Ship gun fire-control system

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resulting director system actually weighed about 8,000 pounds (3,600 kg) more than the equipment it was slated to replace, but the Gun Director Mark 37 that emerged from the program possessed virtues that more than compensated for its extra weight. Though the gun orders it provided were the same as those of the Mark 33, it supplied them with greater reliability and gave generally improved performance with 5-inch (13 cm) gun batteries, whether they were used for surface or antiaircraft use. Moreover, the stable element and computer, instead of being contained in the director housing were installed below deck where they were less vulnerable to attack and less of a jeopardy to a ship's stability. The design provided for the ultimate addition of radar, which later permitted blind firing with the director. In fact, the Mark 37 system was almost continually improved. By the end of 1945 the equipment had run through 92 modifications—almost twice the total number of directors of that type which were in the fleet on December 7, 1941. Procurement ultimately totalled 841 units, representing an investment of well over $ 148,000,000. Destroyers, cruisers, battleships, carriers, and many auxiliaries used the directors, with individual installations varying from one aboard destroyers to four on each battleship. The development of the Gun Directors Mark 33 and 37 provided the United States Fleet with good long range fire control against attacking planes. But while that had seemed the most pressing problem at the time the equipments were placed under development, it was but one part of the total problem of air defense. At close-in ranges the accuracy of the directors fell off sharply; even at intermediate ranges they left much to be desired. The weight and size of the equipments militated against rapid movement, making them difficult to shift from one target to another.Their efficiency was thus in inverse proportion to the proximity of danger.

1060: 710:, analog fire-control computer. The entire rangekeeper was mounted in an open director rather than in a separate plotting room as in the RN HACS, or the later Mark 37 GFCS, and this made it difficult to upgrade the Mark 33 GFCS. It could compute firing solutions for targets moving at up to 320 knots, or 400 knots in a dive. Its installations started in the late 1930s on destroyers, cruisers and aircraft carriers with two Mark 33 directors mounted fore and aft of the island. They had no fire-control radar initially, and were aimed only by sight. After 1942, some of these directors were enclosed and had a Mark 4 fire-control radar added to the roof of the director, while others had a Mark 4 radar added over the open director. With the Mark 4 large aircraft at up to 40,000 yards could be targeted. It had less range against low-flying aircraft, and large surface ships had to be within 30,000 yards. With radar, targets could be seen and hit accurately at night, and through weather. The Mark 33 and 37 systems used 1127:. Sailors would stand around a box measuring 62 by 38 by 45 inches (1.57 by 0.97 by 1.14 m). Even though built with extensive use of an aluminum alloy framework (including thick internal mechanism support plates) and computing mechanisms mostly made of aluminum alloy, it weighed as much as a car, about 3,125 pounds (1,417 kg), with the Star Shell Computer Mark 1 adding another 215 pounds (98 kg). It used 115 volts AC, 60 Hz, single phase, and typically a few amperes or even less. Under worst-case fault conditions, its synchros apparently could draw as much as 140 amperes, or 15,000 watts (about the same as 3 houses while using ovens). Almost all of the computer's inputs and outputs were by synchro torque transmitters and receivers. 2048: 1868:

disc/roller integrators as well as shafting to interconnect the mechanical elements. Whereas access to much of the Mark 1A required time-consuming and careful disassembly (think days in some instances, and possibly a week to gain access to deeply buried mechanisms), the Mark 47 was built on thick support plates mounted behind the front panels on slides that permitted its six major sections to be pulled out of its housing for easy access to any of its parts. (The sections, when pulled out, moved fore and aft; they were heavy, not counterbalanced. Typically, a ship rolls through a much larger angle than it pitches.) The Mark 47 probably had 3-D cams for ballistics, but information on it appears very difficult to obtain.

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the rangekeepers are constantly predicting new positions for the target, it is unlikely that subsequent salvos will strike the position of the previous salvo. The direction of the turn is unimportant, as long as it is not predicted by the enemy system. Since the aim of the next salvo depends on observation of the position and speed at the time the previous salvo hits, that is the optimal time to change direction. Practical rangekeepers had to assume that targets were moving in a straight-line path at a constant speed, to keep complexity to acceptable limits. A sonar rangekeeper was built to include a target circling at a constant radius of turn, but that function had been disabled.

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different gun types (e.g.: 5"/38cal and 3"/50cal) against the same target. Its Mark 35 Radar was capable of automatic tracking in bearing, elevation, and range that was as accurate as any optical tracking. The whole system could be controlled from the below decks Plotting Room with or without the director being manned. This allowed for rapid target acquisition when a target was first detected and designated by the ship's air-search radar, and not yet visible from on deck. Its target solution time was less than 2 seconds after Mark 35 radar "Lock on". It was designed toward the end of World War II, apparently in response to Japanese kamikaze aircraft attacks. It was conceived by

1670:(ship's speed), the Stable Vertical (ship's deck tilt, sensed as level and crosslevel), and the ship's anemometer (relative wind speed and direction). Also, before the surface action started, the FT's made manual inputs for the average initial velocity of the projectiles fired out of the battery's gun barrels, and air density. With all this information, the rangekeeper calculated the relative motion between its ship and the target. It then could calculate an offset angle and change of range between the target's present position (LOS) and future position at the end of the projectile's time of flight. To this bearing and range offset, it added corrections for gravity, wind, 1856: 2096: 1797:. Its gun director was not shaped like a box, and it had no optical rangefinder. The system was manned by crew of four. On the left side of the director, was the Cockpit where the Control Officer stood behind the sitting Director Operator (Also called Director Pointer). Below decks in Plot, was the Mark 4 Radar Console where the Radar Operator and Radar Tracker sat. The director's movement in bearing was unlimited because it had slip-rings in its pedestal. (The Mark 37 gun director had a cable connection to the hull, and occasionally had to be "unwound".) Fig. 26E8 on 1111: 519:

splash-chasing escort carriers until after an hour of pursuit had reduced the range to 5 miles (8.0 km). Although the Japanese pursued a doctrine of achieving superiority at long gun ranges, one cruiser fell victim to secondary explosions caused by hits from the carriers' single 5-inch guns. Eventually with the aid of hundreds of carrier based aircraft, a battered Center Force was turned back just before it could have finished off survivors of the lightly armed task force of screening escorts and escort carriers of Taffy 3. The earlier

594: 456:"pointer following" but the crews tended to make inadvertent errors when they became fatigued during extended battles. During World War II, servomechanisms (called "power drives" in the US Navy) were developed that allowed the guns to automatically steer to the rangekeeper's commands with no manual intervention, though pointers still worked even if automatic control was lost. The Mark 1 and Mark 1A computers contained approximately 20 servomechanisms, mostly position servos, to minimize torque load on the computing mechanisms. 1626: 1903: 469:

measured elevation and the other bearing. Rangefinder telescopes on a separate mounting measured the distance to the target. These measurements were converted by the Fire Control Table into bearings and elevations for the guns to fire on. In the turrets, the gunlayers adjusted the elevation of their guns to match an indicator which was the elevation transmitted from the Fire Control Table—a turret layer did the same for bearing. When the guns were on target they were centrally fired.

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some observers in simulated air attack exercises prior to hostilities. However, final recognition of the seriousness of the deficiency and initiation of replacement plans were delayed by the below decks space difficulty, mentioned in connection with the replacement. Furthermore, priorities of replacements of older and less effective director systems in the crowded wartime production program were responsible for the fact the service was lengthened to the cessation of hostilities.

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mouse, converted the received corrections into target motion vector values. The Mark 1 computer attempted to do the coordinate conversion (in part) with a rectangular-to polar converter, but that didn't work as well as desired (sometimes trying to make target speed negative!). Part of the design changes that defined the Mark 1A were a re-thinking of how to best use these special coordinate converters; the coordinate converter ("vector solver") was eliminated.

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element was below decks in Plot, next to the Mark 1/1A computer, its internal gimbals followed director motion in bearing and elevation so that it provided level and crosslevel data directly. To do so, accurately, when the fire control system was initially installed, a surveyor, working in several stages, transferred the position of the gun director into Plot so the stable element's own internal mechanism was properly aligned to the director.

1609:) was situated on top of the fire control tower. The director was equipped with optical sights, optical Mark 48 Rangefinder (the long thin boxes sticking out each side), and a Mark 13 Fire Control Radar antenna (the rectangular shape sitting on top). The purpose of the director was to track the target's present bearing and range. This could be done optically with the men inside using the sights and Rangefinder, or electronically with the 2077:. It combines the Mark 45 5"/54 or 5"/62 Caliber Gun Mount, Mark 46 Optical Sight System or Mark 20 Electro-Optical Sight System and the Mark 160 Mod 4–11 Gunfire Control System / Gun Computer System. Other versions of the Mark 34 GWS are used by foreign navies as well as the US Coast Guard, with each configuration having its own unique camera and/or gun system. It can be used against surface ship and close hostile aircraft, and as in 1682: 1139:

to values matching those of the target. While converging, the computer fed aided-tracking ("generated") range, bearing, and elevation to the gun director. If the target remained on a straight-line course at a constant speed (and in the case of aircraft, constant rate of change of altitude ("rate of climb"), the predictions became accurate and, with further computation, gave correct values for the gun lead angles and fuze setting.

1226: 1585:-class battleships. The radar systems used by the Mark 38 GFCS were far more advanced than the primitive radar sets used by the Japanese in World War II. The major components were the director, plotting room, and interconnecting data transmission equipment. The two systems, forward and aft, were complete and independent. Their plotting rooms were isolated to protect against battle damage propagating from one to the other. 1102:(In the early 20th century, successive range and/or bearing readings were probably plotted either by hand or by the fire control devices (or both). Humans were very good data filters, able to plot a useful trend line given somewhat-inconsistent readings. As well, the Mark 8 Rangekeeper included a plotter. The distinctive name for the fire-control equipment room took root, and persisted even when there were no plotters.) 1730: 1754: 213:

upon the observation of preceding shots. More sophisticated fire control systems consider more of these factors rather than relying on simple correction of observed fall of shot. Differently colored dye markers were sometimes included with large shells so individual guns, or individual ships in formation, could distinguish their shell splashes during daylight. Early "computers" were people using numerical tables.

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computer, but the type of data transmission of all such shafts did not represent magnitude; only the incremental rotation of such shafts conveyed data, and it was summed by differentials at the receiving end. One such kind of quantity is the output from the roller of a mechanical integrator; the position of the roller at any given time is immaterial; it is only the incrementing and decrementing that counts.

3727: 1237:) in this fire control system is the same as the function of the Mark 41 Stable Vertical in the main battery system. It is a vertical seeking gyroscope ("vertical gyro", in today's terms) that supplies the system with a stable up direction on a rolling and pitching ship. In surface mode, it replaces the director's elevation signal. It also has the surface mode firing keys. 1241:

but slowly (several seconds) because of the tube's restriction. If the gyro's spin axis is not vertical, the added weight in the lower tank would pull the housing over if it were not for the gyro and the housing's rotation. That rotational speed and rate of mercury flow combine to put the heavier tank in the best position to make the gyro precess toward the vertical.

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caused by differences in individual guns, individual projectiles, powder ignition sequences, and transient distortion of ship structure was undesirably large at typical naval engagement ranges. Directors high on the superstructure had a better view of the enemy than a turret mounted sight, and the crew operating it were distant from the sound and shock of the guns.

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mirror image, forming a circle with a diametral crossover. One coil is displaced by 90 degrees. If the bowl (called an "umbrella") is not centered above the exciter coil, either or both coils have an output that represents the offset. This voltage is phase-detected and amplified to drive two DC servo motors to position the umbrella in line with the coil.

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gentle manual acceleration of the "time line" (integrators) to prevent possible slippage errors when the time motor was switched on; the time motor was switched off before the run was complete, and the computer was allowed to coast down. Easy manual cranking of the time line brought the dynamic test to its desired end point, when dials were read.

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battleship main armament. But many Royal Navy battleships and cruisers were fitted with remote power control (RPC) via servomotors for secondary and primary armament, by the end of the war, with RPC first appearing on Vickers 40 mm (2 in) (Pom Pom) 4– and 8–barrel mounts in late 1941.

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The Mark 13 FC Radar supplied present target range, and it showed the fall of shot around the target so the Gunnery Officer could correct the system's aim with range and deflection spots put into the rangekeeper. It could also automatically track the target by controlling the director's bearing power

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The rangekeeper's target position prediction characteristics could be used to defeat the rangekeeper. For example, many captains under long range gun attack would make violent maneuvers to "chase salvos." A ship that is chasing salvos is maneuvering to the position of the last salvo splashes. Because

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low angle analog computer in 1932. The US Navy Rangekeeper and the Mark 38 GFCS had an edge over Imperial Japanese Navy systems in operability and flexibility. The US system allowing the plotting room team to quickly identify target motion changes and apply appropriate corrections. The newer Japanese

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During their long service life, rangekeepers were updated often as technology advanced and by World War II they were a critical part of an integrated fire control system. The incorporation of radar into the fire control system early in World War II provided ships with the ability to conduct effective

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Unmeasured and uncontrollable ballistic factors like high altitude temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, wind direction and velocity required final adjustment through observation of fall of shot. Visual range measurement (of both target and shell splashes) was difficult prior to availability of

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for their guns; both the US Navy and Japanese Navy used visual correction of shots using shell splashes or air bursts, while the US Navy augmented visual spotting with radar. Digital computers would not be adopted for this purpose by the US until the mid-1970s; however, it must be emphasized that all

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It is based on a gyroscope that erects so its spin axis is vertical. The housing for the gyro rotor rotates at a low speed, on the order of 18 rpm. On opposite sides of the housing are two small tanks, partially filled with mercury, and connected by a capillary tube. Mercury flows to the lower tank,

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Central aiming from a gun director has a minor complication in that the guns are often far enough away from the director to require parallax correction so they aim correctly. In the Mark 37 GFCS, the Mark 1/1A sent parallax data to all gun mounts; each mount had its own scale factor (and "polarity")

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The anti-aircraft fire control problem was more complicated because it had the additional requirement of tracking the target in elevation and making target predictions in three dimensions. The outputs of the Mark 1A were the same (gun bearing and elevation), except fuze time was added. The fuze time

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The process of determining the target's motion vector was done primarily with an accurate constant-speed motor, disk-ball-roller integrators, nonlinear cams, mechanical resolvers, and differentials. Four special coordinate converters, each with a mechanism in part like that of a traditional computer

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In operation, this computer received target range, bearing, and elevation from the gun director. As long as the director was on target, clutches in the computer were closed, and movement of the gun director (along with changes in range) made the computer converge its internal values of target motion

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Unlike modern attitude indicators on airplanes with a gyro, the naval artificial horizon gauges of the time (called 'inclinometer' or 'clinometer') were not much more than "a glass of water on the table" to measure the ship's rolling and pitching angles. When they are made sensitive to the changes,

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Generally speaking, these computers were very well designed and built, very rugged, and almost trouble-free, frequent tests included entering values via the handcranks and reading results on the dials, with the time motor stopped. These were static tests. Dynamic tests were done similarly, but used

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The Stable Element, which in contemporary terminology would be called a vertical gyro, stabilized the sights in the director, and provided data to compute stabilizing corrections to the gun orders. Gun lead angles meant that gun-stabilizing commands differed from those needed to keep the director's

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used in the Mark 38 GFCS except that some of the targets the Mark 1A had to deal with also moved in elevation—and much faster. For a surface target, the Secondary Battery's Fire Control problem is the same as the Main Battery's with the same type inputs and outputs. The major difference between the

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In battleships, the Secondary Battery Plotting Rooms were down below the waterline and inside the armor belt. They contained four complete sets of the fire control equipment needed to aim and shoot at four targets. Each set included a Mark 1A computer, a Mark 6 Stable Element, FC radar controls and

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The function of the Mark 37 Director, which resembles a gun mount with "ears" rather than guns, was to track the present position of the target in bearing, elevation, and range. To do this, it had optical sights (the rectangular windows or hatches on the front), an optical rangefinder (the tubes or

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Although superior to older equipment, the computing mechanisms within the range keeper () were too slow, both in reaching initial solutions on first picking up a target and in accommodating frequent changes in solution caused by target maneuvers. The was thus distinctly inadequate, as indicated to

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Web page shows the director in considerable detail. The explanatory drawings of the system show how it works, but are wildly different in physical appearance from the actual internal mechanisms, perhaps intentionally so. However, it omits any significant description of the mechanism of the linkage

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were arguably the best light anti-aircraft weapon of World War II., employed on almost every major warship in the U.S. and UK fleet during World War II from about 1943 to 1945. They were most effective on ships as large as destroyer escorts or larger when coupled with electric-hydraulic drives for

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correctors are needed because the turrets are located hundreds of feet from the director. There is one for each turret, and each has the turret and director distance manually set in. They automatically received relative target bearing (bearing from own ship's bow), and target range. They corrected

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to the United States provided the USN with crucial data on UK and Royal Navy radar technology and fire-control radar systems. In September 1941, the first rectangular Mark 4 Fire-control radar antenna was mounted on a Mark 37 Director, and became a common feature on USN Directors by mid 1942. Soon

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At the top of the gyro assembly, above the compensator, right on center, is an exciter coil fed with low-voltage AC. Above that is a shallow black-painted wooden bowl, inverted. Inlaid in its surface, in grooves, are two coils essentially like two figure 8s, but shaped more like a letter D and its

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In that action, American destroyers pitted against the world's largest armored battleships and cruisers dodged shells for long enough to close to within torpedo firing range, while lobbing hundreds of accurate automatically aimed 5-inch (127 mm) rounds on target. Cruisers did not land hits on

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In a typical World War II British ship the fire control system connected the individual gun turrets to the director tower (where the sighting instruments were) and the analogue computer in the heart of the ship. In the director tower, operators trained their telescopes on the target; one telescope

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Corrections can be made for surface wind velocity, roll and pitch of the firing ship, powder magazine temperature, drift of rifled projectiles, individual gun bore diameter adjusted for shot-to-shot enlargement, and rate-of-change of range with additional modifications to the firing solution based

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Beginning with ships built in the 1960s, warship guns were largely operated by computerized systems, i.e. systems that were controlled by electronic computers, which were integrated with the ship's missile fire-control systems and other ship sensors. As technology advanced, many of these functions

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The degree of updating varied by country. For example, the US Navy used servomechanisms to automatically steer their guns in both azimuth and elevation. The Germans used servomechanisms to steer their guns only in elevation, and the British did not use servomechanisms for this function at all for

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The umbrella support gimbals rotate in bearing with the gun director, and the servo motors generate level and crosslevel stabilizing signals. The Mark 1A's director bearing receiver servo drives the pickoff gimbal frame in the stable element through a shaft between the two devices, and the Stable

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The Earth's rotation is fast enough to need correcting. A small adjustable weight on a threaded rod, and a latitude scale makes the gyro precess at the Earth's equivalent angular rate at the given latitude. The weight, its scale, and frame are mounted on the shaft of a synchro torque receiver fed

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When the ship changes course rapidly at speed, the acceleration due to the turn can be enough to confuse the gyro and make it deviate from true vertical. In such cases, the ship's gyrocompass sends a disabling signal that closes a solenoid valve to block mercury flow between the tanks. The gyro's

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To compute lead angles and time fuze setting, the target motion vector's components as well as its range and altitude, wind direction and speed, and own ship's motion combined to predict the target's location when the shell reached it. This computation was done primarily with mechanical resolvers

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battleships could lob shells over visual horizon, in darkness, through smoke or weather. American systems, in common with many contemporary major navies, had gyroscopic stable vertical elements, so they could keep a solution on a target even during maneuvers. By the start of World War II British,

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protected below armor), although individual gun mounts and multi-gun turrets could retain a local control option for use when battle damage prevented the director setting the guns. Guns could then be fired in planned salvos, with each gun giving a slightly different trajectory. Dispersion of shot

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With the semi-synchronized salvo firing upon his voice command from the bridge, the spotters using stopwatches on the mast could identify the distant salvo of splashes created by the shells from their own ship more effectively than trying to identify a single splash among the many. Kato gave the

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Stabilizing signals from the Stable Element kept the optical sight telescopes, rangefinder, and radar antenna free from the effects of deck tilt. The signal that kept the rangefinder's axis horizontal was called "crosslevel"; elevation stabilization was called simply "level". Although the stable

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Servos in the computer boosted torque accurately to minimize loading on the outputs of computing mechanisms, thereby reducing errors, and also positioned the large synchros that transmitted gun orders (bearing and elevation, sight lead angles, and time fuze setting).These were electromechanical

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in 1916. Because of the limitations of the technology at that time, the initial rangekeepers were crude. For example, during World War I the rangekeepers would generate the necessary angles automatically but sailors had to manually follow the directions of the rangekeepers. This task was called

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Introduced in the early 1950s, the Mark 68 was an upgrade from the Mark 37 effective against air and surface targets. It combined a manned topside director, a conical scan acquisition and tracking radar, an analog computer to compute ballistics solutions, and a gyro stabilization unit. The gun

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This GFCS was an intermediate-range, anti-aircraft gun fire-control system. It was designed for use against high-speed subsonic aircraft. It could also be used against surface targets. It was a dual ballistic system. This means that it was capable of simultaneously producing gun orders for two

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The target's movement was a vector, and if that didn't change, the generated range, bearing, and elevation were accurate for up to 30 seconds. Once the target's motion vector became stable, the computer operators told the gun director officer ("Solution Plot!"), who usually gave the command to

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Different dye-colors were used by the ships in a fleet-to-fleet combat, but the same color was used by the guns on the same ship sometimes with a similar firing timing. The range of the latest 12-inch (305 mm) guns was extended to 7–8 mi (11–13 km) from the previous 4–6 mi

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At least in 1958, the computer was the Mark 47, an hybrid electronic/electromechanical system. Somewhat akin to the Mark 1A, it had electrical high-precision resolvers instead of the mechanical one of earlier machines, and multiplied with precision linear potentiometers. However, it still had

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While the defects were not prohibitive and the Mark 33 remained in production until fairly late in World War II, the Bureau started the development of an improved director in 1936, only 2 years after the first installation of a Mark 33. The objective of weight reduction was not met, since the

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Mechanical connections between major sections were via shafts in the extreme rear, with couplings permitting disconnection without any attention, and probably relief springs to aid re-engagement. One might think that rotating an output shaft by hand in a pulled-out section would misalign the

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Although the rangefinder had significant mass and inertia, the crosslevel servo normally was only lightly loaded, because the rangefinder's own inertia kept it essentially horizontal; the servo's task was usually simply to ensure that the rangefinder and sight telescopes remained horizontal.

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The Mark 86 on Aegis-class ships controls the ship's 5"/54 caliber Mark 45 gun mounts, and can engage up to two targets at a time. It also uses a Remote Optical Sighting system which uses a TV camera with a telephoto zoom lens mounted on the mast and each of the illuminating radars.

441:, while the British were thought by some to have the finest fire control system in the world at that time, only three percent of their shots actually struck their targets. At that time, the British primarily used a manual fire control system. This experience contributed to computing 1737:

The fire control switchboard configured the battery. With it, the Gunnery Officer could mix and match the three turrets to the two GFCSs. He could have the turrets all controlled by the forward system, all controlled by the aft system, or split the battery to shoot at two targets.

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ears sticking out each side), and later models, fire control radar antennas. The rectangular antenna is for the Mark 12 FC radar, and the parabolic antenna on the left ("orange peel") is for the Mark 22 FC radar. They were part of an upgrade to improve tracking of aircraft.

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was needed because the ideal of directly hitting the fast moving aircraft with the projectile was impractical. With fuze time set into the shell, it was hoped that it would explode near enough to the target to destroy it with the shock wave and shrapnel. Towards the end of

392:(later Admiral), who observed how Kato's system worked first hand. From this design on, large warships had a main armament of one size of gun across a number of turrets (which made corrections simpler still), facilitating central fire control via electric triggering. 1260:(The sonar fire-control computer aboard some destroyers of the late 1950s required roll and pitch signals for stabilizing, so a coordinate converter containing synchros, resolvers, and servos calculated the latter from gun director bearing, level, and crosslevel.) 1158:

Based on the predictions, the other three of the three-dimensional cams provided data on ballistics of the gun and ammunition that the computer was designed for; it could not be used for a different size or type of gun except by rebuilding that could take weeks.

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from a formation of ships at a single target was a focus of battleship fleet operations. An officer on the flagship would signal target information to other ships in the formation. This was necessary to exploit the tactical advantage when one fleet succeeded in

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was an electro-mechanical analog ballistic computer. Originally designated the Mark 1, design modifications were extensive enough to change it to "Mark 1A". The Mark 1A appeared post World War II and may have incorporated technology developed for the Bell Labs

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Naval fire control resembles that of ground-based guns, but with no sharp distinction between direct and indirect fire. It is possible to control several same-type guns on a single platform simultaneously, while both the firing guns and the target are moving.

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Twice in its history, internal scale factors were changed, presumably by changing gear ratios. Target speed had a hard upper limit, set by a mechanical stop. It was originally 300 knots (350 mph; 560 km/h), and subsequently doubled in each rebuild.

2277:, the British gunnery performance at Jutland is not that poor. In fact, long range gunnery is notorious for having a low hit percentage. For example, during exercises in 1930 and 1931, US battleships had hit percentages in the 4–6% range (Bill Jurens). 1717:

in flames, and she was ultimately scuttled by her crew. This gave the United States Navy a major advantage in World War II, as the Japanese did not develop radar or automated fire control to the level of the US Navy and were at a significant disadvantage.

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two computers is their ballistics calculations. The amount of gun elevation needed to project a 5-inch (130 mm) shell 9 nautical miles (17 km) is very different from the elevation needed to project a 16-inch (41 cm) shell the same distance.

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sighting. Most US ships that are destroyers or larger (but not destroyer escorts except Brooke class DEG's later designated FFG's or escort carriers) employed gun fire-control systems for 5-inch (127 mm) and larger guns, up to battleships, such as

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whose function was to continuously calculate the gun's bearing and elevation, Line-Of-Fire (LOF), to hit a future position of the target. It did this by automatically receiving information from the director (LOS), the FC Radar (range), the ship's

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As was typical of such computers, flipping a lever on the handcrank's support casting enabled automatic reception of data and disengaged the handcrank gear. Flipped the other way, the gear engaged, and power was cut to the receiver's servo motor.

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with ship's course data from the gyro compass, and compensated by a differential synchro driven by the housing-rotator motor. The little compensator in operation is geographically oriented, so the support rod for the weight points east and west.

329:(voicepipe) and telephone communication from the spotters high on the mast to his position on the bridge where he performed the range and deflection calculations, and from his position to the 12-inch (305 mm) gun turrets forward and astern. 164:

The Mark 37 Gun Fire Control System incorporated the Mark 1 computer, the Mark 37 director, a gyroscopic stable element along with automatic gun control, and was the first US Navy dual-purpose GFCS to separate the computer from the director.

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until 1971. The Mark 86 did not enter service until when the nuclear-powered missile cruiser was commissioned in February 1974, and subsequently installed on US cruisers and amphibious assault ships. The last US ship to receive the system,

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using a combination of optical and radar fire-control; comparisons between optical and radar tracking, during the battle, showed that radar tracking matched optical tracking in accuracy, while radar ranges were used throughout the battle.

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drive. Because of radar, Fire Control systems are able to track and fire at targets at a greater range and with increased accuracy during the day, night, or inclement weather. This was demonstrated in November 1942 when the battleship

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The Mark 33 was used as the main director on some destroyers and as secondary battery / anti-aircraft director on larger ships (i.e. in the same role as the later Mark 37). The guns controlled by it were typically 5 inch weapons: the

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Correctors, Fire Control Switchboard, battle telephone switchboard, battery status indicators, assistant Gunnery Officers, and Fire Controlmen (FC's)(between 1954 and 1982, FC's were designated as Fire Control Technicians (FT's)).

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The computer was completed as the Ford Mark 1 computer by 1935. Rate information for height changes enabled complete solution for aircraft targets moving over 400 miles per hour (640 km/h). Destroyers starting with the

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eliminated the need to use the fuze time calculation and its possible error. This greatly increased the odds of destroying an air target. Digital fire control computers were not introduced into service until the mid-1970s.

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The Director Officer also had a slew sight used to quickly point the director towards a new target. Up to four Mark 37 Gun Fire Control Systems were installed on battleships. On a battleship, the director was protected by

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target motion prediction. The USN never considered the Mark 33 to be a satisfactory system, but wartime production problems, and the added weight and space requirements of the Mark 37 precluded phasing out the Mark 33:

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Ferranti Computer Systems developed the GSA4 digital computerised gunnery fire control system that was deployed on HMS Amazon (Type 21 frigate commissioned in 1974) as part of the WAS4 (Weapon Systems Automation - 4)

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The Forward Main Battery Plotting Room was located below the waterline and inside the armored belt. It housed the forward system's Mark 8 Rangekeeper, Mark 41 Stable Vertical, Mark 13 FC Radar controls and displays,

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for service off Vietnam, three Mark 56 Gun Fire Control Systems were installed. Two on either side just forward of the aft stack, and one between the aft mast and the aft Mark 38 Director tower. This increased

1089:

rotary power-amplifying generators. Although the train Amplidyne was rated at several kilowatts maximum output, its input signal came from a pair of 6L6 audio beam tetrode vacuum tubes (valves, in the U.K.).

337:

gauges in each turret. Moreover, unlike in the gun turrets, he was steps away from the ship commander giving orders to change the course and the speed in response to the incoming reports on target movements.

1875:

Whereas the Mark 1/1A computations for the stabilizing component of gun orders had to be approximations, they were theoretically exact in the Mark 47 computer, computed by an electrical resolver chain.

1689:

The Mark 41 Stable Vertical was a vertical seeking gyroscope, and its function was to tell the rest of the system which-way-is-up on a rolling and pitching ship. It also held the battery's firing keys.

2103:

The Mark 92 fire control system, an Americanized version of the WM-25 system designed in The Netherlands, was approved for service use in 1975. It is deployed on board the relatively small and austere

152:

one or more gun mounts against stationary or moving targets on the surface or in the air. This gave American forces a technological advantage in World War II against the Japanese, who did not develop

1277:

aircraft flew faster, and in c1944 to increase speed and accuracy the Mark 4 was replaced by a combination of the Mark 12 (rectangular antenna) and Mark 22 (parabolic antenna) "orange peel" radars. (

333:

firing order consistently at a particular moment in the rolling and pitching cycles of the ship, simplifying firing and correction duties formerly performed independently with varying accuracy using

2273:

The British fleet's performance at Jutland has been a subject of much analysis and there were many contributing factors. When compared to the later long-range gunnery performance by the US Navy and

2113:

to control the Mark 75 Naval Gun and the Mark 13 Guided Missile Launching System (missiles have since been removed since retirement of its version of the Standard missile). The Mod 1 system used in

1678:. The result was the turret's bearing and elevation orders (LOF). During the surface action, range and deflection Spots and target altitude (not zero during Gun Fire Support) were manually entered. 3731: 2248:

to make reading easier, the indication lagged the actual changes in attitude. So the use of a single sensitive inclinometer on the bridge "while the main guns are not firing" had an advantage.

434:

while the Germans and the US Navy, stereoscopic type. The former were less able to range on an indistinct target but easier on the operator over a long period of use, the latter the reverse.

114:

that were used aboard naval warships prior to modern electronic computerized systems, to control targeting of guns against surface ships, aircraft, and shore targets, with either optical or

1013: 1882:

Production of this system lasted for over 25 years. A digital upgrade was available from 1975 to 1985, and it was in service into the 2000s. The digital upgrade was evolved for use in the

177:

Though a ship rolls and pitches at a slower rate than a tank does, gyroscopic stabilization is extremely desirable. Naval gun fire control potentially involves three levels of complexity:

1770:) for improved accuracy, the Bofors 40 mm gun became a fearsome adversary, accounting for roughly half of all Japanese aircraft shot down between 1 October 1944 and 1 February 1945. 1745:, and watched the Rangekeeper's dials and system status indicators for problems. If a problem arose, they could correct the problem, or reconfigure the system to mitigate its effect. 1281:) in the late 1950s, Mark 37 directors had Western Electric Mark 25 X-band conical-scan radars with round, perforated dishes. Finally, the circular SPG 25 antenna was mounted on top. 1864:

director was mounted in a large yoke, and the whole director was stabilized in crosslevel (the yoke's pivot axis). That axis was in a vertical plane that included the line of sight.

1613:. (The fire control radar was the preferred method.) The present position of the target was called the Line-Of-Sight (LOS), and it was continuously sent down to the plotting room by 236:

as the second in command. However, the Station or Royal Navy had not yet implemented the system fleet-wide in 1904. The Royal Navy considered Russia a potential adversary through

499:

In contrast to US radar aided system, the Japanese relied on averaging optical rangefinders, lacked gyros to sense the horizon, and required manual handling of follow-ups on the

410:

The use of Director-controlled firing together with the fire control computer moved the control of the gun laying from the individual turrets to a central position (usually in a

1059: 543:

German and American warships could both shoot and maneuver using sophisticated analog fire-control computers that incorporated gyro compass and gyro Level inputs. In the

1151:

sights stable. Ideal computation of gun stabilizing angles required an impractical number of terms in the mathematical expression, so the computation was approximate.

196:

designed to maximize the view of the director over long ranges. A fire control officer who ranged the salvos transmitted elevations and angles to individual guns.

1130:

Its function was to automatically aim the guns so that a fired projectile would collide with the target. This is the same function as the main battery's Mark 8

2013:

The US Navy desired a digital computerized gun fire-control system in 1961 for more accurate shore bombardment. Lockheed Electronics produced a prototype with

996:

employed one of these computers, battleships up to four. The system's effectiveness against aircraft diminished as planes became faster, but toward the end of

676:

BAE Systems' Sea Archer – computerised gunnery system. Royal Navy designation GSA.7 from 1980 and GSA.8 from 1985. Production was completed for Royal Navy

249: 1004:

which exploded when it was near a target, rather than by timer or altitude, greatly increasing the probability that any one shell would destroy a target.

188:

in 1912. All guns on a single ship were laid from a central position placed as high as possible above the bridge. The director became a design feature of

1245:

drift is low enough not to matter for short periods of time; when the ship resumes more typical cruising, the erecting system corrects for any error.

1217:

There are photographs of the computer's interior in the National Archives; some are on Web pages, and some of those have been rotated a quarter turn.

260:. Their mission was to guide and train the Japanese naval gunnery personnel in the latest technological developments, but more importantly for the 2742:, Vol. 79. Fire Control (Except Radar) and Aviation Ordnance (1 vol.), p. 145. This was a confidential history produced by the Bureau of Ordnance. 4296: 3847: 1806:

is an excellent detailed reference that explains much of the system's design, which is quite ingenious and forward-thinking in several respects.

1199:, a genius designer, and principal in the company. Special machine tools machined face cam grooves and accurately duplicated 3-D ballistic cams. 1143:

commence firing. Unfortunately, this process of inferring the target motion vector required a few seconds, typically, which might take too long.

1031:

The director was manned by a crew of 6: Director Officer, Assistant Control Officer, Pointer, Trainer, Range Finder Operator and Radar Operator.

3980: 221:

The Royal Navy was aware of the fall of shot observation advantage of salvo firing through several experiments as early as 1870 when Commander

46: 395:

The UK built their first central system before the Great War. At the heart was an analogue computer designed by Commander (later Admiral Sir)

241: 1790: 4266: 3350: 137:, along with or later replaced by radar or television camera, a computer, stabilizing device or gyro, and equipment in a plotting room. 2125:-class frigates with the Mod 2 system can track an additional air or surface target using the Separate Track Illuminating Radar (STIR). 2090: 1210:

The mechanisms (including servos) in this computer are described superbly, with many excellent illustrations, in the Navy publication

551:

using radar ambushed and mauled an Italian fleet, although actual fire was under optical control using starshell illumination. At the

2634: 2947:, Volume 4, Number 3, July 1982 "Electrical Computers for Fire Control", p. 232, W. H. C. Higgins, B. D. Holbrook, and J. W. Emling 2213: 662: 1803: 1798: 4291: 2188: 1794: 1741:

The assistant Gunnery Officers and Fire Control Technicians operated the equipment, talked to the turrets and ship's command by

4069: 3970: 2244:

indicator oscillation and error on firing shocks became large, and when the indicator movement is damped with a liquid of less

233: 403:

was to be improved and served into the interwar period at which point it was superseded in new and reconstructed ships by the

208:

of the enemy fleet, but the difficulty of distinguishing the splashes made walking the rounds in on the target more difficult.

3522: 399:

that calculated range rate, the rate of change of range due to the relative motion between the firing and target ships. The

3473:

Fischer, Brad D. & Jurens, W. J. (2006). "Fast Battleship Gunnery During World War II: A Gunnery Revolution, Part II".

706:

The Mark 33 GFCS was a power-driven fire control director, less advanced than the Mark 37. The Mark 33 GFCS used a Mark 10

153: 3059: 2569: 612:

is shown in the centre of the drawing and is labelled "Gunnery Calculating Position", with the deflection operator seated.

4286: 3975: 3840: 2718: 2369: 530:

Only the RN and USN achieved 'blindfire' radar fire-control, with no need to visually acquire the opposing vessel. The

1879:

The design of the computer was based on a re-thinking of the fire control problem; it was regarded quite differently.

4276: 4188: 3715: 3696: 3647: 3562: 3503: 3454: 3315: 3265: 3105: 2471: 2417: 2104: 2060:

The Mark 34 Gun Weapon System comes in various versions. It is an integral part of the Aegis combat weapon system on

149: 80: 58: 1000:

upgrades were made to the Mark 37 System, and it was made compatible with the development of the VT (Variable Time)

4256: 1979: 511:

as well as guns themselves. This could have played a role in Center Force's battleships' dismal performance in the

17: 2047: 369:. Local control had been used up until that time, and remained in use on smaller warships and auxiliaries through 2121:

and WHEC ships can track one air or surface target using the monopulse tracker and two surface or shore targets.

1972: 1965: 1844: 1830: 1779: 1762: 1398: 1388: 746: 3833: 3669: 161:

required nearly 1000 rounds of 5 in (127 mm) mechanical fuze ammunition per kill, even in late 1944.

2061: 1883: 1708: 1124: 562: 245: 222: 158: 2677: 1947: 4281: 4175: 4170: 4155: 4074: 2118: 1674:

of the spinning projectile, stabilizing signals originating in the Stable Vertical, Earth's curvature, and

1272:

used on the Mark 37 GFCS has evolved. In the 1930s, the Mark 33 Director did not have a radar antenna. The

1119: 628: 404: 389: 345:

as the Chief Gunnery Officer, and his primitive control system was in fleet-wide operation by the time the

141: 4261: 4064: 3807: 1155:("component solvers"), multipliers, and differentials, but also with one of four three-dimensional cams. 552: 3768: 3763: 3373: 3332: 1617:. When not using the radar's display to determine Spots, the director was the optical spotting station. 4150: 4109: 2260: 2148: 1836: 294: 861:

The Mark 34 was used to control the main batteries of large gun ships. Its predecessors include Mk18 (

54: 3888: 2136: 2068: 2042: 1506: 1467: 1050: 930: 883: 869: 813: 288: 2364: 4271: 1958: 1855: 1726:

the bearing order for each turret so that all rounds fired in a salvo converged on the same point.

1516: 1378: 1257:

Element's level and crosslevel servos feed those signals back to the computer via two more shafts.

520: 280: 62: 3758: 2114: 1742: 1496: 1478: 1457: 1408: 1368: 1188: 963: 920: 862: 778: 486: 431: 396: 593: 4048: 3944: 3797: 3097: 2172: 2023: 1821:

s anti-aircraft capability, because the Mark 56 system could track and shoot at faster planes.

1810: 1702: 1695: 1358: 1334: 1321: 954: 939: 876: 844: 798: 788: 601: 555: 544: 374: 261: 3423: 3391: 3281: 2873: 2460: 571:

The last combat action for the analog rangekeepers, at least for the US Navy, was in the 1991

4140: 4130: 4114: 2078: 1951: 1840: 1560: 1556:

TBD: North Carolina, South Dakota classes, all the old ones that were upgraded with 5in/38(?)

1300: 832: 820: 756: 730: 726: 659:– pioneered use of gyroscopic Tachymetric fire-control for medium calibre weapons – From 1940 576: 284: 120: 3089: 2651: 2459: 181:

Local control originated with primitive gun installations aimed by the individual gun crews.

3358: 2095: 1528: 1447: 1348: 1340: 990: 899: 350: 3817: 3532:

Jurens, W. J. (1991). "The Evolution of Battleship Gunnery in the U. S. Navy, 1920–1945".

184:

The director system of fire control was incorporated first into battleship designs by the

8: 4005: 3965: 3883: 3873: 2182: 2177: 1543: 1313: 1307: 1110: 1068: 911: 826: 769: 763: 548: 157:

analog anti-aircraft fire control systems had severe limitations, and even the US Navy's

134: 111: 2605:, for example, demonstrated complete blindfire control at the Battle of Surigao Straits. 4217: 3878: 3735: 3161: 1986: 1943: 1285: 1269: 640: 609: 381: 354: 334: 257: 4212: 3711: 3692: 3675: 3665: 3643: 3623: 3602: 3581: 3558: 3541: 3518: 3499: 3482: 3450: 3311: 3261: 3231:. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office. 1954. pp. 167–178. 3101: 3090: 2627: 2467: 2413: 2140: 2051: 1902: 689: 685: 598: 449: 438: 3792: 3787: 1180:

set inside the train (bearing) power drive (servo) receiver-regulator (controller).

140:

For the US Navy, the most prevalent gunnery computer was the Ford Mark 1, later the

2144: 2017:

radar fire control in 1965. An air defense requirement delayed production with the

1946:

used in conjunction with the Mark 68 gun fire-control system. It was used with the

1192: 1085:

Mark 37 director train (bearing) and elevation drives were by D.C. motors fed from

1017: 646: 512: 226: 144:, which was an electro-mechanical analog ballistic computer that provided accurate 99:

Mark 37 Director c1944 with Mark 12 (rectangular antenna) and Mark 22 "orange peel"

4104: 3802: 3773: 2550: 2511: 2488: 306:

on the bridge, but the ships were not designed for coordinated aiming and firing.

4099: 4094: 3929: 3924: 3657: 3635: 3122: 2638: 2599: 2152: 1675: 1658: 677: 314: 300: 145: 3245:. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office. 1954. p. 162. 3217:. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office. 1954. p. 160. 1056:

is protected with one-half inch (13 mm) of armor plate and weighs 16 tons.

561:, in complete darkness, inflicted fatal damage at close range on the battleship 4000: 3812: 3063: 2900: 2573: 2156: 1625: 1273: 1172: 1001: 656: 605: 365:

Centralized naval fire control systems were first developed around the time of

346: 322: 237: 225:

installed an electric system enabling a simultaneous firing of all the guns to

205: 3782: 3747: 1049:

inches (38 mm) of armor, and weighs 21 tons. The Mark 37 director aboard

666: 4250: 3939: 3868: 3825: 3627: 3606: 3585: 3545: 3486: 2726: 1705: 1671: 1667: 1196: 622: 523:

had established the clear superiority of US radar-assisted systems at night.

411: 326: 3679: 1099:

displays, parallax correctors, a switchboard, and people to operate it all.

4235: 2274: 2005: 1786: 1211: 1168: 997: 617: 400: 370: 303: 3752: 3255: 2445: 1012: 95: 4135: 3949: 2193: 2160: 1713:

at a range of 18,500 yards (16,900 m) at night. The engagement left

1663: 1131: 711: 707: 650: 531: 442: 424: 366: 272: 193: 133:

The major components of a gun fire-control system are a human-controlled

3818:

Naval Ordnance and Gunnery, Vol. 2, Chapter 25, AA Fire Control Systems

1426: 1418: 1328: 582: 318: 189: 185: 3409: 3162:"United States of America 40 mm/56 (1.57") Mark 1, Mark 2 and M1" 1681: 325:), experimented with the first director system of fire control, using 3990: 3934: 3813:

Director section of Mark 1 Mod 1 computer operations at NavSource.org

3808:

Gun Fire Control System Mark 37 Operating Instructions at ibiblio.org

3614:

Schleihauf, William (2001). "The Dumaresq and the Dreyer, Part III".

3123:"The Mechanical Analog Computers of Hannibal Ford and William Newell" 2245: 2018: 1889: 1225: 1086: 3593:

Schleihauf, William (2001). "The Dumaresq and the Dreyer, Part II".

252:

of the Coastguard and Reserves, the latter with an early example of

4160: 4043: 4038: 4033: 3515:

Naval Firepower: Battleship Guns and Gunnery in the Dreadnought Era

3260:. Siegfried Beyer. New York City: Bonanza Books. pp. 147–153. 2014: 1722: 1642: 696: 572: 253: 2337:

Naval Ordnance and Gunnery, Volume 2 Fire Control, NAVPERS 10798-A

1649: 3013: 3011: 2110: 2074: 1729: 1614: 267: 200: 2795: 2793: 2257:

For a description of an Admiralty Fire Control Table in action:

1753: 1593: 850:(launched ca. 1937): for the 5"/25 and 5"/38 secondary batteries 4028: 3256:

Terzibaschitsch, Stefan; Heinz O. Vetters; Richard Cox (1977).

465:

gunfire operations at long range in poor weather and at night.

130:

were eventually handled fully by central electronic computers.

3008: 2373:. National Centre of Biography, Australian National University 3898: 3893: 2790: 2339:. Washington, DC: U.S. Navy, Bureau of Naval Personnel. 1958. 2151:

recorder-reproducer, a watertight cabinet housing the signal

1610: 271:

Barr & Stroud 1.5–metre rangefinder, on display on

115: 3243:

Fire Control Technician 1 & Chief, Vol. 2, NAVPERS 10177

3229:

Fire Control Technician 1 & Chief, Vol. 2, NAVPERS 10177

3215:

Fire Control Technician 1 & Chief, Vol. 2, NAVPERS 10177

3201:

Fire Control Technician 1 & Chief, Vol. 2, NAVPERS 10177

1995: 4230: 3572:

Schleihauf, William (2001). "The Dumaresq and the Dreyer".

2719:"Effectiveness of US WW2 AA weapons system 5" gun, and RFD" 2551:"Overview of USN and IJN Warship Ballistic Computer Design" 2489:"Overview of USN and IJN Warship Ballistic Computer Design" 634: 168: 2924: 2538:

Handbook of The Admiralty Fire Control Clock Mark I and I*

1907:

Mark 68 GFCS director with AN/SPG-53 radar antenna on top.

680:

in 1999. Remains in active service as of 2022 on Type 23 (

669:

and centimetric radar for surface fire-control – from 1939

3622:(3). International Naval Research Organization: 221–233. 3601:(2). International Naval Research Organization: 164–201. 1487:

1 Brooklyn-class ( Savannah, refitted as upgrade in 1944)

2901:"USS Oklahoma City CL91 / CLG5 / CG5 Mk 37 Gun Director" 3308:

The Naval Institute guide to world naval weapon systems

2394:

Imperial Japanese Navy Records, Report from Battleship

448:

The US Navy's first deployment of a rangekeeper was on

360: 3642:(Revised ed.). Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. 3580:(1). International Naval Research Organization: 6–29. 384:

was submitted by the official observer to IJN onboard

4115:

RIM-174 Standard Extended Range Active Missile (SM-6)

3249: 2139:, the Mark 160 Gun Computing System (GCS) contains a 1433:

which were launched incomplete and never commissioned

1105: 643:– simplified HACS A/A system for destroyers from 1938 3759:

Appendix one, Classification of Director Instruments

2572:. USS Boyd (DD-544) Document Archive. Archived from 2567: 2084: 1757:

Mark 51 Director with Mark 14 (40 mm) Gun Sight

1463:(launched ca. 1942 - 1945) (2 per vessel, 54 total) 3691:. Annapolis, Maryland: U.S. Naval Institute Press. 2214:

John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher#Commander (1869–1876)

472:The Aichi Clock Company first produced the Type 92 3555:The Great Gunnery Scandal – The Mystery of Jutland 3424:"MK 34 Gun Fire Control System, Information Sheet" 2036: 3493: 2740:US naval administrative histories of World War II 2480: 2331: 2329: 2327: 2325: 2323: 1581:(GFCS) controlled the large main battery guns of 1534:large cruisers (ca. 1943) (2 per vessel, 4 total) 418: 216: 4248: 3512: 2321: 2319: 2317: 2315: 2313: 2311: 2309: 2307: 2305: 2303: 2234:had a range of only 6,000 yd (3.4 mi). 2130: 1657:The Mark 8 Rangekeeper was an electromechanical 1195:, Queens, New York. The company was named after 697:US Navy analogue Gun Fire Control Systems (GFCS) 653:fire-control for short range weapons – From 1940 264:(IJN), they were well aware of the experiments. 3755:– Comparison of World War II battleship systems 3662:U.S. Battleships: An Illustrated Design History 3463: 3159: 2895: 2893: 2570:"Nauru Island: Enemy Action – December 8, 1943" 2486: 2410:Historical Dictionary of the Russo-Japanese War 692:Series 2500 Electro-Optical Gun Control System. 353:(renamed the 2nd and 3rd Pacific Fleet) in the 3981:Joint Tactical Information Distribution System 3855: 3664:. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. 3552: 3444: 2509: 1748: 1023:, backfitted with postwar SPG-25 radar antenna 4070:Space Tracking and Surveillance System (STSS) 4044:AN/SPY-6 Air and Missile Defense Radar (AMDR) 3841: 3472: 3120: 2300: 979:According to the US Navy Bureau of Ordnance, 588: 43:The examples and perspective in this article 3748:The British High Angle Control System (HACS) 3689:U.S. Cruisers: An Illustrated Design History 3640:US Destroyers: An Illustrated Design History 3258:Battleships of the U.S. Navy in World War II 3203:. Washington, DC: US GPO. 1954. p. 148. 3083: 3081: 2890: 2875:U.S. Navy Bureau of Ordnance in World War II 2632:Action Report, Night of 14–15 November 1942. 2466:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins. pp. 20–21. 2263:. Ahoy: Naval, Maritime, Australian History. 1932:Fire control quality, three dimensional data 1163:"bang-bang", yet had excellent performance. 534:all lacked this capability. Classes such as 2919: 2917: 2871: 2700: 2698: 2548: 1835:The Mark 63 was introduced in 1953 for the 1793:, and its linkage computer was designed by 1233:The function of the Mark 6 Stable Element ( 1016:Mark 37 Director above bridge of destroyer 492:were more up to date, which eliminated the 341:Kato was transferred to the fleet flagship 3848: 3834: 3798:Maintenance Manual for the Mark 1 Computer 3793:Manual for the Mark 1 and Mark 1a Computer 3708:Us Heavy Cruisers 1941-45: Pre-War Classes 3613: 3592: 3571: 3195: 3193: 3191: 3189: 3187: 3185: 3183: 3181: 3179: 2872:Boyd, William B.; Rowland, Buford (1953). 2865: 2678:"Sea Archer 30 (GSA.8) – Archived 12/2002" 2644: 2159:, a gun mount control panel (GMCP), and a 2091:Mark 92 Guided Missile Fire Control System 1901: 1502:(ca. 1942 - 1945) (2 per vessel, 28 total) 496:, but it still relied on seven operators. 3155: 3153: 3151: 3078: 2652:"Older weapons hold own in high-tech war" 1996:US Navy computerized fire control systems 1566:(launched ca. 1942 - 1943) (4 per vessel) 459: 81:Learn how and when to remove this message 3686: 3656: 3634: 3305: 2914: 2716: 2695: 2094: 2046: 2004: 1854: 1766:greater speed and the Mark 51 Director ( 1752: 1728: 1680: 1648: 1624: 1592: 1224: 1109: 1058: 1011: 592: 293:and her sister ship, the fleet flagship 266: 169:History of analogue fire control systems 94: 3235: 3221: 3207: 3176: 3130:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 3087: 3054: 3052: 3050: 2561: 2457: 2451: 2189:Mathematical discussion of rangekeeping 2067:guided missile destroyers and modified 1847:radar tracker and a Mark 29 gun sight. 1540:TBD: Yorktown, Essex classes, Midway(?) 380:were finalized after the report on the 14: 4297:Fire-control computers of World War II 4249: 3971:Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System 3705: 3531: 3333:"MK 68 Gun Fire Control System (GFCS)" 3148: 2878:. United States Navy. pp. 377–378 2503: 2407: 2362: 2196:shipboard analog fire-control computer 1296:destroyers (1 per vessel, 456 total) 585:directed their last rounds in combat. 3829: 3371: 3330: 3114: 3096:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins. pp. 2717:Stockton, Harold (20 November 2005). 2390: 2388: 1263: 742:destroyers (1 per vessel, total 48) 4021: 3803:Manual for the Mark 6 Stable Element 3282:"Canadian Navy Fire Control Systems" 3047: 2487:Bradley Fischer (9 September 2003). 1763:Bofors 40 mm anti-aircraft guns 361:Central fire control and World War I 29: 27:Type of analogue fire-control system 4065:Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS) 3976:Active electronically scanned array 3496:Principles of Naval Weapons Systems 2778:Friedman, U.S. Cruisers, p. 474-475 2226:(6.4–9.7 km). Rangefinders on 2117:(retired) and the US Coast Guard's 1522:(ca. 1947) (4 per vessel, 12 total) 1007: 287:, the British-built IJN battleship 24: 4267:Naval weapons of the United States 4075:Space Surveillance Telescope (SST) 3734:from websites or documents of the 3299: 3274: 2969:Friedman, US destroyers p. 410-413 2945:Annals of the History of Computing 2787:Friedman U.S. Cruisers, p. 471-472 2751:Friedman, US Destroyers p. 403-409 2385: 2370:Australian Dictionary of Biography 2258: 1620: 1512:(ca. 1945) (2 per vessel, 6 total) 1484:(ca. 1947) (4 per vessel, 8 total) 1453:(ca. 1945) (2 per vessel, 6 total) 1106:Ford Mark 1A Fire Control Computer 25: 4308: 4110:RIM-161 Standard Missile 3 (SM-3) 3741: 3392:"MK 92 Fire Control System (FCS)" 3160:DiGiulian, Tony (November 2006). 3060:"Mark 38 Gun Fire Control System" 2844:Friedman, US Cruisers p. 333, 339 2365:"Thring, Walter Hugh (1873–1949)" 2185:Ground, sea and air based systems 2085:Mark 92 Fire Control System (FCS) 1220: 3769:HACS III Operating manual Part 2 3764:HACS III Operating manual Part 1 3730: This article incorporates 3725: 3044:Friedman, US battleships, p. 320 2510:Tony DiGiulian (17 April 2001). 1789:, mentioned near the end of his 1666:(true ship's course), the ships 1093: 1063:5-inch (127 mm) gun on the 299:, were equipped with the latest 34: 3438: 3416: 3402: 3384: 3374:"MK 34 Gun Weapon System (GWS)" 3365: 3343: 3324: 3038: 3029: 3020: 3005:Friedman, U.S. Cruisers, p. 482 2999: 2990: 2981: 2972: 2963: 2950: 2938: 2856: 2847: 2838: 2829: 2820: 2811: 2802: 2781: 2772: 2769:Friedman, U.S. Cruisers, p. 476 2763: 2760:Friedman, U.S. Cruisers, p. 473 2754: 2745: 2733: 2710: 2670: 2621: 2608: 2588: 2542: 2530: 2438: 2280: 2267: 2251: 2037:Mark 34 Gun Weapon System (GWS) 2029:was commissioned in July 1994. 2000: 1850: 1837:twin QF 4-inch naval gun Mk XVI 1831:Mark 63 Gun Fire Control System 1824: 1780:Mark 56 Gun Fire Control System 1773: 1579:Mark 38 Gun Fire Control System 1572: 1290: 974: 892: 856: 701: 4292:Artillery of the United States 4049:Sea-based X-band Radar (SBX-1) 3447:Naval Weapons of World War Two 3035:Friedman, U.S. Cruisers p. 483 3026:Friedman, U.S. Cruisers p. 481 3017:Friedman, U.S. Cruisers p. 480 2725:(Mailing list). Archived from 2512:"Fire Control Systems in WWII" 2444:For a description of one, see 2426: 2401: 2356: 2343: 2237: 2219: 2206: 2009:Mark 45 lightweight gun turret 1187:These computers were built by 649:– pioneered use of gyroscopic 419:Analogue computed fire control 217:Pre-dreadnought control system 13: 1: 2996:Friedman, US Cruisers, p. 477 2987:Friedman, US destroyers p. 89 2978:Friedman, US destroyers p 406 2862:Friedman, US Cruisers, p. 479 2853:Friedman, US Cruisers, p. 474 2826:Friedman, US Cruisers, p. 480 2808:Friedman, US Cruisers, p. 483 2799:Stille 2014, Pre-war cruisers 2131:Mark 160 Gun Computing System 1942:was a United States Navy gun 1548:: 2xMk37 refitted by May 1942 1125:Mark 8, Fire Control Computer 1120:Mark 1A Fire Control Computer 905:large cruisers (2 per vessel) 819:(launched ca. 1933): for the 736: 575:when the rangekeepers on the 357:during 27–28 May 1905. 142:Mark 1A Fire Control Computer 104:Ship gun fire-control systems 4176:Mark 8 Fire Control Computer 4171:Mark I Fire Control Computer 4156:Comprehensive Display System 3909:Ship gun fire-control system 3753:Best Battleship Fire control 2835:Friedman, US Cruisers p. 333 2293: 2261:"A Glimpse at Naval Gunnery" 2079:Naval Gunfire Support (NGFS) 1992:frigates as well as others. 1537:aircraft carriers (2 total) 684:class). Replaced in 2012 on 629:Admiralty Fire Control Table 477:systems such as the Type 98 430:radar. The British favoured 405:Admiralty Fire Control Table 7: 3468:. The Lord Baltimore Press. 3355:Jane's Naval Weapon Systems 2723:Ship Modelling Mailing List 2446:US Naval Fire Control, 1918 2166: 1749:Mark 51 Fire Control System 1588: 1443:TBD: Atlanta, Fargo classes 553:Naval Battle of Guadalcanal 57:, discuss the issue on the 10: 4313: 4287:World War II naval weapons 4151:Naval Tactical Data System 3856:NATO naval weapons systems 3783:The RN Pocket Gunnery Book 3494:Frieden, David R. (1985). 2568:Captain Robert N. Adrian. 2088: 2040: 1843:. The GFCS consists of an 1828: 1777: 1492:heavy cruisers (46 total) 1440:light cruisers (63 total) 1283: 1171:, the invention of the VT 667:radar for A/A fire-control 589:British Royal Navy systems 422: 279:During the 10 August 1904 4226: 4200: 4123: 4087: 4057: 4014: 3958: 3917: 3889:Combat information center 3861: 3788:Fire Control Fundamentals 3687:Friedman, Norman (1984). 3513:Friedman, Norman (2008). 3498:. Naval Institute Press. 3449:. Naval Institute Press. 3410:"MK 34 gun weapon system" 3310:. Naval Institute Press. 3306:Friedman, Norman (2006). 3092:Between Human and Machine 2682:forecastinternational.com 2462:Between Human and Machine 2398:No. 205, Classified, 1904 2137:Mark 34 Gun Weapon System 2043:Mark 34 Gun Weapon System 1948:5"/54 caliber Mark 42 gun 1928: 1920: 1912: 1900: 1859:5 inch Mark 42 gun turret 1841:Mk.33 twin 3"/50 cal guns 445:becoming standard issue. 4277:Naval anti-aircraft guns 4189:USN early guided weapons 3464:Fairfield, A.P. (1921). 2817:Stille, Pre-war cruisers 2200: 1733:Fire Control Switchboard 926:(2 per vessel, 28 total) 774:later rebuilt with Mk37) 521:Battle of Surigao Strait 432:coincidence rangefinders 281:Battle of the Yellow Sea 4257:Anti-aircraft artillery 3553:Pollen, Antony (1980). 3445:Campbell, John (1985). 3351:"Mk 86 (United States)" 3088:Mindell, David (2002). 2458:Mindell, David (2002). 2081:against shore targets. 1809:In the 1968 upgrade to 1743:sound-powered telephone 1685:Mark 41 Stable Vertical 1553:battleships (16 total) 1189:Ford Instrument Company 665:– pioneered the use of 397:Frederic Charles Dreyer 4100:RIM-67 Standard (SM-2) 3945:Close-in weapon system 3732:public domain material 3121:A. Ben Clymer (1993). 2432:See a typical example 2408:Kowner, Rotem (2006). 2173:Close-in weapon system 2100: 2057: 2010: 1913:Country of origin 1860: 1758: 1734: 1703:Imperial Japanese Navy 1686: 1654: 1637: 1598: 1230: 1115: 1074: 1053:Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr. 1024: 986: 722: 637:– A/A system from 1931 613: 602:Director Control Tower 597:Cut-away view of a RN 545:Battle of Cape Matapan 460:Radar and World War II 276: 262:Imperial Japanese Navy 256:, to Japan during the 240:, and sent Lieutenant 232:, the flagship of the 100: 4208:Ground-based systems: 4141:Torpedo Data Computer 4131:Radar in World War II 3706:Stille, Mark (2014). 3616:Warship International 3595:Warship International 3574:Warship International 3534:Warship International 3475:Warship International 2363:Lamont, Ross (1990). 2098: 2050: 2008: 1858: 1756: 1732: 1684: 1652: 1628: 1596: 1472:during CLG conversion 1284:Further information: 1229:Mark 6 Stable Element 1228: 1113: 1062: 1015: 981: 717: 596: 285:Russian Pacific Fleet 270: 246:Navy Gunnery Division 150:automatically control 98: 2958:Naval Weapons of WW2 2706:Naval Weapons of WW2 2516:The Mariner's Museum 2351:Naval Weapons of WW2 2141:gun console computer 1636:s Main Plot, c. 1950 1466:one Mk37 removed on 373:. Specifications of 351:Russian Baltic Fleet 321:(later Commander of 194:"Pagoda-style" masts 154:remote power control 112:fire-control systems 63:create a new article 55:improve this article 45:may not represent a 4282:Artillery operation 4166:Specific equipment: 4006:List of radar types 3986:Historical systems: 3966:Aegis Combat System 3884:Director (military) 3874:Fire-control system 2656:Dallas Morning News 2183:Fire-control system 2178:Director (military) 2123:Oliver Hazard Perry 2106:Oliver Hazard Perry 1897: 1354:(launched ca. 1939) 1320:several modernized 752:(launched ca. 1934) 549:Mediterranean Fleet 4262:Military computers 4218:Kerrison Predictor 3879:Fire-control radar 3736:United States Navy 3710:. OSPREY PUB INC. 3378:globalsecurity.org 3337:globalsecurity.org 3066:on 28 October 2004 2658:. 10 February 1991 2637:2013-07-21 at the 2101: 2058: 2011: 1944:fire-control radar 1895: 1861: 1759: 1735: 1687: 1655: 1653:Mark 8 Rangekeeper 1638: 1599: 1286:Fire-control radar 1270:fire-control radar 1264:Fire Control Radar 1231: 1116: 1075: 1025: 686:Type 45 destroyers 641:Fuze Keeping Clock 614: 610:Fuze Keeping Clock 608:. The below decks 382:Battle of Tsushima 355:Battle of Tsushima 335:artificial horizon 277: 258:Russo-Japanese War 250:Walter Hugh Thring 101: 4244: 4243: 4213:Gun data computer 4083: 4082: 3524:978-1-84415-701-3 2549:Bradley Fischer. 2147:console (CDC), a 1936: 1935: 1067:-class destroyer 835:secondary battery 823:secondary battery 690:Ultra Electronics 599:K-class destroyer 515:in October 1944. 439:Battle of Jutland 275:, Yokosuka, Japan 91: 90: 83: 65:, as appropriate. 16:(Redirected from 4304: 4193: 4187: 4105:MIM-104F (PAC-3) 4019: 4018: 3959:Specific systems 3850: 3843: 3836: 3827: 3826: 3729: 3728: 3721: 3702: 3683: 3658:Friedman, Norman 3653: 3636:Friedman, Norman 3631: 3610: 3589: 3568: 3549: 3528: 3509: 3490: 3469: 3460: 3432: 3431: 3420: 3414: 3413: 3406: 3400: 3399: 3388: 3382: 3381: 3369: 3363: 3362: 3357:. 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Archived from 3056: 3045: 3042: 3036: 3033: 3027: 3024: 3018: 3015: 3006: 3003: 2997: 2994: 2988: 2985: 2979: 2976: 2970: 2967: 2961: 2954: 2948: 2942: 2936: 2935: 2933: 2931: 2921: 2912: 2911: 2909: 2907: 2897: 2888: 2887: 2885: 2883: 2869: 2863: 2860: 2854: 2851: 2845: 2842: 2836: 2833: 2827: 2824: 2818: 2815: 2809: 2806: 2800: 2797: 2788: 2785: 2779: 2776: 2770: 2767: 2761: 2758: 2752: 2749: 2743: 2737: 2731: 2730: 2729:on 24 June 2009. 2714: 2708: 2702: 2693: 2692: 2690: 2688: 2674: 2668: 2667: 2665: 2663: 2648: 2642: 2625: 2619: 2612: 2606: 2592: 2586: 2585: 2583: 2581: 2565: 2559: 2558: 2546: 2540: 2534: 2528: 2527: 2525: 2523: 2507: 2501: 2500: 2498: 2496: 2484: 2478: 2477: 2465: 2455: 2449: 2442: 2436: 2430: 2424: 2423: 2405: 2399: 2392: 2383: 2382: 2380: 2378: 2360: 2354: 2347: 2341: 2340: 2333: 2288: 2284: 2278: 2271: 2265: 2264: 2259:Cooper, Arthur. 2255: 2249: 2241: 2235: 2223: 2217: 2210: 2145:computer display 1981:Charles F. Adams 1924:Gun fire-control 1905: 1898: 1894: 1635: 1603:Mark 38 Director 1597:Mark 38 Director 1197:Hannibal C. Ford 1193:Long Island City 1114:Mark 1A Computer 1048: 1047: 1043: 1040: 1008:Mark 37 Director 831:(1937): for the 678:Type 23 frigates 663:Royal Navy radar 647:Pom-Pom Director 573:Persian Gulf War 513:Battle off Samar 390:Captain Pakenham 312: 192:, with Japanese 146:firing solutions 86: 79: 75: 72: 66: 38: 37: 30: 21: 18:Mark 37 director 4312: 4311: 4307: 4306: 4305: 4303: 4302: 4301: 4272:Naval artillery 4247: 4246: 4245: 4240: 4222: 4196: 4191: 4185: 4119: 4095:Harpoon missile 4079: 4053: 4010: 3954: 3930:Guided missiles 3925:Naval artillery 3913: 3857: 3854: 3823: 3744: 3726: 3718: 3699: 3672: 3650: 3565: 3525: 3506: 3457: 3441: 3436: 3435: 3422: 3421: 3417: 3408: 3407: 3403: 3390: 3389: 3385: 3370: 3366: 3361:on 4 June 2009. 3349: 3348: 3344: 3329: 3325: 3318: 3304: 3300: 3290: 3288: 3280: 3279: 3275: 3268: 3254: 3250: 3241: 3240: 3236: 3227: 3226: 3222: 3213: 3212: 3208: 3199: 3198: 3177: 3167: 3165: 3158: 3149: 3139: 3137: 3125: 3119: 3115: 3108: 3086: 3079: 3069: 3067: 3058: 3057: 3048: 3043: 3039: 3034: 3030: 3025: 3021: 3016: 3009: 3004: 3000: 2995: 2991: 2986: 2982: 2977: 2973: 2968: 2964: 2955: 2951: 2943: 2939: 2929: 2927: 2923: 2922: 2915: 2905: 2903: 2899: 2898: 2891: 2881: 2879: 2870: 2866: 2861: 2857: 2852: 2848: 2843: 2839: 2834: 2830: 2825: 2821: 2816: 2812: 2807: 2803: 2798: 2791: 2786: 2782: 2777: 2773: 2768: 2764: 2759: 2755: 2750: 2746: 2738: 2734: 2715: 2711: 2703: 2696: 2686: 2684: 2676: 2675: 2671: 2661: 2659: 2650: 2649: 2645: 2639:Wayback Machine 2626: 2622: 2616:Naval Firepower 2613: 2609: 2593: 2589: 2579: 2577: 2566: 2562: 2547: 2543: 2535: 2531: 2521: 2519: 2508: 2504: 2494: 2492: 2485: 2481: 2474: 2456: 2452: 2443: 2439: 2431: 2427: 2420: 2406: 2402: 2393: 2386: 2376: 2374: 2361: 2357: 2348: 2344: 2335: 2334: 2301: 2296: 2291: 2285: 2281: 2272: 2268: 2256: 2252: 2242: 2238: 2224: 2220: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2169: 2133: 2093: 2087: 2045: 2039: 2003: 1998: 1967:Forrest Sherman 1908: 1853: 1833: 1827: 1795:Antonín Svoboda 1782: 1776: 1751: 1676:Coriolis effect 1659:analog computer 1633: 1623: 1591: 1575: 1400:Robert H. Smith 1390:Allen M. Sumner 1293: 1288: 1266: 1223: 1108: 1096: 1071:David W. Taylor 1045: 1041: 1038: 1036: 1010: 977: 950:light cruisers 908:heavy cruisers 895: 859: 840:light cruisers 809:heavy cruisers 739: 704: 699: 591: 462: 427: 421: 363: 315:gunnery officer 310: 301:Barr and Stroud 219: 171: 110:) are analogue 87: 76: 70: 67: 52: 39: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4310: 4300: 4299: 4294: 4289: 4284: 4279: 4274: 4269: 4264: 4259: 4242: 4241: 4239: 4238: 4233: 4227: 4224: 4223: 4221: 4220: 4215: 4210: 4204: 4202: 4198: 4197: 4195: 4194: 4183: 4178: 4173: 4168: 4163: 4158: 4153: 4148: 4143: 4138: 4133: 4127: 4125: 4121: 4120: 4118: 4117: 4112: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4091: 4089: 4088:Naval missiles 4085: 4084: 4081: 4080: 4078: 4077: 4072: 4067: 4061: 4059: 4055: 4054: 4052: 4051: 4046: 4041: 4036: 4031: 4025: 4023: 4016: 4012: 4011: 4009: 4008: 4003: 4001:List of radars 3998: 3993: 3988: 3983: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3962: 3960: 3956: 3955: 3953: 3952: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3932: 3927: 3921: 3919: 3915: 3914: 3912: 3911: 3906: 3901: 3896: 3891: 3886: 3881: 3876: 3871: 3865: 3863: 3859: 3858: 3853: 3852: 3845: 3838: 3830: 3821: 3820: 3815: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3780: 3771: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3750: 3743: 3742:External links 3740: 3723: 3722: 3716: 3703: 3697: 3684: 3670: 3654: 3648: 3632: 3611: 3590: 3569: 3563: 3550: 3540:(3): 240–271. 3529: 3523: 3510: 3504: 3491: 3470: 3466:Naval Ordnance 3461: 3455: 3440: 3437: 3434: 3433: 3415: 3401: 3383: 3364: 3342: 3323: 3316: 3298: 3273: 3266: 3248: 3234: 3220: 3206: 3175: 3164:. navweaps.com 3147: 3113: 3106: 3077: 3046: 3037: 3028: 3019: 3007: 2998: 2989: 2980: 2971: 2962: 2949: 2937: 2925:"Navy Weapons" 2913: 2889: 2864: 2855: 2846: 2837: 2828: 2819: 2810: 2801: 2789: 2780: 2771: 2762: 2753: 2744: 2732: 2709: 2694: 2669: 2643: 2620: 2607: 2587: 2560: 2541: 2529: 2518:. Navweaps.com 2502: 2479: 2472: 2450: 2437: 2425: 2418: 2400: 2384: 2355: 2342: 2298: 2297: 2295: 2292: 2290: 2289: 2279: 2266: 2250: 2236: 2218: 2204: 2202: 2199: 2198: 2197: 2191: 2186: 2180: 2175: 2168: 2165: 2157:microprocessor 2155:and gun mount 2153:data converter 2132: 2129: 2089:Main article: 2086: 2083: 2041:Main article: 2038: 2035: 2002: 1999: 1997: 1994: 1950:system aboard 1934: 1933: 1930: 1926: 1925: 1922: 1918: 1917: 1914: 1910: 1909: 1906: 1852: 1849: 1829:Main article: 1826: 1823: 1778:Main article: 1775: 1772: 1750: 1747: 1622: 1619: 1615:synchro motors 1590: 1587: 1574: 1571: 1570: 1569: 1568: 1567: 1557: 1551: 1550: 1549: 1541: 1535: 1525: 1524: 1523: 1513: 1503: 1490: 1489: 1488: 1485: 1475: 1474: 1473: 1454: 1444: 1438: 1437: 1436: 1435: 1434: 1431: (DD-791) 1423: (DD-720) 1405: 1395: 1385: 1375: 1365: 1355: 1345: 1318: 1292: 1289: 1274:Tizard Mission 1265: 1262: 1222: 1221:Stable Element 1219: 1173:proximity fuze 1107: 1104: 1095: 1092: 1009: 1006: 1002:proximity fuze 976: 973: 972: 971: 970: 969: 960: 948: 947: 946: 937: 927: 917: 906: 894: 891: 858: 855: 854: 853: 852: 851: 838: 837: 836: 824: 807: 806: 805: 795: 785: 775: 753: 738: 735: 703: 700: 698: 695: 694: 693: 674: 670: 660: 657:Gyro Rate Unit 654: 644: 638: 632: 626: 620: 606:Type 285 radar 590: 587: 461: 458: 423:Main article: 420: 417: 362: 359: 349:destroyed the 347:Combined Fleet 323:Combined Fleet 248:and Commander 238:The Great Game 223:John A. Fisher 218: 215: 210: 209: 206:crossing the T 197: 182: 170: 167: 159:Mark 37 system 89: 88: 49:of the subject 47:worldwide view 42: 40: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4309: 4298: 4295: 4293: 4290: 4288: 4285: 4283: 4280: 4278: 4275: 4273: 4270: 4268: 4265: 4263: 4260: 4258: 4255: 4254: 4252: 4237: 4234: 4232: 4229: 4228: 4225: 4219: 4216: 4214: 4211: 4209: 4206: 4205: 4203: 4199: 4190: 4184: 4182: 4179: 4177: 4174: 4172: 4169: 4167: 4164: 4162: 4159: 4157: 4154: 4152: 4149: 4147: 4146:Ship systems: 4144: 4142: 4139: 4137: 4134: 4132: 4129: 4128: 4126: 4122: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4103: 4101: 4098: 4096: 4093: 4092: 4090: 4086: 4076: 4073: 4071: 4068: 4066: 4063: 4062: 4060: 4056: 4050: 4047: 4045: 4042: 4040: 4037: 4035: 4032: 4030: 4027: 4026: 4024: 4020: 4017: 4013: 4007: 4004: 4002: 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3974: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3963: 3961: 3957: 3951: 3948: 3946: 3943: 3941: 3940:Depth charges 3938: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3926: 3923: 3922: 3920: 3916: 3910: 3907: 3905: 3902: 3900: 3897: 3895: 3892: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3880: 3877: 3875: 3872: 3870: 3869:Naval warfare 3867: 3866: 3864: 3860: 3851: 3846: 3844: 3839: 3837: 3832: 3831: 3828: 3824: 3819: 3816: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3806: 3804: 3801: 3799: 3796: 3794: 3791: 3789: 3786: 3784: 3781: 3779: 3777: 3772: 3770: 3767: 3765: 3762: 3760: 3757: 3754: 3751: 3749: 3746: 3745: 3739: 3737: 3733: 3719: 3717:9781782006299 3713: 3709: 3704: 3700: 3698:9780870217180 3694: 3690: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3649:1-55750-442-3 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3570: 3566: 3564:0-00-216298-9 3560: 3556: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3530: 3526: 3520: 3516: 3511: 3507: 3505:0-87021-537-X 3501: 3497: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3471: 3467: 3462: 3458: 3456:0-87021-459-4 3452: 3448: 3443: 3442: 3429: 3425: 3419: 3411: 3405: 3397: 3393: 3387: 3379: 3375: 3368: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3346: 3338: 3334: 3327: 3319: 3317:9781557502629 3313: 3309: 3302: 3287: 3283: 3277: 3269: 3267:0-517-23451-3 3263: 3259: 3252: 3244: 3238: 3230: 3224: 3216: 3210: 3202: 3196: 3194: 3192: 3190: 3188: 3186: 3184: 3182: 3180: 3163: 3156: 3154: 3152: 3135: 3131: 3124: 3117: 3109: 3107:0-8018-8057-2 3103: 3099: 3094: 3093: 3084: 3082: 3065: 3061: 3055: 3053: 3051: 3041: 3032: 3023: 3014: 3012: 3002: 2993: 2984: 2975: 2966: 2959: 2953: 2946: 2941: 2926: 2920: 2918: 2902: 2896: 2894: 2877: 2876: 2868: 2859: 2850: 2841: 2832: 2823: 2814: 2805: 2796: 2794: 2784: 2775: 2766: 2757: 2748: 2741: 2736: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2713: 2707: 2701: 2699: 2683: 2679: 2673: 2657: 2653: 2647: 2640: 2636: 2633: 2631: 2624: 2617: 2611: 2604: 2603: 2597: 2591: 2576:on 1 May 2006 2575: 2571: 2564: 2556: 2552: 2545: 2539: 2536:B.R. 901/43, 2533: 2517: 2513: 2506: 2490: 2483: 2475: 2473:0-8018-8057-2 2469: 2464: 2463: 2454: 2447: 2441: 2435: 2429: 2421: 2419:0-8108-4927-5 2415: 2412:. 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Seaforth. 3514: 3495: 3481:(1): 55–97. 3478: 3474: 3465: 3446: 3439:Bibliography 3427: 3418: 3404: 3395: 3386: 3377: 3367: 3359:the original 3354: 3345: 3336: 3326: 3307: 3301: 3289:. Retrieved 3285: 3276: 3257: 3251: 3242: 3237: 3228: 3223: 3214: 3209: 3200: 3166:. Retrieved 3138:. Retrieved 3133: 3129: 3116: 3091: 3068:. Retrieved 3064:the original 3040: 3031: 3022: 3001: 2992: 2983: 2974: 2965: 2957: 2952: 2944: 2940: 2928:. Retrieved 2904:. Retrieved 2880:. Retrieved 2874: 2867: 2858: 2849: 2840: 2831: 2822: 2813: 2804: 2783: 2774: 2765: 2756: 2747: 2739: 2735: 2727:the original 2722: 2712: 2705: 2685:. Retrieved 2681: 2672: 2660:. Retrieved 2655: 2646: 2629: 2623: 2615: 2610: 2601: 2596:Radar at Sea 2595: 2590: 2578:. Retrieved 2574:the original 2563: 2555:navweaps.com 2554: 2544: 2537: 2532: 2522:28 September 2520:. Retrieved 2515: 2505: 2493:. Retrieved 2482: 2461: 2453: 2440: 2428: 2409: 2403: 2395: 2375:. 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Collins. 3372:John Pike. 3331:John Pike. 3291:17 February 3168:25 February 2906:24 February 2194:Rangekeeper 2161:velocimeter 2099:Mark 75 gun 2070:Ticonderoga 1819:New Jersey' 1664:gyrocompass 1508:Oregon City 1414:(ca. 1945) 1132:Rangekeeper 932:Northampton 885:New Orleans 871:Northampton 815:New Orleans 712:tachymetric 708:Rangekeeper 651:tachymetric 583:battleships 532:Axis powers 501:Sokutekiban 494:Sokutekiban 437:During the 425:Rangekeeper 377:Dreadnought 367:World War I 242:Walter Lake 190:battleships 4251:Categories 4124:Historical 3778:Action Log 3776:Enterprise 3671:0870217151 2956:Campbell, 2704:Campbell, 2641:pp. 17–18. 2630:Washington 2614:Friedman, 2602:Shropshire 2491:. NavWeaps 2377:27 October 2349:Campbell, 2026:Port Royal 1957:cruisers, 1890:destroyers 1813:New Jersey 1802:computer. 1698:Washington 1518:Des Moines 1404:(ca. 1944) 1394:(ca. 1944) 1299:2 rebuilt 1291:Deployment 893:Deployment 804:(ca. 1938) 794:(ca. 1937) 784:(ca. 1937) 737:Deployment 558:Washington 505:Shagekiban 483:Shagekiban 474:Shagekiban 186:Royal Navy 148:and could 4181:Navboxes: 3991:Nike Zeus 3935:Torpedoes 3628:0043-0374 3607:0043-0374 3586:0043-0374 3546:0043-0374 3487:0043-0374 3140:26 August 2580:6 October 2495:26 August 2294:Citations 2246:viscosity 2143:(GCC), a 2052:USS 2024:USS 2019:AN/SPG-60 1940:AN/SPG-53 1929:Precision 1896:AN/SPG-53 1845:AN/SPG-34 1811:USS 1715:Kirishima 1710:Kirishima 1696:USS 1498:Baltimore 1480:Worcester 1459:Cleveland 1427:USS 1419:USS 1336:Selfridge 1087:Amplidyne 1069:USS 1051:USS 1018:USS 965:Cleveland 922:Baltimore 875:), Mk27 ( 868:), Mk24 ( 864:Pensacola 731:5-inch/38 727:5-inch/25 564:Kirishima 556:USS 450:USS 375:HMS 59:talk page 4039:AN/SPY-3 4034:AN/SPY-1 3680:12214729 3660:(1986). 3638:(2004). 3070:1 August 2960:, p. 111 2930:7 August 2882:8 August 2687:16 April 2635:Archived 2353:, p. 106 2167:See also 2075:cruisers 2015:AN/SPQ-9 1974:Farragut 1960:Mitscher 1768:pictured 1723:parallax 1643:Parallax 1631:Missouri 1607:pictured 1589:Director 1545:Saratoga 1380:Fletcher 1279:pictured 1235:pictured 1065:Fletcher 956:Brooklyn 941:Portland 929:several 878:Portland 846:Brooklyn 748:Farragut 313:s chief 254:Dumaresq 135:director 53:You may 4201:Related 4058:Optical 4015:Sensors 3918:Weapons 3862:General 3620:XXXVIII 3599:XXXVIII 3578:XXXVIII 3428:fas.org 3396:fas.org 2662:17 June 2594:Howse, 2111:frigate 1953:Belknap 1410:Gearing 1370:Gleaves 1342:Winslow 1212:OP 1140 1044:⁄ 913:Wichita 828:Wichita 780:Gridley 673:system. 485:on the 244:of the 201:gunfire 4029:OPS-24 3996:Lists: 3714: 3695: 3678: 3668: 3646: 3626: 3605: 3584: 3561: 3544: 3538:XXVIII 3521: 3502: 3485: 3453: 3314: 3264: 3104: 3100:–263. 2470: 2416: 2396:Mikasa 2232:Mikasa 2108:-class 2072:-class 2065:-class 1990:-class 1983:-class 1976:-class 1969:-class 1962:-class 1955:-class 1887:-class 1564:-class 1532:-class 1530:Alaska 1520:-class 1510:-class 1500:-class 1482:-class 1461:-class 1451:-class 1449:Juneau 1429:Seaman 1421:Castle 1412:-class 1402:-class 1392:-class 1382:-class 1372:-class 1362:-class 1360:Benson 1352:-class 1330:Phelps 1325:-class 1323:Porter 1315:Cassin 1309:Downes 1304:-class 967:-class 958:-class 943:-class 934:-class 924:-class 903:-class 901:Alaska 848:-class 817:-class 802:-class 800:Benham 792:-class 790:Bagley 782:-class 771:Downes 765:Cassin 760:-class 750:-class 580:-class 509:Hoiban 488:Yamato 479:Hoiban 343:Mikasa 296:Mikasa 273:Mikasa 4161:ASDIC 4022:Radar 3899:Radar 3894:Sonar 3479:XLIII 3126:(PDF) 2600:HMAS 2434:here. 2228:Asahi 2201:Notes 1634:' 1611:radar 1302:Mahan 994:class 887:class 880:class 873:class 866:class 833:5"/38 821:5"/25 758:Mahan 604:with 490:class 452:Texas 386:Asahi 311:' 308:Asahi 290:Asahi 229:Ocean 124:class 116:radar 61:, or 4231:Navy 3774:USS 3712:ISBN 3693:ISBN 3676:OCLC 3666:ISBN 3644:ISBN 3624:ISSN 3603:ISSN 3582:ISSN 3559:ISBN 3542:ISSN 3519:ISBN 3500:ISBN 3483:ISSN 3451:ISBN 3312:ISBN 3293:2022 3262:ISBN 3170:2007 3142:2006 3102:ISBN 3072:2007 2932:2007 2908:2024 2884:2020 2689:2020 2664:2020 2628:USS 2582:2006 2524:2006 2497:2006 2468:ISBN 2414:ISBN 2379:2020 2230:and 2212:See 2119:WMEC 2115:PHMs 1988:Knox 1938:The 1921:Type 1839:and 1799:this 1761:The 1721:The 1629:USS 1583:Iowa 1577:The 1562:Iowa 1425:and 1377:175 1350:Sims 1268:The 1118:The 992:Sims 916:(2x) 682:Duke 635:HACS 578:Iowa 538:and 536:Iowa 481:and 227:HMS 122:Iowa 108:GFCS 3136:(2) 3098:262 1495:14 1456:27 1407:98 1397:12 1387:58 1367:66 1357:30 1347:12 962:27 919:14 797:10 755:18 729:or 688:by 4253:: 3738:. 3674:. 3618:. 3597:. 3576:. 3536:. 3477:. 3426:. 3394:. 3376:. 3353:. 3335:. 3284:. 3178:^ 3150:^ 3134:15 3132:. 3128:. 3080:^ 3049:^ 3010:^ 2916:^ 2892:^ 2792:^ 2721:. 2697:^ 2680:. 2654:. 2598:. 2553:. 2514:. 2387:^ 2367:. 2302:^ 2163:. 1892:. 1559:4 1527:2 1515:3 1505:3 1477:2 1446:3 1339:, 1333:, 1327:: 1312:, 1306:: 1214:. 1191:, 953:9 898:2 889:) 843:9 812:7 787:8 777:4 768:, 745:8 733:. 507:, 407:. 388:, 317:, 126:. 3849:e 3842:t 3835:v 3720:. 3701:. 3682:. 3652:. 3630:. 3609:. 3588:. 3567:. 3548:. 3527:. 3508:. 3489:. 3459:. 3430:. 3412:. 3398:. 3380:. 3339:. 3320:. 3295:. 3270:. 3172:. 3144:. 3110:. 3074:. 2934:. 2910:. 2886:. 2691:. 2666:. 2618:. 2584:. 2557:. 2526:. 2499:. 2476:. 2448:. 2422:. 2381:. 1605:( 1046:2 1042:1 1039:+ 1037:1 503:, 106:( 84:) 78:( 73:) 69:( 51:. 20:)

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