporation of parameter-recall, such as indented potentiometers, or in some more-sophisticated designs, via a digital-controller. Some advocates for digital software claim that plug-ins are capable of processing audio in a mastering context, though without the same degree of signal degradation as those introduced from processors within the analogue domain. The quality of the results varies according to the algorithms used within these processors, which in some cases, can introduce distortions entirely exclusive to the digital domain.
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The process of audio mastering varies depending on the specific needs of the audio to be processed. Mastering engineers need to examine the types of input media, the expectations of the source producer or recipient, the limitations of the end medium and process the subject accordingly. General rules
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The mastering engineer is responsible for a final edit of a product and preparation for manufacturing copies. Although there are no official requirements to work as an audio mastering engineer, practitioners often have comprehensive domain knowledge of audio engineering, and in many cases, may hold
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Although tape and other technical advances dramatically improved the audio quality of commercial recordings in the post-war years, the basic constraints of the electro-mechanical mastering process remained, and the inherent physical limitations of the main commercial recording media—the 78 rpm disc
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Generally, mastering engineers use a combination of specialized audio-signal processors, low-distortion-high-bandwidth loudspeakers (and corresponding amplifiers with which to drive them), within a dedicated, acoustically-optimized playback environment. The equipment and processors used within the
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Most mastering engineer accolades are given for their ability to make a mix consistent with respect to subjective factors based on the perception of listeners, regardless of their playback systems and the environment. This is a difficult task due to the varieties of systems now available and the
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each signal input is recorded to its own track on a multi-track recorder. This multi-track tape is mixed down to a mono or stereo master tape. A multi-track tape may be remixed many times, in different ways, by different engineers, giving the possibility of several masters (mono version, stereo
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and other signal restoration and enhancement processes can also be applied as part of the mastering stage. The source material is put in the proper order, commonly referred to as assembly (or 'track') sequencing. These operations prepare the music for either digital or analog, e.g. vinyl,
214:, the mastering process was usually controlled by specialist staff technicians who were conservative in their work practices. These big companies were often reluctant to make changes to their recording and production processes. For example, EMI was very slow in taking up innovations in
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in the mid-1920s, the mastering process became electro-mechanical, and electrically driven mastering lathes came into use for cutting master discs (the cylinder format by then having been superseded). Until the introduction of tape recording, master recordings were almost always cut
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If the material is destined for vinyl release, additional processing, such as dynamic range reduction or frequency-dependent stereo–to–mono fold-down and equalization may be applied to compensate for the limitations of that medium. For compact disc release,
111:, typically located in an adjoining room. The cutting head, driven by the energy transferred from the horn, inscribed a modulated groove into the surface of a rotating cylinder or disc. These masters were usually made from either a soft metal alloy or from
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After the advent of tape it was found that, especially for pop recordings, master recordings could be made so that the resulting record would sound better. This was done by making fine adjustments to the amplitude of sound at different frequency bands
258:(GUI). Although many digital processing tools are common during mastering, it is also very common to use analog media and processing equipment for the mastering stage. Just as in other areas of audio, the benefits and drawbacks of
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Mastering requires critical listening; however, software tools exist to facilitate the process. Results depend upon the intent of the engineer, their skills, the accuracy of the speaker monitors, and the listening environment.
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are still a matter for debate. However, in the field of audio mastering, the debate is usually over the use of digital versus analog signal processing rather than the use of digital technology for storage of audio.
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Dynamic range was limited by the fact that if the mastering level was set too high, the cutting head might be damaged during the cutting process or the stylus may jump out of the groove during playback.
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to process and produce a final master. Mastering engineers recommend leaving enough headroom on the mix to avoid distortion. The reduction of dynamics by the mix or mastering engineer has resulted in a
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From the 1950s until the advent of digital recording in the late 1970s, the mastering process typically went through several stages. Once the studio recording on multi-track tape was complete, a final
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Digital systems have higher performance and allow mixing to be performed at lower maximum levels. When mixing to 24-bits with peaks between −3 and −10 dBFS on a mix, the mastering engineer has enough
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in order to optimize sound translation on all playback systems. It is standard practice to make a copy of a master recording—known as a safety copy—in case the master is lost, damaged or stolen.
751:, and also peak, RMS, VU and K meters are frequently used within the audio analysis stage of the process as a means of rendering a visual representation of the audio, or signal, being analysed.
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could the technology be found outside Europe. The introduction of magnetic tape recording enabled master discs to be cut separately in time and space from the actual recording process.
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In the earliest days of the recording industry, all phases of the recording and mastering process were entirely achieved by mechanical processes. Performers sang or played into a large
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have become usual, although analog masters—such as audio tapes—are still being used by the manufacturing industry, particularly by a few engineers who specialize in analog mastering.
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have their own pre-duplication requirements for a finished master. Subsequently, it is rendered either to a physical medium, such as a CD-R or DVD-R, or to computer files, such as a
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Prolonged periods of listening to improperly mastered recordings usually leads to hearing fatigue that ultimately takes the pleasure out of the listening experience.
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Running times were constrained by the diameter of the disc and the density with which grooves could be inscribed on the surface without cutting into each other.
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tape. Prior to the cutting of the master disc, the master tape was often subjected to further electronic treatment by a specialist mastering engineer.
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until the late 1960s, more than a decade after the first commercial 8-track recorders were installed by
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issues and improve the final sound. Generally, good mastering skills are based on experience, resulting from many years of practice.
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combination playing CD audio, may sound drastically different on a computer-based system playing back a low-
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audio to maximize the sound quality for the intended medium (e.g. applying specific EQ for vinyl)
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In the 1990s, electro-mechanical processes were largely superseded by digital technology, with
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and the master recording was created by the direct transfer of acoustic energy from the
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In the late 1940s, the recording industry was revolutionized by the introduction of
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master music or speech audio material. The best mastering engineers might possess
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Equalize audio across tracks for the purpose of optimized frequency distribution
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Sequence the separate songs or tracks as they will appear on the final release
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was prepared and dubbed down to the master tape, usually either a single-track
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1024:"What's actually going on when people talk about digital vs. analogue masters"
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domain as mono, stereo, or multichannel formats and preparing it for use in
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Transfer the audio to the final master format (CD-ROM, half-inch reel tape,
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1258:"Bernie Grundman wants to change the way you hear music — for the better"
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524: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1188:. Ontario, Canada: ETDR: University of Western Ontario. pp. 1–72.
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Optimum
Digital Levels with respect to the Full Digital Scale (dBFSD)
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1283:"Steve Hoffman: Mastering The Beach Boys, Miles Davis, & More"
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version, LP version, AM radio version, single version, etc.).
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effect it has on the apparent qualitative attributes of the
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and production skills, allowing them to "trouble-shoot"
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Steps of the process typically include the following:
339:(ISRC) and other information necessary to replicate a
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Examples of possible actions taken during mastering:
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and other processes. Additional operations, such as
147:. Magnetic tape was invented for recording sound by
1308:"George Marino, Legendary Mastering Engineer, Dies"
359:that will generate metal stampers for replication.
167:and later the 7-inch 45 rpm single and 33-1/3 rpm
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436:Arranging tracks in their final sequential order
370:Transferring the recorded audio tracks into the
260:digital technology compared to analog technology
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487:Learn how and when to remove these messages
409:to eliminate clicks, dropouts, hum and hiss
207:) prior to the cutting of the master disc.
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936:Grammy Award for Best Surround Sound Album
39:was commonly used to create master copies.
1771:Music technology (electronic and digital)
664:Learn how and when to remove this message
646:Learn how and when to remove this message
584:Learn how and when to remove this message
1281:Hanlon, Keith (September–October 2011).
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337:International Standard Recording Code
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210:In large recording companies such as
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522:adding citations to reliable sources
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183:Electro-mechanical mastering process
1185:Audio Mastering as Musical Practice
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1205:The Directory of Mastering Studios
439:Fading out the ending of each song
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1612:Recording studio as an instrument
1199:Vinatea, Edward (24 April 2010).
786:Notable audio mastering engineers
716:an audio or acoustic engineering
468:This section has multiple issues.
287:A common mastering processor for
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1166:How much headroom for mastering?
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363:of thumb can rarely be applied.
246:or digital tape and mastered to
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509:needs additional citations for
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159:in 1898. Not until the end of
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1101:"New Technique Aids LP Waxing"
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122:After the introduction of the
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1225:Southall, Nick (1 May 2006).
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107:of the recording horn to the
27:Form of audio post-production
1795:Record production portal
1042:"Issues in Modern Mastering"
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1766:Music technology (electric)
1306:Barnes, Mike (2012-06-04).
1256:Wood, Mikael (2017-10-27).
961:2008 Universal Studios fire
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626:the claims made and adding
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1127:. Macmillan. p. 143.
1123:; Hornsby, Jeremy (1994).
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139:Emergence of magnetic tape
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1227:"Imperfect Sound Forever"
1201:"Understanding Mastering"
349:Disc Description Protocol
289:dynamic range compression
252:digital audio workstation
84:dynamic range compression
1153:August 27, 2007, at the
1072:"Mastering Then and Now"
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711:Education and experience
256:graphical user interface
1182:Shelvock, Matt (2012).
153:magnetic wire recording
1825:Optical disc authoring
883:George "Porky" Peckham
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533:"Mastering" audio
412:Adjusting stereo width
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1683:Ghostwriters in music
999:multi-track recording
755:Aspects of their work
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392:PCM 1630 U-matic tape
351:(DDP) file set or an
298:, is processed using
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216:multi-track recording
48:audio post production
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1148:Bob Katz Mixing Tips
1125:All you need is ears
518:improve this article
128:electronic amplifier
66:). In recent years,
1820:Mastering engineers
745:Real-time analyzers
682:disc cutting lathes
402:Editing minor flaws
76:Mastering engineers
56:data storage device
1597:Hip hop production
1312:Hollywood Reporter
1237:on 3 December 2017
1026:. 18 October 2017.
689:mastering engineer
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611:possibly contains
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240:digital recordings
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226:Digital technology
220:Abbey Road Studios
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1404:Critical distance
1262:Los Angeles Times
863:Stephen Marcussen
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1491:Chorus effect
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1424:Wah-wah pedal
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1082:on 2017-11-24
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1070:Robert Auld.
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893:Shadab Rayeen
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878:Mandy Parnell
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873:Randy Merrill
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869:
868:George Marino
866:
864:
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833:Steve Hoffman
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813:Brian Gardner
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749:oscilloscopes
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636:February 2022
629:
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609:This section
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549:
545:
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538:
535: –
534:
530:
529:Find sources:
523:
519:
513:
512:
507:This section
505:
501:
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474:
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418:Adjust volume
417:
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319:replication.
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195:or two-track
194:
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173:dynamic range
170:
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145:magnetic tape
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101:acoustic horn
87:
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61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
38:
37:Magnetic tape
34:
30:
19:
1786:
1751:Loudness war
1718:Ghost singer
1693:Orchestrator
1688:Horn section
1571:Reverse echo
1531:Equalization
1501:Delay effect
1451:Punch in/out
1446:Ping-ponging
1414:Effects unit
1409:Effects loop
1399:Audio mixing
1393:
1389:Audio filter
1326:
1315:. Retrieved
1311:
1301:
1290:. Retrieved
1286:
1276:
1265:. Retrieved
1261:
1251:
1239:. Retrieved
1235:the original
1230:
1220:
1208:. Retrieved
1204:
1194:
1184:
1161:
1143:
1124:
1115:
1109:, 1950-03-25
1104:
1095:
1084:. Retrieved
1080:the original
1075:
1050:the original
1046:Mix Magazine
1045:
1018:
993:
984:
975:
946:Loudness war
808:P. A. Deepak
781:
758:
743:
739:
714:
705:distribution
688:
686:
660:
642:
633:
610:
580:
574:October 2008
571:
561:
554:
547:
540:
528:
516:Please help
511:verification
508:
484:
477:
471:
470:Please help
467:
397:
365:
361:
357:glass master
332:
329:end of track
328:
324:
321:
300:equalization
293:
273:loudness war
265:
237:
209:
205:equalization
201:
186:
177:compact disc
165:
161:World War II
142:
121:
116:
98:
80:equalization
78:often apply
75:
72:
46:, a form of
43:
42:
29:
1741:Click track
1725:Vocal coach
1668:Backup band
1648:professions
1622:Turntablism
1496:Compression
1481:Pitch shift
1441:Overdubbing
1381:Engineering
923:Leon Zervos
888:Eric Pillai
853:Emily Lazar
803:Tony Dawsey
726:arrangement
383:Process or
304:compression
64:replication
1809:Categories
1673:Bandleader
1632:Xenochrony
1587:aesthetics
1551:Noise gate
1511:Distortion
1473:processing
1436:Microphone
1317:2020-01-26
1292:2020-01-26
1267:2020-01-26
1241:2 February
1210:2 February
1086:2016-01-19
1010:References
903:H. Sridhar
858:Bob Ludwig
848:Heba Kadry
838:Ted Jensen
823:Kevin Gray
798:Greg Calbi
620:improve it
544:newspapers
473:improve it
429:Inserting
425:Peak limit
296:resolution
242:stored on
124:microphone
1583:Practices
1486:Auto-Tune
1461:Tape loop
1431:Diffusion
1106:Billboard
1076:Recording
951:Album era
908:Ray Staff
770:amplifier
762:recording
736:Equipment
624:verifying
479:talk page
405:Applying
353:ISO image
345:cassettes
169:LP record
105:diaphragm
95:Pre-1940s
52:final mix
44:Mastering
1658:Arranger
1617:Sampling
1541:Flanging
1419:Talk box
1151:Archived
956:Remaster
930:See also
898:Doug Sax
843:Bob Katz
747:, phase
697:analogue
449:Engineer
308:limiting
268:headroom
18:Mastered
1561:Pumping
1526:Ducking
1471:Signal
774:bitrate
766:speaker
720:. Most
701:digital
618:Please
558:scholar
394:, etc.)
385:sweeten
333:indexes
312:editing
279:Process
90:History
1761:Medley
1756:Mashup
1566:Reverb
1556:Phaser
1231:Stylus
1131:
718:degree
560:
553:
546:
539:
531:
443:Dither
331:, and
250:. The
197:stereo
117:waxing
60:master
1776:Remix
1734:Other
1644:Roles
1602:Lo-fi
1505:STEED
967:Notes
693:audio
565:JSTOR
551:books
374:(DAW)
58:(the
54:to a
1243:2018
1212:2018
1129:ISBN
941:PMCD
537:news
431:ISRC
193:mono
126:and
82:and
1520:ADT
997:In
777:MP3
730:mix
699:or
622:by
520:by
212:EMI
189:mix
155:by
113:wax
1811::
1678:DJ
1310:.
1285:.
1260:.
1229:.
1203:.
1172:^
1103:,
1074:.
1058:^
1044:.
1032:^
687:A
482:.
341:CD
327:,
306:,
302:,
248:CD
179:.
1522:)
1518:(
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1503:(
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1358:t
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587:)
581:(
576:)
572:(
562:·
555:·
548:·
541:·
514:.
489:)
485:(
203:(
20:)
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