Marine biogeochemical cycles

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does not freeze and is left behind in the surrounding water. The cold water is now more dense, due to the added salts, and sinks toward the ocean bottom. Surface water moves in to replace the sinking water, thus creating a current. This deep water moves south, between the continents, past the equator, and down to the ends of Africa and South America. The current travels around the edge of Antarctica, where the water cools and sinks again, as it does in the North Atlantic. Thus, the conveyor belt gets "recharged." As it moves around Antarctica, two sections split off the conveyor and turn northward. One section moves into the Indian Ocean, the other into the Pacific Ocean. These two sections that split off warm up and become less dense as they travel northward toward the equator, so that they rise to the surface (upwelling). They then loop back southward and westward to the South Atlantic, eventually returning to the North Atlantic, where the cycle begins again. The conveyor belt moves at much slower speeds (a few centimeters per second) than wind-driven or tidal currents (tens to hundreds of centimeters per second). It is estimated that any given cubic meter of water takes about 1,000 years to complete the journey along the global conveyor belt. In addition, the conveyor moves an immense volume of water—more than 100 times the flow of the Amazon River (Ross, 1995). The conveyor belt is also a vital component of the global ocean nutrient and carbon dioxide cycles. Warm surface waters are depleted of nutrients and carbon dioxide, but they are enriched again as they travel through the conveyor belt as deep or bottom layers. The base of the world's food chain depends on the cool, nutrient-rich waters that support the growth of algae and seaweed.

4231: 2536: 4259:"Biological activity is a dominant force shaping the chemical structure and evolution of the earth surface environment. The presence of an oxygenated atmosphere-hydrosphere surrounding an otherwise highly reducing solid earth is the most striking consequence of the rise of life on earth. Biological evolution and the functioning of ecosystems, in turn, are to a large degree conditioned by geophysical and geological processes. Understanding the interactions between organisms and their abiotic environment, and the resulting coupled evolution of the biosphere and geosphere is a central theme of research in biogeology. Biogeochemists contribute to this understanding by studying the transformations and transport of chemical substrates and products of biological activity in the environment." 3170: 2938:"Another critical element for the health of the oceans is the dissolved oxygen content. Oxygen in the surface ocean is continuously added across the air-sea interface as well as by photosynthesis; it is used up in respiration by marine organisms and during the decay or oxidation of organic material that rains down in the ocean and is deposited on the ocean bottom. Most organisms require oxygen, thus its depletion has adverse effects for marine populations. Temperature also affects oxygen levels as warm waters can hold less dissolved oxygen than cold waters. This relationship will have major implications for future oceans, as we will see... The final seawater property we will consider is the content of dissolved CO 2188: 1860: 3226: 2976: 1696: 4271: 1711: 1787:

concentrations indicated by dark blue fields) is present during overturning of the water column. precursor for deep and intermediate water mass formation. DOC is also exported with subduction in the gyres. In regions where DOCenriched subtropical water is prevented by polar frontal systems from serving as a precursor for overturning circulation (such as at the sites of Antarctic Bottom Water formation in the Southern Ocean) DOC export is a weak component of the biological pump. Waters south of the Antarctic Polar Front lack significant exportable DOC (depicted by light blue field) during winter.

650: 1829: 1778: 1362: 2871:, which is the rate of fixation of carbon per unit of water per unit time. "Primary production is often mapped by satellites using the distribution of chlorophyll, which is a pigment produced by plants that absorbs energy during photosynthesis. The distribution of chlorophyll is shown in the figure above. You can see the highest abundance close to the coastlines where nutrients from the land are fed in by rivers. The other location where chlorophyll levels are high is in upwelling zones where nutrients are brought to the surface ocean from depth by the upwelling process..." 469: 314:

with organic molecules—carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur—take a variety of chemical forms and may exist for long periods in the atmosphere, on land, in water, or beneath the Earth's surface. Geologic processes, such as weathering, erosion, water drainage, and the subduction of the continental plates, all play a role in this recycling of materials. Because geology and chemistry have major roles in the study of this process, the recycling of inorganic matter between living organisms and their environment is called a biogeochemical cycle.

1881:, which has dissolved from the atmosphere into the surface oceans into particulate organic carbon (POC) during primary production. Phytoplankton are then consumed by krill and small zooplankton grazers, which in turn are preyed upon by higher trophic levels. Any unconsumed phytoplankton form aggregates, and along with zooplankton faecal pellets, sink rapidly and are exported out of the mixed layer. Krill, zooplankton and microbes intercept phytoplankton in the surface ocean and sinking detrital particles at depth, consuming and respiring this POC to CO 1237: 1885:(dissolved inorganic carbon, DIC), such that only a small proportion of surface-produced carbon sinks to the deep ocean (i.e., depths > 1000 m). As krill and smaller zooplankton feed, they also physically fragment particles into small, slower- or non-sinking pieces (via sloppy feeding, coprorhexy if fragmenting faeces), retarding POC export. This releases dissolved organic carbon (DOC) either directly from cells or indirectly via bacterial solubilisation (yellow circle around DOC). Bacteria can then remineralise the DOC to DIC (CO 4136: 451: 35:

dissolves nutrients and substances containing elements such as oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus. These substances are endlessly cycled and recycled, chemically combined and then broken down again, dissolved and then precipitated or evaporated, imported from and exported back to the land and the atmosphere and the ocean floor. Powered both by the biological activity of marine organisms and by the natural forces of the Sun and tides and movements within the Earth's crust, these are the marine biogeochemical cycles.

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process is known as thermohaline circulation. In the Earth's polar regions ocean water gets very cold, forming sea ice. As a consequence the surrounding seawater gets saltier, because when sea ice forms, the salt is left behind. As the seawater gets saltier, its density increases, and it starts to sink. Surface water is pulled in to replace the sinking water, which in turn eventually becomes cold and salty enough to sink. This initiates the deep-ocean currents driving the global conveyor belt.

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it does not make sense to assess a terrestrial ecosystem by considering the full column of air above it as well as the great depths of Earth below it. While an ecosystem often has no clear boundary, as a working model it is practical to consider the functional community where the bulk of matter and energy transfer occurs. Nutrient cycling occurs in ecosystems that participate in the "larger biogeochemical cycles of the earth through a system of inputs and outputs."

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stimulates photosynthetic productivity and results in enhanced export of organic matter to the seafloor, often combined with low oxygen concentration in the bottom water (Rabalais et al., 2014; Breitburg et al., 2018). The biogeochemical zonation is thereby compressed toward the sediment surface, and the balance of organic matter mineralization is shifted from oxic and suboxic processes toward sulfate reduction and methanogenesis (Middelburg and Levin, 2009).

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is used to make nucleic acids and the phospholipids that comprise biological membranes. Sulfur is critical to the three-dimensional shape of proteins. The cycling of these elements is interconnected. For example, the movement of water is critical for leaching sulfur and phosphorus into rivers which can then flow into oceans. Minerals cycle through the biosphere between the biotic and abiotic components and from one organism to another.

2955: 568: 4340: 1498: 1178: 543: 2676: 152: 2918: 2299: 3086: 2895: 2030: 5123: 2761: 5242: 1016: 2200: 1291: 928: 2694: 9467: 9235: 9184: 8302: 7816: 7755: 7720: 7685: 7650: 7527: 5683: 5323: 5296: 327: 2046: 3268: 3333: 59: 3254: 6081: 6059: 5633: 5608: 1759:) settle through the ocean interior. Only 2 Pg eventually arrives at the seafloor, while the other 8 Pg is respired in the dark ocean. In sediments, the time scale available for degradation increases by orders of magnitude with the result that 90% of the organic carbon delivered is degraded and only 0.2 Pg C yr is eventually buried and transferred from the biosphere to the geosphere. 4150: 444:

of rain and snow, and the melting of ice. The two most prevalent ions in seawater are chloride and sodium. Together, they make up around 85 per cent of all dissolved ions in the ocean. Magnesium and sulfate ions make up most of the rest. Salinity varies with temperature, evaporation, and precipitation. It is generally low at the equator and poles, and high at mid-latitudes.

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of pathways in the sulfur cycle, leading to intermediate sulfur species and partly back to sulfate. The intermediates include elemental sulfur, polysulfides, thiosulfate, and sulfite, which are all substrates for further microbial oxidation, reduction or disproportionation. New microbiological discoveries, such as long-distance electron transfer through sulfide oxidizing

2989:, add to the complexity. Isotope exchange reactions play an important role for the stable isotope geochemistry and for the experimental study of sulfur transformations using radiotracers. Microbially catalyzed processes are partly reversible whereby the back-reaction affects our interpretation of radiotracer experiments and provides a mechanism for isotope fractionation. 2323:) into the ocean interior and distribute it through the oceans. These three pumps are: (1) the solubility pump, (2) the carbonate pump, and (3) the biological pump. The total active pool of carbon at the Earth's surface for durations of less than 10,000 years is roughly 40,000 gigatons C (Gt C, a gigaton is one billion tons, or the weight of approximately 6 million 908:) into the ocean interior and distribute it through the oceans. These three pumps are: (1) the solubility pump, (2) the carbonate pump, and (3) the biological pump. The total active pool of carbon at the Earth's surface for durations of less than 10,000 years is roughly 40,000 gigatons C (Gt C, a gigaton is one billion tons, or the weight of approximately 6 million 5054: 701:'s western periphery and the increased relative vorticity of poleward moving water, transport is balanced by a narrow, accelerating poleward current, which flows along the western boundary of the ocean basin, outweighing the effects of friction with the cold western boundary current which originates from high latitudes. The overall process, known as 1731:. The red arrows (and associated numbers) indicate the annual flux changes due to anthropogenic activities, averaged over the 2000–2009 time period. They represent how the carbon cycle has changed since 1750. Red numbers in the reservoirs represent the cumulative changes in anthropogenic carbon since the start of the Industrial Period, 1750–2011. 4262:"Since the Cambrian explosion, mineralized body parts have been secreted in large quantities by biota. Because calcium carbonate, silica and calcium phosphate are the main mineral phases constituting these hard parts, biomineralization plays an important role in the global biogeochemical cycles of carbon, calcium, silicon and phosphorus" 1610:(also called the renewal time or exit age) is the average time material spends resident in the reservoir. If the reservoir is in a steady state, this is the same as the time it takes to fill or drain the reservoir. Thus, if τ is the turnover time, then τ = M/S. The equation describing the rate of change of content in a reservoir is 1522:(flows). Simple box models have a small number of boxes with properties, such as volume, that do not change with time. The boxes are assumed to behave as if they were mixed homogeneously. These models are often used to derive analytical formulas describing the dynamics and steady-state abundance of the chemical species involved. 1889:, microbial gardening). Diel vertically migrating krill, smaller zooplankton and fish can actively transport carbon to depth by consuming POC in the surface layer at night, and metabolising it at their daytime, mesopelagic residence depths. Depending on species life history, active transport may occur on a seasonal basis as well. 505:. In 2018, scientists reported that hundreds of millions of viruses and tens of millions of bacteria are deposited daily on every square meter around the planet. This is another example of water facilitating the transport of organic material over great distances, in this case in the form of live microorganisms. 5113:

and is intimately connected to the movement of carbon in the Earth's surface and atmosphere. By returning carbon to the deep Earth, it plays a critical role in maintaining the terrestrial conditions necessary for life to exist. Without it, carbon would accumulate in the atmosphere, reaching extremely

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and the effects of greenhouse gasses, both calcium and carbon cycles are predicted to change in the coming years. Tracking calcium isotopes enables the prediction of environmental changes, with many sources suggesting increasing temperatures in both the atmosphere and marine environment. As a result,

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The six aforementioned elements are used by organisms in a variety of ways. Hydrogen and oxygen are found in water and organic molecules, both of which are essential to life. Carbon is found in all organic molecules, whereas nitrogen is an important component of nucleic acids and proteins. Phosphorus

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expressed as δS. The modern global oceans have sulfur storage of 1.3 × 10 g, mainly occurring as sulfate with the δS value of +21‰. The overall input flux is 1.0 × 10 g/year with the sulfur isotope composition of ~3‰. Riverine sulfate derived from the terrestrial weathering of sulfide minerals (δS =

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Arrows indicate fluxes and pathways of biological or chemical processes. Microbial dissimilatory sulfate reduction to sulfide is a predominant terminal pathway of organic matter mineralization in the anoxic seabed. Chemical or microbial oxidation of the produced sulfide establishes a complex network

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for aquatic organisms. Phosphorus forms parts of important life-sustaining molecules that are very common in the biosphere. Phosphorus does enter the atmosphere in very small amounts when the dust is dissolved in rainwater and seaspray but remains mostly on land and in rock and soil minerals. Eighty

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in the seafloor. Evaporation of ocean water and formation of sea ice further increase the salinity of the ocean. However these processes which increase salinity are continually counterbalanced by processes that decrease salinity, such as the continuous input of fresh water from rivers, precipitation

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Energy flows directionally through ecosystems, entering as sunlight (or inorganic molecules for chemoautotrophs) and leaving as heat during the many transfers between trophic levels. However, the matter that makes up living organisms is conserved and recycled. The six most common elements associated

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S and S). There are two major outputs of sulfur from the oceans. The first sink is the burial of sulfate either as marine evaporites (e.g., gypsum) or carbonate-associated sulfate (CAS), which accounts for 6 × 10 g/year (δS = +21‰). The second sulfur sink is pyrite burial in shelf sediments or deep

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and nutrient cycle. Some textbooks integrate the two and seem to treat them as synonymous terms. However, the terms often appear independently. Nutrient cycle is more often used in direct reference to the idea of an intra-system cycle, where an ecosystem functions as a unit. From a practical point,

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Regions of significant net DOC production (broad arrows) include coastal and equatorial upwelling regions that support much of the global new production. DOC is transported into and around the subtropical gyres with the wind-driven surface circulation. Export takes place if exportable DOC (elevated

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Thermohaline circulation drives a global-scale system of currents called the “global conveyor belt.” The conveyor belt begins on the surface of the ocean near the pole in the North Atlantic. Here, the water is chilled by Arctic temperatures. It also gets saltier because when sea ice forms, the salt

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Water is the medium of the oceans, the medium which carries all the substances and elements involved in the marine biogeochemical cycles. Water as found in nature almost always includes dissolved substances, so water has been described as the "universal solvent" for its ability to dissolve so many

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among the substances themselves, which is why these are called biogeochemical cycles. While chemical substances can be broken down and recombined, the chemical elements themselves can be neither created nor destroyed by these forces, so apart from some losses to and gains from outer space, elements

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The dominant feature of the planet viewed from space is water – oceans of liquid water flood most of the surface while water vapour swirls in atmospheric clouds and the poles are capped with ice. Taken as a whole, the oceans form a single marine system where liquid water – the "universal solvent" –

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Due to the complex interactions of calcium with many facets of life, the effects of altered environmental conditions are unlikely to be known until they occur. Predictions can however be tentatively made, based upon evidence-based research. Increasing carbon dioxide levels and decreasing ocean pH

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gas occurs in only specialized, local conditions. Therefore, the phosphorus cycle should be viewed from whole Earth system and then specifically focused on the cycle in terrestrial and aquatic systems. Locally, transformations of phosphorus are chemical, biological and microbiological: the major

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in normal terrestrial conditions. Since liquid water flows, ocean waters cycle and flow in currents around the world. Since water easily changes phase, it can be carried into the atmosphere as water vapour or frozen as an iceberg. It can then precipitate or melt to become liquid water again. All

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Winds drive ocean currents in the upper 100 meters of the ocean's surface. However, ocean currents also flow thousands of meters below the surface. These deep-ocean currents are driven by differences in the water's density, which is controlled by temperature (thermo) and salinity (haline). This

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Sulfate reduction in the seabed is strongly focused toward near-surface sediments with high depositional rates along the ocean margins. The benthic marine sulfur cycle is therefore sensitive to anthropogenic influence, such as ocean warming and increased nutrient loading of coastal seas. This

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or once they die, continue to the second phase of the biological pump and begin to sink to the ocean floor. The sinking particles will often form aggregates as they sink, greatly increasing the sinking rate. It is this aggregation that gives particles a better chance of escaping predation and

712:, leaving a saltier brine. In this process, the water becomes saltier and denser. and decreases in temperature. Once sea ice forms, salts are left out of the ice, a process known as brine exclusion. These two processes produce water that is denser and colder. The water across the northern 5071:

over the past 3–4 billion years have only been a few hundred metres, much smaller than the average ocean depth of 4 kilometres. Thus, the fluxes of water into and out of the mantle are expected to be roughly balanced, and the water content of the mantle steady. Water carried into the mantle

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by the downward movement of the organic matter. This can occur from sinking of phytoplankton, vertical mixing, or sinking of waste of vertical migrators. The sinking results in ammonia being introduced at lower depths below the euphotic zone. Bacteria are able to convert ammonia to

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The global average residence time of a water molecule in the ocean is about 3,200 years. By comparison the average residence time in the atmosphere is about nine days. If it is frozen in the Antarctic or drawn into deep groundwater it can be sequestered for ten thousand years.

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move through within the marine environment. In addition, substances and elements can be imported into or exported from the marine environment. These imports and exports can occur as exchanges with the atmosphere above, the ocean floor below, or as runoff from the land.

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seafloor sediments (4 × 10 g/year; δS = -20‰). The total marine sulfur output flux is 1.0 × 10 g/year which matches the input fluxes, implying the modern marine sulfur budget is at steady state. The residence time of sulfur in modern global oceans is 13,000,000 years.

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Moulton, Orissa M; Altabet, Mark A; Beman, J Michael; Deegan, Linda A; Lloret, Javier; Lyons, Meaghan K; Nelson, James A; Pfister, Catherine A (May 2016). "Microbial associations with macrobiota in coastal ecosystems: patterns and implications for nitrogen cycling".

1727:, measured in Pg C. Carbon exchange fluxes, measured in Pg C yr, occur between the atmosphere and its two major sinks, the land and the ocean. The black numbers and arrows indicate the reservoir mass and exchange fluxes estimated for the year 1750, just before the 2581:

The nitrogen cycle is as important in the ocean as it is on land. While the overall cycle is similar in both cases, there are different players and modes of transfer for nitrogen in the ocean. Nitrogen enters the ocean through precipitation, runoff, or as

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or cellular function. The calcium cycle is a common thread between terrestrial, marine, geological, and biological processes. Calcium moves through these different media as it cycles throughout the Earth. The marine calcium cycle is affected by changing

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is a result of many interacting forces across multiple time and space scales that circulates carbon around the planet, ensuring that carbon is available globally. The Oceanic carbon cycle is a central process to the global carbon cycle and contains both

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Dark green lines represent movement of nutrients and dashed lines represent movement of energy. Nutrients remain within the system while energy enters via photosynthesis and leaves the system primarily as heat energy, a non-biologically useful form of

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from -2 to +7; however, on Earth it is predominantly in its +2 or +3 redox state and is a primary redox-active metal on Earth. The cycling of iron between its +2 and +3 oxidation states is referred to as the iron cycle. This process can be entirely

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carbon (carbon that is, or has been, incorporated into a living thing). Part of the marine carbon cycle transforms carbon between non-living and living matter. Three main processes (or pumps) that make up the marine carbon cycle bring atmospheric

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is a result of many interacting forces across multiple time and space scales that circulates carbon around the planet, ensuring that carbon is available globally. The marine carbon cycle is a central to the global carbon cycle and contains both

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per cent of the mined phosphorus is used to make fertilizers. Phosphates from fertilizers, sewage and detergents can cause pollution in lakes and streams. Over-enrichment of phosphate in both fresh and inshore marine waters can lead to massive

2735:), consisting of a P atom and 4 oxygen atoms. On land most phosphorus is found in rocks and minerals. Phosphorus-rich deposits have generally formed in the ocean or from guano, and over time, geologic processes bring ocean sediments to land. 500:

A stream of airborne microorganisms circles the planet above weather systems but below commercial air lanes. Some peripatetic microorganisms are swept up from terrestrial dust storms, but most originate from marine microorganisms in

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and the phosphorus is either incorporated into their tissues or excreted. After death, the animal or plant decays, and phosphorus is returned to the soil where a large part of the phosphorus is transformed into insoluble compounds.

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is nearly opposite to oxygen in many chemical and biological processes; it is used up by plankton during photosynthesis and replenished during respiration as well as during the oxidation of organic matter. As we will see later,

2602:. Without supplies of fixed nitrogen entering the marine cycle, the fixed nitrogen would be used up in about 2000 years. Phytoplankton need nitrogen in biologically available forms for the initial synthesis of organic matter. 1349:

of iron-bearing metals, where Fe is abiotically oxidized to Fe in the presence of oxygen, and the reduction of Fe to Fe by iron-sulfide minerals. The biological cycling of Fe is done by iron oxidizing and reducing microbes.

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Kim, Haryun; Lee, Kitack; Lim, Dhong-Il; Nam, Seung-Il; Kim, Tae-Wook; Yang, Jin-Yu T.; Ko, Young Ho; Shin, Kyung-Hoon; Lee, Eunil (11 May 2017). "Widespread Anthropogenic Nitrogen in Northwestern Pacific Ocean Sediment".

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Cavan, E.L., Belcher, A., Atkinson, A., Hill, S.L., Kawaguchi, S., McCormack, S., Meyer, B., Nicol, S., Ratnarajah, L., Schmidt, K. and Steinberg, D.K. (2019) "The importance of Antarctic krill in biogeochemical cycles".

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it facilitates electron transport in chloroplasts, eukaryotic mitochondria, and bacteria. Due to the high reactivity of Fe with oxygen and low solubility of Fe, iron is a limiting nutrient in most regions of the world.

2072:. The particles that escape these processes entirely are sequestered in the sediment and may remain there for millions of years. It is this sequestered carbon that is responsible for ultimately lowering atmospheric CO 1207:

does not play a significant role in the movement of phosphorus, because phosphorus and phosphorus-based compounds are usually solids at the typical ranges of temperature and pressure found on Earth. The production of

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marine life is immersed in water, the matrix and womb of life itself. Water can be broken down into its constituent hydrogen and oxygen by metabolic or abiotic processes, and later recombined to become water again.

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reaction and therefore requires little energy. Nitrate requires a redox reaction for assimilation but is more abundant so most phytoplankton have adapted to have the enzymes necessary to undertake this reduction

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Falkowski, P.; Scholes, R. J.; Boyle, E.; Canadell, J.; Canfield, D.; Elser, J.; Gruber, N.; Hibbard, K.; Högberg, P. (13 October 2000). "The Global Carbon Cycle: A Test of Our Knowledge of Earth as a System".

5223:. Such organisms and their resulting fossil fuels typically have an age of millions of years, and sometimes more than 650 million years, the energy released in combustion is still photosynthetic in origin. 2800:, which ultimately decompose organic matter back into inorganic nutrients. Nutrient cycles occur within ecosystems. Energy flow always follows a unidirectional and noncyclic path, whereas the movement of 4912: 4075:, both forms of calcium carbonate. This is the dominant sink for dissolved calcium in the ocean. Dead organisms sink to the bottom of the ocean, depositing layers of shell which over time cement to form 1270:

cycle involves the transformations of sulfur species through different oxidation states, which play an important role in both geological and biological processes. Earth's main sulfur sink is the oceans

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Chhabra, Abha (2013). "Carbon and Other Biogeochemical Cycles". In Stocker, T.F.; Qin, D.; Plattner, G.-K.; Tignor, M.; Allen, S.K.; Boschung, J.; Nauels, A.; Xia, Y.; Bex, V.; Midgley, P.M. (eds.).

2863:, when nutrients are extracted from surface waters by phytoplankton to become part of their organic makeup. Phytoplankton are either eaten by other organisms, or eventually die and drift down as 6547:

Gu, Baojing; Ge, Ying; Ren, Yuan; Xu, Bin; Luo, Weidong; Jiang, Hong; Gu, Binhe; Chang, Jie (17 August 2012). "Atmospheric Reactive Nitrogen in China: Sources, Recent Trends, and Damage Costs".

912:), and about 95% (~38,000 Gt C) is stored in the ocean, mostly as dissolved inorganic carbon. The speciation of dissolved inorganic carbon in the marine carbon cycle is a primary controller of 5624: 3063:

O) to the symbiont while the symbiont generates organic carbon for sustaining the metabolic activities of the host. The produced sulfate usually combines with the leached calcium ions to form

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Winck, Flavia Vischi; Páez Melo, David Orlando; González Barrios, Andrés Fernando (2013). "Carbon acquisition and accumulation in microalgae Chlamydomonas: Insights from "omics" approaches".

1037:(non-living) sources and sinks of hydrogen-containing compounds. Hydrogen (H) is the most abundant element in the universe. On Earth, common H-containing inorganic molecules include water (H 708:

As it travels poleward, warm water transported by strong warm water current undergoes evaporative cooling. The cooling is wind driven: wind moving over water cools the water and also causes

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Effects of an acidic ocean (with pH projected for the year 2100) on a pteropod shell made of calcite - the shell progressively dissolves in the lower pH as calcium is drawn out of the shell

3025:+6‰) is the primary input of sulfur to the oceans. Other sources are metamorphic and volcanic degassing and hydrothermal activity (δS = 0‰), which release reduced sulfur species (e.g., H 8090: 7701:

Pagano, T., Bida, M. and Kenny, J.E. (2014) "Trends in levels of allochthonous dissolved organic carbon in natural water: a review of potential mechanisms under a changing climate".

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can establish massive blooms in nutrient poor ocean regions with high dust deposition, partly due to their unique ability to capture dust, center it, and subsequently dissolve it.

7618:"Perspectives on the Terrestrial Organic Matter Transport and Burial along the Land-Deep Sea Continuum: Caveats in Our Understanding of Biogeochemical Processes and Future Needs" 5067:

and the mantle has remained dehydrated ever since. However, subduction carries water down at a rate that would empty the ocean in 1–2 billion years. Despite this, changes in the

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When two or more reservoirs are connected, the material can be regarded as cycling between the reservoirs, and there can be predictable patterns to the cyclic flow. More complex

2867:. There they decay and return to the dissolved state, but at greater ocean depths. The fertility of the oceans depends on the abundance of the nutrients, and is measured by the 2068:

The fixed carbon that is either decomposed by bacteria on the way down or once on the sea floor then enters the final phase of the pump and is remineralized to be used again in

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Jickells TD, An ZS, Andersen KK, Baker AR, Bergametti G, Brooks N, et al. (April 2005). "Global iron connections between desert dust, ocean biogeochemistry, and climate".

7927:. Climate change 2001: the scientific basis: contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergouvernmental Panel on Climate Change / Houghton, J.T. 1415:

or cellular function. The calcium cycle is a common thread between terrestrial, marine, geological, and biological processes. The marine calcium cycle is affected by changing

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Heinrichs, M.E., Mori, C. and Dlugosch, L. (2020) "Complex Interactions Between Aquatic Organisms and Their Chemical Environment Elucidated from Different Perspectives". In:

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of rocks and minerals release phosphorus in a soluble form where it is taken up by plants, and it is transformed into organic compounds. The plants may then be consumed by

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is the flux of material out of the reservoir. The budget is the check and balance of the sources and sinks affecting material turnover in a reservoir. The reservoir is in a

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will alter calcium solubility, preventing corals and shelled organisms from developing their calcium-based exoskeletons, thus making them vulnerable or unable to survive.

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cause excessive growth of microorganisms, which depletes oxygen and kills fauna. Worldwide, large dead zones are found in coastal areas with high human population density.

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of freshwaters only. Recent research suggests that the predominant pollutant responsible for algal blooms in saltwater estuaries and coastal marine habitats is nitrogen.

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this will drastically alter the breakdown of rock, the pH of oceans and waterways and thus calcium sedimentation, hosting an array of implications on the calcium cycle.

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Melton ED, Swanner ED, Behrens S, Schmidt C, Kappler A (December 2014). "The interplay of microbially mediated and abiotic reactions in the biogeochemical Fe cycle".

3213:(C-I) that react with the dust particles in the colony core and generate dissolved Fe (C-II). This dissolved Fe, complexed by siderophores, is then acquired by both 3154:

Iron in the ocean cycles between plankton, aggregated particulates (non-bioavailable iron), and dissolved (bioavailable iron), and becomes sediments through burial.

5997: 398:, and then transported overland and down rivers. Both runoff and groundwater flow play significant roles in transporting nitrogen from the land to waterbodies. The 5905: 5515: 2193:

Connections between the different compartments of the living (bacteria/viruses and phyto−/zooplankton) and the nonliving (DOM/POM and inorganic matter) environment

8064: 9045:"Surface ocean iron fertilization: The role of airborne volcanic ash from subduction zone and hot spot volcanoes and related iron fluxes into the Pacific Ocean" 2272:

carbon (carbon that is, or has been, incorporated into a living thing). Part of the marine carbon cycle transforms carbon between non-living and living matter.

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formation. Another is tearing of drops from wave tops. The total sea salt flux from the ocean to the atmosphere is about 3300 Tg (3.3 billion tonnes) per year.

371:, flow of water over and beneath the Earth is a key component of the cycling of other biogeochemicals. Runoff is responsible for almost all of the transport of 4919: 474:

Vertical differences in sea salinity between the surface and a depth of 300 metres. Salinity increases with depth in red regions and decreases in blue regions.

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Treguer, P.; Nelson, D. M.; Van Bennekom, A. J.; Demaster, D. J.; Leynaert, A.; Queguiner, B. (1995). "The Silica Balance in the World Ocean: A Reestimate".

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Levin, Simon A; Carpenter, Stephen R; Godfray, Charles J; Kinzig, Ann P; Loreau, Michel; Losos, Jonathan B; Walker, Brian; Wilcove, David S (27 July 2009).

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CLIMATE CHANGE 2013 The Physical Science Basis, WORKING GROUP I CONTRIBUTION TO THE FIFTH ASSESSMENT REPORT OF THE INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE

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spp., which commonly occurs in tropical and sub-tropical waters, is of large environmental significance in fertilizing the ocean with important nutrients.

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becomes so dense that it begins to sink down through less salty and less dense water. This downdraft of heavy, cold and dense water becomes a part of the

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Walker, James C. G.; Hays, P. B.; Kasting, J. F. (1981). "A negative feedback mechanism for the long-term stabilization of Earth's surface temperature".

6498:

Reis, Stefan; Bekunda, Mateete; Howard, Clare M; Karanja, Nancy; Winiwarter, Wilfried; Yan, Xiaoyuan; Bleeker, Albert; Sutton, Mark A (1 December 2016).

8195: 2844:

Nutrients dissolved in seawater are essential for the survival of marine life. Nitrogen and phosphorus are particularly important. They are regarded as

10059: 1514:

Box models are widely used to model biogeochemical systems. Box models are simplified versions of complex systems, reducing them to boxes (or storage

5933: 1162:. Human activities such as fossil fuel combustion, use of artificial nitrogen fertilizers, and release of nitrogen in wastewater have dramatically 8677:"A dynamic marine iron cycle module coupled to the University of Victoria Earth System Model: the Kiel Marine Biogeochemical Model 2 for UVic 2.9" 5046:. However, some of the "nominally anhydrous minerals" that are stable deeper in the mantle can store small concentrations of water in the form of 4230: 3285:

Iron is an essential micronutrient for almost every life form. It is a key component of hemoglobin, important to nitrogen fixation as part of the

2848:

in many marine environments, because primary producers, like algae and marine plants, cannot grow without them. They are critical for stimulating

1751:

is about 50 Pg C each year. About 10 Pg is exported to the ocean interior while the other 40 Pg is respired. Organic carbon degradation occurs as

1118:. The conversion of nitrogen can be carried out through both biological and physical processes. Important processes in the nitrogen cycle include 5664:

Sundby, S. and Kristiansen, T. (2015) "The principles of buoyancy in marine fish eggs and their vertical distributions across the world oceans".

9304:

Ridgwell, Andy; Zeebe, Richard E. (15 June 2005). "The role of the global carbonate cycle in the regulation and evolution of the Earth system".

7067:

Ridgwell, Andy; Zeebe, Richard E. (15 June 2005). "The role of the global carbonate cycle in the regulation and evolution of the Earth system".

10171: 8120:

Peltzer DA, Wardle DA, Allison VJ, Baisden WT, Bardgett RD, Chadwick OA, et al. (November 2010). "Understanding ecosystem retrogression".

5849: 9952: 5882: 2060:

Once this carbon is fixed into soft or hard tissue, the organisms either stay in the euphotic zone to be recycled as part of the regenerative

1812:(POC), dissolved organic nitrogen (DON), and dissolved organic phosphorus (DOP) are represented. DOC can be further broken down to its humic ( 8098: 286:(PCB). In some cycles there are reservoirs where a substance can be stored for a long time. The cycling of these elements is interconnected. 182: 3051:

are primary sulfur oxidizing bacteria, and form chemosynthetic symbioses with animal hosts. The host provides metabolic substrates (e.g., CO

10099: 5699: 1077:. Given the ubiquity of hydrogen atoms in inorganic and organic chemical compounds, the hydrogen cycle is focused on molecular hydrogen (H 7736:

Monroy, P., Hernández-García, E., Rossi, V. and López, C. (2017) "Modeling the dynamical sinking of biogenic particles in oceanic flow".

1735:

The diagram above shows a simplified budget of ocean carbon flows. It is composed of three simple interconnected box models, one for the

1464:. Silicon is a bioessential element and is one of the most abundant elements on Earth. The silica cycle has significant overlap with the 6388: 5956: 3449: 3158:

release ferrous iron to the ocean in addition to oceanic iron inputs from land sources. Iron reaches the atmosphere through volcanism,

8502:

Sievert SM, Hügler M, Taylor CD, Wirsen CO (2008). "Sulfur Oxidation at Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents". In Dahl C, Friedrich CG (eds.).

5976: 10406: 9854:

Rüpke, L; Morgan, Jason Phipps; Hort, Matthias; Connolly, James A. D. (June 2004). "Serpentine and the subduction zone water cycle".

7373:

Defant, Marc J.; Drummond, Mark S. (October 1990). "Derivation of some modern arc magmas by melting of young subducted lithosphere".

4980:

determines how explosive a volcanic eruption is; hot water is the main conduit for economically important minerals to concentrate in

4435: 4428: 3734: 3407: 2134:

Beckett, S.J. and Weitz, J.S. (2017) "Disentangling niche competition from grazing mortality in phytoplankton dilution experiments".

1142:), making it the largest source of nitrogen. However, atmospheric nitrogen has limited availability for biological use, leading to a 2535: 7194: 6110: 5567: 3139:. While Fe is highly abundant in the Earth's crust, it is less common in oxygenated surface waters. Iron is a key micronutrient in 2631:

can then occur to convert the ammonium to nitrite and nitrate. Nitrate can be returned to the euphotic zone by vertical mixing and

1320:. While Fe is highly abundant in the Earth's crust, it is less common in oxygenated surface waters. Iron is a key micronutrient in 1949:

The biological pump can be divided into three distinct phases, the first of which is the production of fixed carbon by planktonic

665:, while cold polar water heads towards the Equator. The surface currents are initially dictated by surface wind conditions. The 439:

is derived mainly from the weathering of rocks and the transport of dissolved salts from the land, with lesser contributions from

4033: 3907: 3434: 3074: 1416: 1221:. Humans have caused major changes to the global phosphorus cycle through shipping of phosphorus minerals, and use of phosphorus 6690:

Bickle MJ, Alt JC, Teagle DA (1994). "Sulfur transport and sulphur isotope fractionations in ocean floor hydrothermal systems".

5489: 4968:). However, in addition to the surface cycle, water also plays an important role in geological processes reaching down into the 8445: 3970: 3788: 3148: 2959: 2646:

Ammonium is thought to be the preferred source of fixed nitrogen for phytoplankton because its assimilation does not involve a

1618: 1325: 7849: 7771:

Simon, M., Grossart, H., Schweitzer, B. and Ploug, H. (2002) "Microbial ecology of organic aggregates in aquatic ecosystems".

5050:(OH), and because they occupy large volumes of the Earth, they are capable of storing at least as much as the world's oceans. 1166:. Human modification of the global nitrogen cycle can negatively affect the natural environment system and also human health. 9781: 9679: 8519: 8175: 8047: 8019: 6674: 6382: 6304: 6260: 5809: 5356: 4905: 3912: 2110: 10338: 4871: 10133: 7436: 492:, and all the substances and elements contained in their bodies, can be swept high into the atmosphere. There they become 6024: 6001: 5511: 4396: 3377: 5902: 5537: 4103:

The relationship between dissolved calcium and calcium carbonate is affected greatly by the levels of carbon dioxide (CO

10442: 10318: 10164: 8768: 4847: 4467: 1163: 8068: 7459:

Sarmiento, J.L.; Toggweiler, J.R. (1984). "A new model for the role of the oceans in determining atmospheric P CO 2".

6912:"Ecosystem functioning from a geomicrobiological perspective – a conceptual framework for biogeochemical iron cycling" 3225: 1324:, and a limiting nutrient in the Southern ocean, eastern equatorial Pacific, and the subarctic Pacific referred to as 10143: 9997: 9702: 9680:"Whole Earth geohydrologic cycle, from the clouds to the core: The distribution of water in the dynamic Earth system" 9390: 8339: 7870: 7513: 7446: 7204: 7158: 7122: 6169: 5917: 5472: 5446: 5417: 5382: 5317: 4011:. Calcium ions are consumed and removed from aqueous environments as they react to form insoluble structures such as 1395:. Calcium ions are consumed and removed from aqueous environments as they react to form insoluble structures such as 175: 9687:

The Web of Geological Sciences: Advances, Impacts, and Interactions: Geological Society of America Special Paper 500

2116:

Mateus, M.D. (2017) "Bridging the gap between knowing and modeling viruses in marine systems—An upcoming frontier".

6824:

Martin JH, Fitzwater SE (1988). "Iron deficiency limits phytoplankton growth in the north-east Pacific subarctic".

431: 7892:

De La Rocha CL. 2006. The Biological Pump. In: Treatise on Geochemistry; vol. 6, (ed.). Pergamon Press, pp. 83-111

3169: 10467: 5983: 5889: 4504: 984:

of many biogeochemical redox reactions within the cycle. Processes within the oxygen cycle are considered to be

8935:

Matsui H, Mahowald NM, Moteki N, Hamilton DS, Ohata S, Yoshida A, Koike M, Scanza RA, Flanner MG (April 2018).

705:, causes currents on the western boundary of an ocean basin to be stronger than those on the eastern boundary. 8283:

Jørgensen, B.B., Findlay, A.J. and Pellerin, A. (2019) "The biogeochemical sulfur cycle of marine sediments".

10516: 10495: 10157: 9441:

Zhang, Junzhi; Li, Luwei; Qiu, Lijia; Wang, Xiaoting; Meng, Xuanyi; You, Yu; Yu, Jianwei; Ma, Wenlin (2017).

9344:"Calcium isotopes in the global biogeochemical Ca cycle: Implications for development of a Ca isotope proxyy" 8244: 6075: 6053: 5462: 5063:

The conventional view of the ocean's origin is that it was filled by outgassing from the mantle in the early

4892: 10088:

Paul Mann, Lisa Gahagan, and Mark B. Gordon, "Tectonic setting of the world's giant oil and gas fields", in

10067: 9144:"Colonies of marine cyanobacteria Trichodesmium interact with associated bacteria to acquire iron from dust" 7222:"Calcium isotopes in the global biogeochemical Ca cycle: Implications for development of a Ca isotope proxy" 10447: 10201: 9980:

Keppler, Hans (2013). "Volatiles under high pressure". In Karato, Shun-ichiro; Karato, Shun'ichirō (eds.).

8147: 5743:

Reche, Isabel; D’Orta, Gaetano; Mladenov, Natalie; Winget, Danielle M; Suttle, Curtis A (29 January 2018).

4981: 4550: 4477: 3842: 3837: 3507: 3319: 3311: 1469: 168: 10477: 4827: 2187: 296:

are crucial for the functioning of many of these cycles. The forces driving biogeochemical cycles include

7924: 6131:

Van Der Ent, R.J. and Tuinenburg, O.A. (2017) "The residence time of water in the atmosphere revisited".

6028: 5930: 5144: 1859: 133: 5010:

Water is not just present as a separate phase in the ground. Seawater percolates into oceanic crust and

1777: 10112: 5833: 5716: 3897: 3795: 3501: 3495: 3327: 3035: 2563: 2214: 2172: 1809: 1772: 1752: 1254:

because they affect many minerals. Biochemical cycles are also important for life because sulfur is an

9343: 7945: 7221: 2101:

Brum JR, Morris JJ, Décima M and Stukel MR (2014) "Mortality in the oceans: Causes and consequences".

10531: 8615:

Pedersen RB, Rapp HT, Thorseth IH, Lilley MD, Barriga FJ, Baumberger T, et al. (November 2010).

4312:

process that occurs above and on the surface of Earth. Some of the water makes it all the way to the

4111: 3902: 3522: 2868: 2849: 2682: 2572: 965: 717: 113: 9570: 5857: 5106: 1525:

The diagram at the right shows a basic one-box model. The reservoir contains the amount of material

10435: 10430: 9958: 9541: 5940: 5879: 5232: 4640: 4635: 4391: 3877: 3805: 3800: 3783: 3628: 3489: 3387: 3337: 2624: 2556: 2548: 2327:), and about 95% (~38,000 Gt C) is stored in the ocean, mostly as dissolved inorganic carbon. The 2210: 1801: 1768: 1748: 1266:, and sulfur compounds can be used as oxidants or reductants in microbial respiration. The global 993: 345: 283: 2975: 2255:

between various pools within the ocean as well as between the atmosphere, Earth interior, and the

882:

between various pools within the ocean as well as between the atmosphere, Earth interior, and the

10369: 8891: 6764: 5173: 4794: 3887: 3402: 3110: 1695: 1689: 1342: 1263: 702: 457: 9142:

Basu, Subhajit; Gledhill, Martha; De Beer, Dirk; Prabhu Matondkar, S. G.; Shaked, Yeala (2019).

4270: 3332: 2560: 1710: 10258: 6500:"Synthesis and review: Tackling the nitrogen management challenge: from global to local scales" 6463:

Galloway, J. N.; et al. (2004). "Nitrogen cycles: past, present, and future generations".

4744: 4149: 3707: 3483: 3444: 3412: 2825: 2793: 2265: 1515: 1250:

moves between rocks, waterways and living systems. Such biogeochemical cycles are important in

892: 625: 537: 8165: 4135: 2958:

Nitrogen to phosphorus ratio at the ocean surface. Nutrients are available in the three HNLC (

2623:

but they are inhibited by light so this must occur below the euphotic zone. Ammonification or

2610:

are released into the water by excretion from plankton. Nitrogen sources are removed from the

1828: 1361: 661:

Solar radiation affects the oceans: warm water from the Equator tends to circulate toward the

649: 10536: 10526: 10521: 10462: 10093: 9807:"Hydrous minerals in the mantle wedge and the maximum depth of subduction thrust earthquakes" 6372: 5953: 5348: 5231:

Such as trace minerals, micronutrients, human-induced cycles for synthetic compounds such as

5220: 4487: 3956: 3943: 3892: 3623: 2160: 1728: 1204: 1135: 1111: 293: 73: 9867: 9203:"Pelagic Iron Recycling in the Southern Ocean: Exploring the Contribution of Marine Animals" 5286: 3166:, iron is removed from mines in the crust and a portion re-deposited in waste repositories. 3147:

in the Southern ocean, eastern equatorial Pacific, and the subarctic Pacific referred to as

10381: 10211: 10188: 10180: 10045: 10033: 9902: 9863: 9818: 9738: 9605: 9497: 9268: 9106: 9059: 8948: 8906: 8864: 8821: 8783: 8725: 8688: 8628: 8457: 8416: 8369: 8212: 7557: 7468: 7382: 7329: 7031: 6984: 6833: 6779: 6734: 6699: 6608: 6556: 6511: 6329: 6206: 5973: 5464:

The Matrix of Life: A View of Natural Molecules from the Perspective of Environmental Water

5035: 4656: 4408: 4401: 4331: 4313: 3819: 3721: 3477: 3382: 3275: 3218: 3140: 2832: 2287: 1915: 1805: 1529:

under consideration, as defined by chemical, physical or biological properties. The source

1321: 654: 489: 368: 199: 103: 9486:"Calcium and calcium isotope changes during carbon cycle perturbations at the end-Permian" 9443:"Effects of Climate Change on 2-Methylisoborneol Production in Two Cyanobacterial Species" 8855:

Taylor SR (1964). "Abundance of chemical elements in the continental crust: a new table".

6942:

Kappler, Andreas; Straub, Kristina L. (2005-01-01). "Geomicrobiological Cycling of Iron".

6725:

Taylor SR (1964). "Abundance of chemical elements in the continental crust: a new table".

3209:

Proposed dust-bound Fe acquisition pathway: Bacteria residing within the colonies produce

8: 10472: 10413: 8892:"Modeling organic iron-binding ligands in a three-dimensional biogeochemical ocean model" 6524: 6499: 5649: 5485: 5255: 5185: 5023: 4937: 4815: 4625: 4516: 4037: 3768: 3584: 3439: 3217:

and its resident bacteria (C-III), resulting in a mutual benefit to both partners of the

2248: 2206: 1420: 977: 875: 804: 694: 686: 682: 399: 391: 138: 10037: 9954:

The Influence of Magma Ocean Processes on the Present-day Inventory of Deep Earth Carbon

9906: 9822: 9742: 9609: 9501: 9272: 9110: 9063: 8952: 8910: 8868: 8825: 8787: 8729: 8692: 8632: 8461: 8420: 8381: 8373: 8216: 7561: 7472: 7386: 7333: 7035: 6988: 6837: 6783: 6738: 6703: 6612: 6560: 6515: 6410:

Kuypers, MMM; Marchant, HK; Kartal, B (2011). "The Microbial Nitrogen-Cycling Network".

6333: 6210: 6102: 5575: 1154:

because nitrogen availability can affect the rate of key ecosystem processes, including

508:

Dissolved salt does not evaporate back into the atmosphere like water, but it does form

10089: 9926: 9836: 9754: 9629: 9523: 9224: 9168: 9143: 9124: 9075: 9020: 8993: 8969: 8936: 8749: 8649: 8616: 8592: 8565: 8481: 8385: 8331: 8319: 8236: 7862: 7666:

Hansell DA and Craig AC (2015) "Marine Dissolved Organic Matter and the Carbon Cycle".

7639: 7575: 7484: 7406: 7355: 7293: 7260: 7172: 6892: 6849: 6803: 6480: 6445: 6353: 6296: 5769: 5744: 5721: 5068: 4754: 4020: 3847: 3615: 3599: 3594: 3517: 3106: 3021: 2924: 2332: 2315:

Three main processes (or pumps) that make up the marine carbon cycle bring atmospheric

2230: 2105:, Chapter 2, pages 16–48. Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography. 2069: 1911: 1492: 1404: 1236: 1155: 913: 690: 678: 219: 156: 108: 88: 9678:

Bodnar, R.J.; Azbej, T.; Becker, S.P.; Cannatelli, C.; Fall, A.; Severs, M.J. (2013).

10457: 10425: 10359: 10206: 10139: 10017: 9993: 9918: 9840: 9787: 9777: 9750: 9698: 9621: 9515: 9423: 9386: 9363: 9321: 9286: 9173: 9128: 9044: 9025: 8974: 8876: 8837: 8812:

Wang T, Müller DB, Graedel TE (1 July 2007). "Forging the Anthropogenic Iron Cycle".

8741: 8654: 8617:"Discovery of a black smoker vent field and vent fauna at the Arctic Mid-Ocean Ridge" 8597: 8515: 8473: 8389: 8335: 8228: 8203: 8171: 8043: 8015: 7989: 7866: 7579: 7509: 7442: 7432: 7398: 7359: 7347: 7298: 7280: 7241: 7200: 7164: 7154: 7118: 7084: 7049: 7000: 6955: 6884: 6795: 6746: 6670: 6632: 6624: 6580: 6572: 6529: 6437: 6432: 6378: 6357: 6345: 6300: 6266: 6256: 6230: 6222: 6175: 6165: 5913: 5805: 5774: 5468: 5442: 5438: 5413: 5409: 5352: 5219:, and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in a process known as 5199:, became buried under further heavy layers of inorganic sediment. The resulting high 5177: 5094: 5077: 5038:, heat and pressure dehydrates these minerals, releasing much of it to the overlying 5011: 4784: 4630: 4482: 4418: 4287: 4275: 4244: 4196: 4012: 3778: 3557: 3392: 3159: 3155: 3144: 3070: 2845: 2801: 2652: 2595: 2106: 1931: 1396: 1255: 1119: 1115: 1034: 698: 662: 440: 403: 301: 78: 9930: 9758: 9527: 9359: 9079: 8753: 8265: 8240: 7643: 7237: 6896: 6484: 5599: 5053: 2331:

of dissolved inorganic carbon in the marine carbon cycle is a primary controller of

1225:, and also the shipping of food from farms to cities, where it is lost as effluent. 10376: 10364: 10295: 10265: 10041: 9985: 9910: 9890: 9871: 9826: 9746: 9690: 9658: 9633: 9613: 9505: 9454: 9415: 9355: 9313: 9276: 9228: 9214: 9163: 9155: 9114: 9067: 9015: 9005: 8964: 8956: 8914: 8872: 8829: 8791: 8733: 8696: 8644: 8636: 8587: 8577: 8547: 8507: 8485: 8465: 8424: 8377: 8327: 8292: 8220: 8129: 7979: 7971: 7906: 7858: 7806: 7780: 7745: 7710: 7675: 7629: 7598: 7565: 7517: 7488: 7476: 7410: 7390: 7337: 7288: 7272: 7233: 7176: 7146: 7076: 7039: 6992: 6951: 6923: 6876: 6853: 6841: 6807: 6787: 6742: 6707: 6616: 6564: 6519: 6472: 6449: 6427: 6419: 6337: 6292: 6214: 6140: 5797: 5764: 5756: 5673: 5340: 5189: 5169: 5102: 4996: 4973: 4801: 4789: 4499: 4362: 4301: 4297: 4283: 3744: 3638: 3633: 3041: 2817: 2797: 2701: 2576: 2510: 2467: 2463: 2428: 2143: 2125: 2002: 1329: 1184: 1054: 969: 674: 641:

Antarctic Circumpolar Current, with branches connecting to the global conveyor belt

520:

over ocean surface generate sea salt aerosols. One common cause is the bursting of

517: 509: 330:

Interaction of terrestrial and atmospheric water cycles with the marine water cycle

289: 259: 223: 9914: 9043:

Olgun N, Duggen S, Croot PL, Delmelle P, Dietze H, Schacht U, et al. (2011).

8918: 3077:

that oxidize hydrogen sulfide with oxygen to produce elemental sulfur or sulfate.

585:

Upwelling can be caused if an alongshore wind moves towards the equator, inducing

10396: 10354: 9617: 8511: 8224: 7910: 6711: 6218: 5980: 5960: 5937: 5909: 5886: 5677: 5140: 5128: 5073: 4969: 4779: 4734: 4598: 4581: 4172: 4082:

Calcium precipitates into calcium carbonate according to the following equation:

4044: 3872: 3739: 3672: 3660: 3589: 3463: 2928: 2712: 2657: 2640: 2402: 2147: 2036: 1903: 1897: 1472:) and plays an important role in the sequestration of carbon through continental 1457: 1276: 1131: 945: 586: 231: 123: 118: 93: 9419: 5241: 4191:

after they die. Inputs of silicon to the ocean from above arrive via rivers and

2923:

The drainage basins of the principal oceans and seas of the world are marked by

634: 300:

within organisms, geological processes involving the Earth's mantle, as well as

10275: 10248: 10243: 10223: 10218: 9875: 9649:

Van Cappellen, P. (2003) "Biomineralization and global biogeochemical cycles".

9471: 9317: 9239: 9188: 8960: 8306: 7820: 7810: 7759: 7724: 7689: 7654: 7531: 7259:

Hunt, J. W.; Dean, A. P.; Webster, R. E.; Johnson, G. N.; Ennos, A. R. (2008).

7080: 5745:"Deposition rates of viruses and bacteria above the atmospheric boundary layer" 5687: 5327: 5300: 4806: 4749: 4704: 4694: 4689: 4664: 4603: 4586: 4462: 4457: 4449: 4291: 4202: 4187:

from surface waters during growth, and return this by recycling throughout the

4000: 3882: 3852: 3832: 3773: 3687: 3570: 3565: 3426: 3235: 3231: 3014: 2986: 2963: 2886: 2813: 2785: 2781: 2775: 2745: 2728: 2721: 2527:

Dead zones occur in the ocean when phosphorus and nitrogen from fertilizers in

2360: 2328: 2316: 2269: 2268:

carbon (carbon not associated with a living thing, such as carbon dioxide) and

2242: 2164: 2061: 1962: 1927: 1919: 1744: 1477: 1384: 1338: 1214: 1123: 1099: 1074: 1022: 901: 896: 895:

carbon (carbon not associated with a living thing, such as carbon dioxide) and

713: 436: 415: 387: 263: 251: 243: 203: 83: 68: 9989: 9694: 9257:"A model for calcium, magnesium and sulfate in seawater over Phanerozoic time" 9159: 8150:. In: Bear R, Rintoul D, Snyder B, Smith-Caldas M, Herren C and Horne E (Eds) 7521: 7150: 7020:"A model for calcium, magnesium and sulfate in seawater over Phanerozoic time" 6476: 6032: 5931:

Lesson 6: Unraveling the Gulf Stream Puzzle - On a Warm Current Running North.

5801: 5760: 4195:, while those from below include seafloor sediment recycling, weathering, and 3020:

The sulfur cycle in marine environments has been well-studied via the tool of

2824:

among others that continually recycle along with other mineral nutrients into

2092: 1549:, that is, if the sources balance the sinks and there is no change over time. 10510: 10452: 10238: 10233: 9791: 9519: 9367: 9325: 9290: 9219: 9202: 9010: 8795: 8582: 8551: 8446:"Low marine sulphate and protracted oxygenation of the Proterozoic biosphere" 8296: 7993: 7634: 7617: 7402: 7351: 7284: 7245: 7168: 7088: 7053: 7004: 6628: 6576: 6533: 6349: 6270: 6226: 6179: 6144: 6085: 6063: 5637: 5612: 5545: 5262: 5172:

millions of years ago began forming petroleum and natural gas as a result of

5161: 4957: 4739: 4729: 4684: 4679: 4669: 4617: 4540: 4472: 4141: 3984: 3303: 3192: 2853: 2663: 2628: 2599: 2587: 2379: 2129: 2010: 1990: 1958: 1923: 1736: 1607: 1368: 1218: 1159: 1127: 410:

from fertilizer being carried off agricultural fields and funnelled down the

247: 235: 8737: 8701: 8676: 8360:

Fike DA, Bradley AS, Rose CV (2015). "Rethinking the Ancient Sulfur Cycle".

7749: 7679: 7193:

Rubin, Ronald P.; Weiss, George B.; Putney, James W. Jr (11 November 2013).

6996: 6763:

Tagliabue A, Bowie AR, Boyd PW, Buck KN, Johnson KS, Saito MA (March 2017).

6620: 4023:, as calcium is essential to biological functions such as the production of 3361: 2711:

Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals. Phosphorus is a

2052:

The oceanic whale pump where whales cycle nutrients through the water column

1906:, in its simplest form, is the ocean's biologically driven sequestration of 1407:, as calcium is essential to biological functions such as the production of 28: 10285: 10280: 10253: 10196: 9922: 9625: 9427: 9177: 9029: 8978: 8841: 8745: 8658: 8601: 8477: 8429: 8404: 8232: 7602: 7302: 6888: 6799: 6636: 6584: 6441: 6423: 6234: 5778: 5110: 5043: 5039: 4714: 4699: 4545: 4511: 4494: 4386: 4378: 4249: 4188: 4184: 4160: 3665: 3579: 3533: 3471: 3353: 3307: 3163: 3102: 2994: 2821: 2809: 2805: 2305: 2260: 2238: 2065:

decomposition in the water column and eventually make it to the sea floor.

2006: 1791: 1740: 1538: 1465: 1441: 1243: 968:

of the planet Earth. The word oxygen in the literature typically refers to

934: 887: 493: 419: 411: 275: 267: 255: 239: 207: 98: 9281: 9256: 8538:

strain s5 and its adaptations to deep-sea hydrothermal vent environment".

7044: 7019: 5372: 4308:

oceanic plates and returning through volcanic activity, distinct from the

3067:, which can form widespread deposits on near mid-ocean spreading centers. 10401: 10391: 10386: 10290: 9831: 9806: 9510: 9485: 9119: 9094: 9071: 8994:"The Irony of Iron - Biogenic Iron Oxides as an Iron Source to the Ocean" 7342: 7317: 7276: 5200: 5165: 5155: 5000: 4989: 4965: 4941: 4674: 4591: 4423: 4413: 4357: 4349: 4309: 4218: 4064: 4060: 4016: 3729: 3702: 3697: 3692: 3682: 3652: 3538: 3397: 3286: 3210: 3136: 3128: 3090: 2999: 2864: 2717: 2611: 2528: 2472: 2234: 2168: 2014: 1950: 1817: 1756: 1400: 1317: 1309: 1196: 1192: 1070: 709: 666: 618: 599: 484: 360: 341: 335: 271: 50: 10149: 8469: 6880: 6791: 5972:

National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (2009).

2675: 1569: 1560: 1092: 305:

are recycled or stored (sequestered) somewhere on or within the planet.

10270: 10228: 8640: 7848:

Hain MP, Sigman DM, Haug GH (2014). "The Biological Pump in the Past".

6341: 5208: 5136: 4993: 4759: 4724: 4719: 4709: 4532: 4317: 4305: 4304:

involves exchange of water with the mantle, with water carried down by

4180: 3988: 3677: 3290: 3124: 3116: 3098: 2736: 2655:). There are a few notable and well-known exceptions that include most 2324: 1974: 1813: 1473: 1372: 1305: 1297: 1222: 1188: 1147: 1107: 909: 670: 573:

Upwelling caused by an offshore wind in friction with the ocean surface

547: 521: 395: 379: 297: 279: 9470: