Marcus Garvey - Knowledge

2362:'s economic endeavours but criticized his focus on individualism: Garvey believed that African-American interests would best be advanced if businesses included collective decision-making and group profit-sharing. His advocacy of capitalistic wealth distribution was a more equitable view of capitalism than the view of capitalism which was then prevalent in the U.S.; he believed that some restrictions should be imposed on individuals and businesses in order to prevent them from acquiring too much wealth, in his view, no individual should be allowed to control more than one million dollars and no company should be allowed to control more than five million dollars. While he was living in Harlem, he envisioned the formation of a global network of black people who would trade among themselves, believing that his Black Star Line would contribute to the achievement of this aim. 1591:, although Garvey disliked his selection on the grounds that he thought Mack an NAACP sympathiser. At the start of the trial, Garvey's attorney, Cornelius McDougald, urged him to plead guilty to secure a minimum sentence, but Garvey refused, dismissing McDougald and deciding to represent himself in court. The trial proceeded for more than a month. Throughout, Garvey struggled due to his lack of legal training. In his three-hour closing address he presented himself as a selfless leader who was beset by incompetent and thieving staff who caused all the problems for UNIA and the Black Star Line. On 18 June, the jurors retired to deliberate on the verdict, returning after ten hours. They found Garvey himself guilty, but his three co-defendants not guilty. 2312:, rather than the smaller-scale societies which lived on other parts of the continent. In doing so, he followed the lead of white academics of that era, who were similarly ignorant of most of African history and who focused nearly exclusively on ancient Egypt. Moses thought that Garvey "had more affinity for the pomp and tinsel of European imperialism than he did for black African tribal life". Similarly, the writer Richard Hart noted that Garvey was "much attracted by the glamour of the British nobility", an attraction which was reflected when he honored prominent supporters by giving them such British-derived titles as "Lords", "Ladies", and "Knights". Garvey's head was not turned, however, by the scholarly authority of Harvard University professor 1904: 1452:, which the Black Star Line did not yet own. He was bailed for $ 2,500. Hoover and the BOI were committed to securing a conviction; they had also received complaints from a small number of the Black Star Line's stock owners, who wanted them to pursue the matter further. Garvey spoke out against the charges he faced, but focused on blaming not the state, but rival African-American groups, for them. As well as accusing disgruntled former members of UNIA, in a Liberty Hall speech, he implied that the NAACP were behind the conspiracy to imprison him. The mainstream press picked up on the charge, largely presenting Garvey as a con artist who had swindled African-American people. 1043: 2185:

U.S., instead, he maintained the view that his UNIA stood for "the pride and purity of race. We believe that the white race should uphold its racial pride and perpetuate itself, and we also believe that the black race should do likewise. We believe that there is room enough in the world for the various race groups to grow and develop by themselves without seeking to destroy the Creator's plan by the constant introduction of mongrel types." Arguing that Garvey "imitated white supremacist ideas at random", the scholar John L. Graves commented that "racism permeated nearly every iota of his ideology," with Garveyism representing "a gospel of hate for whites".

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to work with him because his approach effectively acknowledged its belief that the U.S. should only be a country for white people and campaigns for advanced rights for African Americans who are living within the U.S. should be abandoned. Garvey called for collaboration between black and white separatists, stating that they shared common goals: "the purification of the races, their autonomous separation and the unbridled freedom of self-development and self-expression. Those who are against this are enemies of both races, and rebels against morality, nature and God." In his view, the KKK and other

2385:, among others. He believed that the communist movement did not serve the interests of African Americans because it was a white person's creation. He stated that communism was "a dangerous theory of economic or political reformation because it seeks to put government in the hands of an ignorant white mass who have not been able to destroy their natural prejudices towards Negroes and other non-white people. While it may be a good thing for them, it will be a bad thing for the Negroes who will fall under the government of the most ignorant, prejudiced class of the white race." In response, the 1689: 12864: 1811: 583: 1555:

against Garvey and disband UNIA. Garvey was furious, publicly accusing them of "the greatest bit of treachery and wickedness that any group of Negroes could be capable of." In a pamphlet attacking them he focused on their racial heritage, lambasting the eight for the reason that "nearly all Octoroons and Quadroons". Du Bois—who was not among the eight—then wrote an article critical of Garvey's activities in the U.S. Garvey responded by calling Du Bois "a Hater of Dark People", an "unfortunate mulatto who bewails every drop of Negro blood in his veins".

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mechanics and our artisans and let them build railroads, let them build the great educational and other institutions necessary", after which other members of the African diaspora could join them. He was aware that the majority of African Americans would not want to move to Africa until it had the more modern comforts that they had become accustomed to in the U.S. Through the UNIA, he discussed plans for a migration to Liberia, but these plans came to nothing and his hope to move African Americans to West Africa ultimately failed.

1139: 2157:. He openly conceded that the U.S. was a white man's country and thus, he did not think that African Americans should expect equal treatment within it. Thus, he opposed attempts to socially and economically integrate the different races which lived within the country. Garveyism promoted the view that whites had no duty to help blacks achieve racial equality, maintaining the view that the latter needed to advance themselves on their own initiative. He advocated racial separatism, but he did not believe in 2843:. In 2012 the Jamaican government declared 17 August as Marcus Garvey Day. The Governor General's proclamation stated "from here on every year this time, all of us here in Jamaica will be called to mind to remember this outstanding National Hero and what he has done for us as a people, and our children will call this to mind also on this day" and went on to say "to proclaim and make known that the 17th Day of August in each year shall be designated as Marcus Garvey Day and shall so be observed." 2181:, believing that mixed-race individuals were "torn by dual allegiances" and they would often ally themselves "with the more powerful race," thus, they would become "traitors to the race". Garvey argued that mixed-race people would be bred out of existence. Cronon believed that Garvey exhibited "antipathy and distrust of anybody but the darkest-skinned Negroes"; the hostility towards black people whose African blood was not considered "pure" was a sentiment which Garvey shared with Blyden. 2963: 2451: 2676: 2340:

perishing because he has no economic system". In his view, European-American employers would always favor European-American employees, so to gain more security, African Americans needed to form their own businesses. In his words, "the Negro must become independent of white capital and white employers if he wants salvation." He believed that financial independence for the African-American community would ensure greater protection from discrimination, and provide the foundation for

50: 1229: 967: 1946:, but was rebuffed. From that point he became more openly hostile to Selassie, describing him as a "feudal monarch who looks down upon his slaves and serfs with contempt" and "a great coward who ran away from his country to save his skin". Garvey's vocal criticisms of Selassie further ostracised him from the broader black activist community—including many Garveyites—most of whom were rallying around Selassie as a symbol of Ethiopia's struggle against colonialism. 12841: 12831: 1206:, entered the UNIA office and told Garvey that Kilroe "had sent him" and tried to assassinate Garvey. Garvey was shot at four times with a .38-calibre revolver, and received two bullets in his right leg and scalp but survived. Tyler was soon apprehended but committed suicide by leaping from the third-tier of the Harlem jail; it was never revealed why he tried to kill Garvey. Garvey soon recovered from his wounds; five days later he gave a public speech in 2825: 2796:, Rastafari "emerged from the socio-political ferment inaugurated by Marcus Garvey", while for the sociologist Ernest Cashmore, Garvey was the "most important" precursor of the Rastafari movement. Rastafari does not promote all of the views that Garvey espoused, nevertheless, it shares many of them. Garvey knew of the Rastas from his time in Jamaica during the 1930s but his view of them, according to the scholar Barry Chevannes, "bordered on scorn". 2949: 1761:, where delegates voted to depose Sherrill. The latter's supporters then held a rival convention in Liberty Hall, reflecting the growing schism in the organization. A subsequent court ruling determined that it was UNIA's New York branch, then controlled by Sherrill, rather than the central UNIA leadership itself, that owned Liberty Hall. The financial problems continued, resulting in Liberty Hall being repeatedly re-mortgaged and then sold. 841: 12852: 1434: 1398:. While in Jamaica, he criticized its inhabitants as being backward and claimed that "Negroes are the most lazy, the most careless and indifferent people in the world". His comments in Jamaica earned many enemies, who criticized him on multiple fronts, including the fact he had left his destitute father to die in an almshouse. Attacks back-and-forth between Garvey and his critics appeared in the letters published by 913:, agreeing to step down from the group's presidency in favor of Bruce. Bruce then wrote to Dusé Mohamed Ali to learn more about Garvey's past. Mohamed Ali responded with a negative assessment of Garvey, suggesting that he simply used UNIA as a money-making scheme. Bruce read this letter to a UNIA meeting and put pressure on Garvey's position. Garvey then resigned from UNIA, establishing a rival group that met at 418: 1635:

calling the United States "a white man's country". He continued to defend his meeting with the KKK, describing them as having more "honesty of purpose towards the Negro" than the NAACP. Although he previously avoided involvement with party politics, for the first time he encouraged UNIA to propose candidates in elections, often setting them against NAACP-backed candidates in areas with high black populations.

1323:. Garvey envisioned a shipping and passenger line traveling between Africa and the Americas, which would be black-owned, black-staffed, and utilized by black patrons. He thought that the project could be launched by raising $ 2 million from African-American donors, publicly declaring that any black person who did not buy stock in the company "will be worse than a traitor to the cause of struggling Ethiopia". 508:, and took a leading role in the November 1908 print workers' strike. The strike was broken several weeks later and Garvey was sacked. Henceforth branded a troublemaker, Garvey was unable to find work in the private sector. He then found temporary employment with a government printer. As a result of these experiences, Garvey became increasingly angry at the inequalities present in Jamaican society. 753:, commonly abbreviated as UNIA. Adopting the motto of "One Aim. One God. One Destiny", it declared its commitment to "establish a brotherhood among the black race, to promote a spirit of race pride, to reclaim the fallen and to assist in civilising the backward tribes of Africa." Initially, it had only few members. Many Jamaicans were critical of the group's prominent use of the term " 1661:, assured them that he would grant them area for three colonies. In June, a team of UNIA technicians was sent to start work in preparing for these colonies. When they arrived in Liberia, they were arrested and immediately deported. At the same time, Liberia's government issued a press release declaring that it would refuse permission for any Americans to settle in their country. 1279:. Returning to Harlem, the couple's marriage was soon strained. Ashwood complained of Garvey's growing closeness with Jacques. Garvey was upset by his inability to control his wife, particularly her drinking and her socializing with other men. She was pregnant, although the child was possibly not his; she did not inform him of this, and the pregnancy ended in miscarriage. 2487:" after his name were crude attempts to compensate" for his lack of formal academic qualifications. Grant thought that Garvey was an "extraordinary salesman who'd developed a philosophy where punters weren't just buying into a business but were placing a down payment on future black redemption." Even his enemies acknowledged that he was a skilled organiser and promoter. 2977: 2514:. In 1919, he married Amy Ashwood in a Catholic ceremony, but they separated after three months. The New York court did not grant Garvey a divorce, but later, he obtained a divorce in Jackson County, Missouri. Ashwood contested the legitimacy of this divorce, and for the rest of her life, she claimed that she was Garvey's legitimate spouse. He married secondly to 1079:, but at the same time wanted to learn all he could about Garvey's movement. In 1921, Garvey twice reached out to Du Bois, asking him to contribute to UNIA publications, but the offer was rebuffed. Their relationship became acrimonious; in 1923, Du Bois described Garvey as "a little fat black man, ugly but with intelligent eyes and big head". By 1924, historian 2063:. Generally referring to dark-skinned peoples of African descent as "Negroes", he and the UNIA insisted that that term should be capitalized, thus affording dignity and respect to those whom it described. His ideas were influenced by a range of sources. According to Grant, while he was living in London, Garvey displayed "an amazing capacity to absorb political 579:, which criticized the actions of the UFC and upset many of the dominant strata of Costa Rican society in Limón. His coverage of a local fire, in which he questioned the motives of the fire brigade, resulted in him being brought in for police questioning. After his printing press broke, he was unable to replace the faulty part and terminated the newspaper. 2633:

his successes in attracting the support of the black masses, and in part out of concern that he was leading their community astray. Critics regarded him as an idealist, and he was sometimes regarded as "an egotist, a zealot, a charlatan and a buffoon". Garvey obtained a reputation for failing to pay his debts, and his detractors accused him of dishonesty.

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dedicated prophet, a martyred visionary or a fabulous con man". Martin noted that by the time Garvey returned to Jamaica in the 1920s, he was "just about the best known Black man in the whole world". The size and scope of the UNIA has also attracted attention; Mark Christian described Garvey as the leader of "the largest Black mass movement in

853:, a largely black area of New York City. He began lecturing in the city, hoping to make a career as a public speaker, although at his first public speech he was heckled and fell off the stage. From New York City, he embarked on a U.S. speaking tour, crossing 38 states. At stopovers on his journey he listened to preachers from the 489:, a working-class neighbourhood. In the city, he secured work with the printing division of the P.A. Benjamin Manufacturing Company. He rose quickly through the company ranks, becoming their first Afro-Jamaican foreman. His sister and mother, by this point estranged from his father, moved to join him in the city. In January 1907, 1976:; Jacques had not informed her husband of the decision. When Garvey returned to London, he was furious with his wife's decision. Garvey was increasingly isolated, while UNIA was running out of funds as its international membership dwindled. For the first time in many years, he met up with Ashwood, who was also living in London. 571:(UFC). Shortly after his arrival, the area experienced strikes and unrest in opposition to the UFC's attempts to cut its workers' wages. Although as a timekeeper he was responsible for overseeing the manual workers, he became increasingly angered at how they were treated. In the spring of 1911 he launched a bilingual newspaper, 1953:. Shortly after, Garvey embarked on a lecture and fundraising tour of Canada and the Caribbean, in which he attended the annual UNIA convention in Toronto. In Trinidad, he openly criticised a recent oil workers' strike; this probably exacerbated tensions between him and two prominent Trinidadian Marxists then living in London, 792:. She joined UNIA and rented a better premises for them to use as their headquarters, secured using her father's credit. She and Garvey embarked on a relationship, which was opposed by her parents. In 1915 they secretly became engaged. When she suspended the engagement, he threatened to commit suicide, at which she resumed it. 929:, and in July a commercial arm, the African Communities' League, filed for incorporation. Garvey envisioned UNIA establishing an import-and-export business, a restaurant, and a laundry. He also proposed raising the funds to secure a permanent building as a base for the group. In April, Garvey launched a weekly newspaper, the 1529:, to join UNIA and to perform aerial stunts to raise its profile. The group also launched its Booker T. Washington University from the UNIA-run Phyllis Wheatley Hotel on West 136th Street. He also finally succeeded in securing a UNIA delegation to the League of Nations, sending five members to represent the group to Geneva. 1799:

antiques—before joining him. In Jamaica, he continued giving speeches, including at a building in Kingston he had also named "Liberty Hall". He urged Afro-Jamaicans to raise their standards of living and rally against Chinese and Syrian migrants who had moved to the island. Meanwhile, the U.S. UNIA had been taken over by

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African homeland that would be the marvel of the modern world. He pointed to Negro triumphs in the past and described in glowing syllables the glories of the future. When Garvey spoke of the greatness of the race, Negroes everywhere could forget for a moment the shame of discrimination and the horrors of lynching.

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received praise from people who believe that he was a "race patriot", and many African Americans believe that he encouraged black people to develop a sense of self-respect and pride. While he was living in the U.S., Garvey was frequently referred to—sometimes sarcastically—as the "Negro Moses", implying that like

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discharging two of them, Richard E. Warner and Edgar M. Grey, and publicly humiliating them at the next UNIA meeting. People continued buying stock regardless and by September 1919, the Black Star Line company had accumulated $ 50,000 (~$ 656,660 in 2023) by selling stock. It could thus afford a thirty-year old

1622:. However, with Garvey imprisoned, UNIA's membership began to decline, and there was a growing schism between its Caribbean and African-American members. From jail, Garvey continued to write letters and articles lashing out at those he blamed for the conviction, focusing much of his criticism on the NAACP. 885:, who was promoting ideas of black self-reliance and racial separatism. In June, Garvey shared a stage with Harrison at the inaugural meeting of the latter's Liberty League of Negro-Americans. Through his appearance here and at other events organized by Harrison, Garvey attracted growing public attention. 823:. They were generally hostile to Garvey, regarding him as a pretentious social climber and being annoyed at his claim to be part of the "cultured class" of Jamaican society. Many also felt that he was unnecessarily derogatory when describing black Jamaicans, with letters of complaint being sent into the 2816:—that Garvey miraculously knew that his bath had been poisoned and refused to get into it. Other stories among Jamaica's Rastas hold that Garvey never really died and remained alive, perhaps living in Africa. Some Rastas also organise meetings, known as Nyabinghi Issemblies, to mark Garvey's birthday. 2498:

Garvey enjoyed dressing up in military costumes, and he also adored regal pomp and ceremony; he believed that pageantry would stir the black masses out of their apathy, despite the accusations of buffoonery which were made by members of the African-American intelligentsia. Grant noted that Garvey had

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Garvey emphasised the idea of black people worshipping a God who was also depicted as black. In his words, "If the white man has the idea of a white God, let him worship his God as he desires. Since the white people have seen their God through white spectacles, we have only now started out to see our

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Various wakes and memorials were held for Garvey, especially in New York City and Kingston. In Harlem, a procession of mourners paraded to his memorial service. Some Garveyites refused to believe Garvey had died, even when confronted with photographs of his body in its coffin, insisting that this was

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and incarcerated there. Imprisoned, he was made to carry out cleaning tasks. On one occasion he was reprimanded for insolence towards the white prison officers. There, he became increasingly ill with chronic bronchitis and lung infections. Two years into his imprisonment he would be hospitalized with

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Garvey also proposed marriage to his secretary, Jacques. She accepted, although later stated: "I did not marry for love. I did not love Garvey. I married him because I thought it was the right thing to do." They married in Baltimore in July 1922. She proposed that a book of his speeches be published;

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was found to contain many problems and the Black Star Line had to pay $ 11,000 for repairs. On its second voyage, again to the Caribbean, it hit bad weather shortly after departure and had to be towed back to New York by the coastguard for further repairs. Garvey planned to obtain and launch a second

1055:(NAACP), although there was some crossover in membership of the two groups. The NAACP and UNIA differed in their approach; while the NAACP was a multi-racial organization which promoted racial integration, UNIA had a black-only membership policy. The NAACP focused its attention on what it termed the " 1050:

UNIA grew rapidly and in just over 18 months it had branches in 25 U.S. states, as well as divisions in the West Indies, Central America, and West Africa. The exact membership is not known, although Garvey—who often exaggerated numbers—claimed that by June 1919 it had two million members. It remained

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Garvey became UNIA's president and travelling commissioner; it was initially based out of his hotel room in Orange Street, Kingston. It portrayed itself not as a political organization but as a charitable club, focused on work to help the poor and to ultimately establish a vocational training college

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To the cultured mind the bulk of our people are contemptible Go into the country parts of Jamaica and you will see there villainy and vice of the worst kind, immorality, obeah and all kinds of dirty things Kingston and its environs are so infested with the uncouth and vulgar of our people that we of

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visited Garvey's shrine on 20 June 1965 and laid a wreath. In a speech he told the audience that Garvey "was the first man of color to lead and develop a mass movement. He was the first man to give millions of Negroes a sense of dignity and destiny on a mass scale and level. And he was the first man

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Wilson S. Moses expressed concern about the "uncritical adulation" of Garvey within African-American political circles. In Moses' opinion, this adulation led to "red baiting" and "divisive rhetoric" about being "Blacker-than-thou". Moses argued that it was wrong for people to regard Garvey as a "man

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Critics like Du Bois often mocked Garvey for his outfits and the grandiose titles which he gave to himself; in their view, he was embarrassingly pretentious. According to Grant, many members of the established African-American middle-class were "perplexed and embarrassed" by Garvey, who thought that

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While he was living in the U.S., Garvey faced strong opposition from many prominent figures in the African-American community as well as from leading progressive and left-wing organisations. He was also unpopular within elite sections of the African-American community, in part perhaps out of envy of

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described Garvey as the "patron saint" of the black nationalist movement. Grant thought that Garvey, along with Du Bois, deserved to be seen as the "father of Pan-Africanism", and the Nigerian historian B. Steiner Ifekwe called Garvey "one of the greatest Pan-African leaders of the time". Garvey has

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Garvey has invariably been described as the Black Moses of his race, a group psychologist and an idealist planner, an iconoclast, an egotist, a zealot, a charlatan and a buffoon. He has also been portrayed as flamboyant, dynamic, bombastic, defiant, ruthless, a dreamer and a fool. Regardless of what

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Wheresoever I go, whether it is England, France or Germany, I am told, "This is a white man's country." Wheresoever I travel throughout the United States of America, I am made to understand that I am a "nigger". If the Englishman claims England as his native habitat, and the Frenchman claims France,

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This view caused great friction between Garvey and Du Bois, with the former accusing Du Bois and the NAACP of promoting "amalgamation or general miscegenation". He rallied against what he called the "race destroying doctrine" of those African Americans who were promulgating racial integration in the

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While Garvey was imprisoned, Ashwood launched a legal challenge against his divorce from her. Had the divorce been found void then his marriage to Jacques would have been invalid. The court ruled in favor of Garvey, recognising the legality of his divorce. With Garvey absent, William Sherrill became

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Garvey blamed Du Bois for this apparent change in the Liberian government's attitude, for the latter had spent time in the country and had links with its ruling elite; Du Bois denied the accusation. Later examination suggested that, despite King's assurances to the UNIA team, the Liberian government

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With Eason gone, Garvey asked the rest of the cabinet to resign; they did so, at which he resumed his role as head of the organization. In September, Eason launched a rival group to UNIA, the Universal Negro Alliance. In January 1923, Eason was assassinated by Garveyites while in New Orleans. Hoover

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I regard the Klan, the Anglo-Saxon clubs and White American societies, as far as the Negro is concerned, as better friends of the race than all other groups of hypocritical whites put together. I like honesty and fair play. You may call me a Klansman if you will, but, potentially, every white man is

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Many outside the movement ridiculed Garvey for giving himself this title. The conference then elected other members of the African government-in-exile, resulting in the production of a "Declaration of the Rights of the Negro Peoples of the World" which condemned European colonial rule across Africa.

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In May 1917, Garvey launched a New York branch of UNIA. He declared membership open to anyone "of Negro blood and African ancestry" who could pay the 25 cents a month membership fee. He joined many other speakers who made speeches on the street, standing on step-ladders; he often did so at Speakers'

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after it published one of Garvey's speeches in which he referred to many of his people as "uncouth and vulgar". One complainant, a Dr Leo Pink, related that "the Jamaican Negro can not be reformed by abuse". After unsubstantiated allegations began circling that Garvey was diverting UNIA funds to pay

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and began making speeches there. There were only a few thousand black people in London at the time, and they were often viewed as exotic; most worked as labourers. Garvey initially gained piecemeal work labouring in the city's docks. In August 1912, his sister Indiana joined him in London, where she

2351:, stating that "capitalism is necessary to the progress of the world, and those who unreasonably and wantonly oppose it or fight against it are enemies of human advancement." In the U.S., Garvey promoted a capitalistic ethos for the economic development of the African-American community, advocating 2188:

Garvey's belief in racial separatism, his advocacy of the migration of African Americans to Africa, and his opposition to miscegenation endeared him to the KKK, which supported many of the same policies. Garvey was willing to collaborate with the KKK in order to achieve his aims, and it was willing

1891:, Garvey began working as an auctioneer, and by 1935 was supplementing this with his wife's savings. He re-mortgaged his house and personal properties and in 1934 Edelweiss Park was foreclosed and auctioned off. Dissatisfied with life in Jamaica, Garvey decided to move to London, sailing aboard the 1863:

to the constitution, pledges to build Jamaica's first university and opera house, and a proposed law to impeach and imprison corrupt judges. The latter policy led to Garvey being charged with demeaning the judiciary and undermining public confidence in it. He pled guilty, and was sentenced to three

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ideas by emphasising Garvey's Jamaican identity and sometimes calling for his deportation. Pickens and several other of Garvey's critics claimed to have been threatened, and sometimes physically attacked, by Garveyites. Randolph reported receiving a severed hand in the post, accompanied by a letter

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News of Garvey's meeting with the KKK soon spread and it was covered on the front page of many African-American newspapers, causing widespread upset. When news of the meeting was revealed, it generated much surprise and anger among African Americans; Grant noted that it marked "the most significant

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UNIA established growing links with the Liberian government, hoping to secure land in the West African nation on which it could settle African-American migrants. Liberia was in heavy debt, with UNIA launching a fundraising campaign to raise $ 2 million towards a Liberian Construction Loan. In 1921,

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In the U.S., many African Americans who had served in the military refused to return to their more subservient role in society and throughout 1919 there were various racial clashes throughout the country. The government feared that African Americans would be encouraged toward revolutionary behavior

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His father, Malchus Garvey, was a stonemason; his mother, Sarah Richards, was a domestic servant and the daughter of peasant farmers. Malchus had had two previous wives before Sarah, having six children between them. Sarah bore him four additional children, of whom Marcus was the youngest, although

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in the United States. Mark Christian suggested that Garveyism gave an important psychological boost to African leaders campaigning for independence from European colonial rule, while Claudius Fergus proposed that it played an important role in encouraging Africans to see the African diaspora as an

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In January 1940, Garvey suffered a stroke which left him largely paralysed. His secretary, Daisy Whyte, took on responsibility for his care. At this point, Padmore spread rumours of Garvey's death; this led to many newspapers publishing premature obituaries in late May 1940, many of which he read.

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The American Negro has endured this wretch too long with fine restraint and every effort of cooperation and understanding. But the end has come. Every man who apologizes for or defends Marcus Garvey from this day forth writes himself down as unworthy of the countenance of decent Americans. As for

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Garvey incorporated the company and then sought about trying to purchase a ship. Many African Americans took great pride in buying company stock, seeing it as an investment in their community's future; Garvey also promised that when the company began turning a profit they would receive significant

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Garvey also organized the African Legion, a group of uniformed men who would attend UNIA parades; a secret service was formed from Legion members, providing Garvey with intelligence about group members. The formation of the Legion further concerned the Bureau of Investigation, who sent their first

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assist in civilizing the backward tribes of Africa" and he also wanted "to promote a conscientious Christian worship among" them. His belief that Africans would ultimately be liberated by the efforts of the African diaspora which was living outside the continent has been considered condescending.

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in 1850. However, Garvey did not believe that all African Americans should migrate to Africa. Instead, he believed that an elite group, namely those African Americans who were of the purest African blood, should do so. The rest of the African-American population, he believed, should remain in the

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on 22 November 1964 with pomp and ceremony befitting a national hero; numerous foreign diplomats attended. The monument, designed by G. C. Hodges, consists of a tomb at the center of a raised platform in the shape of a black star, a symbol often used by Garvey. Behind it, a peaked and angled wall

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broke out as Italy invaded Ethiopia. Garvey spoke out against the Italians and praised the government of Haile Selassie. By October, however, he was becoming increasingly critical of Selassie, blaming his lack of preparedness for Ethiopia's failures in the war. When Selassie fled his homeland and

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views alarmed Garvey, who feared that they would imperil UNIA. Garvey had Domingo brought before UNIA's nine-person executive committee, where the latter was accused of writing editorials professing ideas at odds with UNIA's message. Domingo resigned several months later; he and Garvey henceforth

2695:, and after finding that no publishers were interested in it she self-published the volume in 1963. In 1962, when Jamaica became independent, the government hailed Garvey as a hero. In 1969, he was posthumously conferred with the Order of the National Hero by the Jamaican government. In 1975 the 2640:

During his lifetime, some African Americans wondered if he really understood the racial issues which were present in U.S. society because he was a foreigner, and later African-American leaders frequently held the view that Garvey had failed to adequately address anti-black racism in his thought.

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In 1955, Cronon stated that while Garvey "achieved little in the way of permanent improvement" for black people, he "awakened fires of Negro nationalism that have yet to be extinguished". In Cronon's view, Garvey was important because he gave African-descended peoples a new feeling of collective

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awarded Garvey bail for $ 15,000—which was duly raised by UNIA—while he appealed his conviction. Again a free man, he toured the U.S., giving a lecture at the Tuskegee Institute. In speeches given during this tour he further emphasised the need for racial segregation through migration to Africa,

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At UNIA's August 1922 convention, Garvey called for the impeachment of several senior UNIA figures, including Adrian Johnson and J. D. Gibson, and declared that the UNIA cabinet should not be elected by the organization's members, but appointed directly by him. When they refused to step down, he

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Up to the age of 14, Garvey attended a local church school; further education was unaffordable for the family. When not in school, Garvey worked on his maternal uncle's tenant farm. He had friends, with whom he once broke the windows of a church, resulting in his arrest. Some of his friends were

2599:

Garvey chiefly attracted attention because he put into powerful ringing phrases the secret thoughts of the Negro world. He told his listeners what they wanted to hear—that a black skin was not a badge of shame but rather a glorious symbol of national greatness. He promised a Negro nation in the

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A polarizing figure, Garvey was both revered and reviled. Grant noted that views on him largely divided between two camps, one camp portrayed him as a charlatan and the other camp portrayed him as a saint; similarly, Cronon noted that Garvey was varyingly perceived as a "strident demagogue or a

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noted that Garvey "talks of Africa as if it were a little island in the Caribbean Sea." Garvey believed in negative stereotypes about Africa which portrayed it as a backward continent that was in need of the civilizing influence of Western, Christian states. Among his stated aims, he wanted "to

2004:

The writer Richard Hart later noted that within a decade of his death "a veritable cult" had begun to grow around Garvey's memory in Jamaica. By the 1950s, Jamaican politicians of varied ideological backgrounds were invoking his name. Leslie Alexander, a Kingston real estate agent, proposed the

1514:

Have this day interviewed Edward Young Clarke, acting Imperial Wizard Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. In conference of two ours he outlined the aims and objects of the Klan. He denied any hostility towards the Negro Improvement Association. He believes America to be a white man's country, and also

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Three months into the marriage, Garvey sought an annulment, on the basis of Ashwood's alleged adultery and the claim that she had used "fraud and concealment" to induce the marriage. She launched a counter-claim for desertion, requesting $ 75 a week alimony. The court rejected this sum, instead

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A proponent of the Back-to-Africa movement, Garvey called for a vanguard of educated and skilled African Americans to travel to West Africa, a journey which would be facilitated by his Black Star Line. Garvey stated that "The majority of us may remain here, but we must send our scientists, our

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the year before. In 1928, Garvey told a journalist: "When they wanted to get me they had a Jewish judge try me, and a Jewish prosecutor. I would have been freed but two Jews on the jury held out against me ten hours and succeeded in convicting me, whereupon the Jewish judge gave me the maximum

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Following the murder, eight prominent African Americans signed a public letter calling Garvey "an unscrupulous demagogue who has ceaselessly and assiduously sought to spread among Negroes distrust and hatred of all white people". They urged the Attorney-General to bring forth the criminal case

2339:

Garvey believed in economic independence for the African diaspora and through the UNIA, he attempted to achieve it by forming ventures like the Black Star Line and the Negro Factories Corporation. In Garvey's opinion, "without commerce and industry, a people perish economically. The Negro is

2287:

Garvey never visited Africa himself, and he did not speak any African language. He knew very little about the continent's varied customs, languages, religions, and traditional social structures, and his critics frequently believed that his views of the continent were based on romanticism and

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He was an eloquent orator, with Cronon suggesting that his "peculiar gift of oratory" stemmed from "a combination of bombast and stirring heroics". Grant described Garvey's public speeches as "strange and eclectic – part evangelical partly formal King's English, and part lilting Caribbean

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that African Americans were regarding Garvey's imprisonment not as a form of justice against a man who had swindled them but as "an act of oppression of the race in their efforts in the direction of race progress". Eventually, Coolidge agreed to commute the sentence so that it would expire

1334:

With growing quantities of money coming in, a three-man auditing committee was established, which found that UNIA's funds were poorly recorded and that the company's books were not balanced. This was followed by a breakdown in trust between the directors of the Black Star Line, with Garvey

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who believed that alcohol consumption was morally reprehensible; he collected antique ceramics and enjoyed going around antique shops and flea markets and searching for items to add to his collection. He placed value on courtesy and respect, discouraging his supporters from being loutish.

1839:

Back in Kingston, UNIA obtained Edelweiss Park in Cross Roads, which it established as its new headquarters. They held a conference there, opened by a parade through the city which attracted tens of thousands of onlookers. At Edelweiss Park, UNIA also began putting on plays. One of these,

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In Kingston, Garvey was greeted by supporters. UNIA members had raised $ 10,000 to help him settle in Jamaica, with which he bought a large house in an elite neighbourhood, which he called the "Somali Court". His wife shipped over his belongings—which included 18,000 books and hundreds of

2259:

In the 1920s, Garvey referred to his desire for a "big black republic" in Africa. Garvey's envisioned Africa was to be a one-party state in which the president could have "absolute authority" to appoint "all of his lieutenants from cabinet ministers, governors of States and Territories,

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called Garvey a "restless young man", while Grant thought that Garvey had a "naïve but determined personality" in his early years. Grant noted that Garvey "possessed a single-mindedness of purpose that left no room for the kind of spectacular failure that was always a possibility."

1086:

UNIA established a restaurant and ice cream parlor at 56 West 135th Street, and also launched a millinery store selling hats. With an increased income coming in through UNIA, Garvey moved to a new residence at 238 West 131st Street; in 1919, a young middle-class Jamaican migrant,

2138:"Race first" was the adage which was widely used in Garveyism. In Garvey's view, "no race in the world is so just as to give others, for the asking, a square deal in things economic, political and social", but rather each racial group will favor its own interests, rejecting the " 946:

Various journalists took Garvey to court for his failure to pay them for their contributions, a fact much publicized by rival publications; at the time, there were over 400 black-run newspapers and magazines in the U.S. Unlike many of these, Garvey refused to feature adverts for

1609:

The severity of the sentence—which was harsher than those given to similar crimes at the time—may have been a response to Garvey's antisemitic outburst. He felt that they had been biased because of their political objections to his meeting with the acting imperial wizard of the

388:, his violent rhetoric and his prejudice against mixed-race people and Jews. He received praise for encouraging a sense of pride and self-worth among Africans and the African diaspora amid widespread poverty, discrimination and colonialism. In Jamaica he is recognized as a 2637:

the African-American working class should turn to their leadership rather than his. Concerns were also raised about his violent language because the people who raised them believed that it was inciting many Garveyites to carry out violent acts against Garvey's critics.

2166:

stop making noise about social equality, giving the White people the idea that we are hankering after their company, and get down to business and build up a strong race, industrially, commercially, educationally and politically, everything social will come afterwards.

983:

became enemies. In September 1918, Amy Ashwood sailed from Panama to be with Garvey, arriving in New York City in October. In November, she became General Secretary of UNIA. At UNIA gatherings, she was responsible for reciting black-authored poetry, as was the actress

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white, although he found that as they grew older they distanced themselves from him; he later recalled that a close childhood friend was a white girl: "We were two innocent fools who never dreamed of a race feeling and problem." In 1901, Marcus was apprenticed to his

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Moses stated that instead of being based on respect for indigenous African cultures, Garvey's views of an ideal united Africa were based on an "imperial model" of the kind which was promoted by western powers. When he extolled the glories of Africa, Garvey cited the

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prophesied the coming of Jesus Christ. Many legends and tales are told about him within Jamaica's Rasta community. Many attribute him with supernatural attributes, for instance there is a tale told about him—and also independently told about the pioneering Rasta

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resigned both as head of UNIA and as Provisional President of Africa, probably in an act designed to compel their own resignations. He then began openly criticising another senior member, Reverend James Eason, and succeeded in getting him expelled from UNIA.

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Whilst our God has no color, yet it is human to see everything through one's own spectacles, and since the white people have seen their God through white spectacles, we have only now started out (late though it be) to see our God through our own spectacles.

1186:, Garvey then accused Briggs—who was of mixed heritage—of being a white man posing as a black man. Briggs successfully sued Garvey for criminal libel. This was not the only time he faced this charge; in July 1919 Garvey had been arrested for comments in the 1985:

According to his secretary, on the second day of reading through his pile of obituaries, Garvey suffered another massive stroke and died two weeks later at the age of 52 on 10 June 1940. His body was interred in a vault in the catacombs of the chapel of

1417:, he was booed after doubling the advertised entry price; his response was to call the crowd "a bunch of ignorant and impertinent Negroes. No wonder you are where you are and for my part you can stay where you are." He received a far warmer reception at 2589:

pride and a sense of individual worth. Hart believed that Garvey's importance lay in the fact that he stirred millions of people who were otherwise apathetic into action. In this way, Hart believed that Garvey had helped lay the groundwork for the U.S.

1859:(PPP), through which he intended to contest the forthcoming legislative council election. In September 1929 he addressed a crowd of 1,500 supporters, launching the PPP's manifesto, which included land reform to benefit tenant farmers, the addition of a 905:

began monitoring him, noting that in speeches he employed more militant language than that used in print; it for instance reported him expressing the view that "for every Negro lynched by whites in the South, Negroes should lynch a white in the North."

2109:

and the Irish independence movement served as blueprints for his own black nationalist cause. In July 1919 he stated that "the time has come for the Negro race to offer up its martyrs upon the altar of liberty even as the Irish given a long list from

1875:

journal. This resulted in his being charged with seditious libel, for which he was convicted and sentenced to six months in prison. His conviction was then overturned on appeal. He then campaigned as the PPP's candidate for the legislative assembly in

892:

in April 1917, Garvey initially signed up to fight but was ruled physically unfit to do so. He later became an opponent of African-American involvement in the conflict, following Harrison in accusing it of being a "white man's war". In the wake of the

2146:. He was hostile to the efforts of the progressive movement to agitate for social and political rights for African Americans, arguing that this was ineffective and that laws would never change the underlying racial prejudice of European Americans. 1287:, an arrangement that at the time could have caused some social controversy. He was later joined there by his sister Indiana and her husband, Alfred Peart. Ashwood, meanwhile, went on to become a lyricist and musical director for musicals amid the 2756:

movement during the 1960s. Chapman believed that both "Garveyism and multicultural education share the desire to see students of color learning and achieving academic success", and both allotted significant attention to generating racial pride.

1002:, a group which sought to lobby Wilson and the conference to give greater respect to the wishes of people of color; their delegates nevertheless were unable to secure the travel documentation. At Garvey's prompting, UNIA sent a young Haitian, 2732:). In November 1964, Garvey's body was removed from West Kensal Green Cemetery and taken to Jamaica. There, it lay in state in Kingston's Catholic Cathedral before a motorcade took it to King George VI Memorial Park, where it was re-buried. 1301:

Black Star Line was organized for the industrial, commercial and economic development of the race to carry out the program of U.N.I.A., that is to have ships to link up the Negro peoples of the world in commercial trade and in fraternities.

1327:

financial returns on their investment. To advertise this stock, he traveled to Virginia, and then in September 1919 to Chicago, where he was accompanied by seven other UNIA members. In Chicago, he was arrested and fined for violating the

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the time has come for 400 million Negroes to claim Africa as their native land... If you believe that the Negro should have a place in the sun; if you believe that Africa should be one vast empire, controlled by the Negro, then arise.

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a "tendency to overstate his achievements", but Cronon thought that Garvey tended to surround himself with sycophants rather than more competent advisors. In 1947, the Jamaican historian J. A. Rogers included Garvey in his book, the

2219:, Garvey called for the formation of "a United Africa for the Africans of the World". The UNIA promoted the view that Africa was the natural homeland of the African diaspora. While he was imprisoned, he penned an editorial for the 1247: 1821:

Garvey attempted to travel across Central America but found his hopes blocked by the region's various administrations, who regarded him as disruptive. Instead, he travelled to England in April, where he rented a house in London's

461:. Malchus was however reckless with his money and over the course of his life lost most of the land he owned to meet payments. Malchus had a book collection and was self-educated; he also served as an occasional layman at a local 1006:, as its delegate to the conference. Despite these efforts, the political leaders who met in Paris largely ignored the perspectives of non-European peoples, instead reaffirming their support for continued European colonial rule. 2518:, and they had two sons. His first son, Marcus Garvey III (1930 – 8 December 2020), became an electrical engineer and served as the seventh president-general of the UNIA-ACL. His second son, Julius Garvey, (born 1933) became a 1773:

immediately, on 18 November 1927. He stipulated, however, that Garvey should be deported straight after release. On being released, Garvey was taken by train to New Orleans, where around a thousand supporters saw him onto the

13158: 2001:

part of a conspiracy to undermine his movement. Both Ashwood and Jacques presented themselves as the "widow of Marcus Garvey" and Ashwood launched legal action against Jacques in an attempt to secure control over his body.

2533:

history will write about him, and his personal shortcomings notwithstanding, Marcus Garvey was undoubtedly the peerless champion of his race. He was a bulwark for the world-wide organization of people of African descent.

917:. He also launched legal proceedings against Bruce and other senior UNIA members, with the court ruling that UNIA's name and membership—now estimated at 600—belonged to Garvey, who resumed control over the organization. 1665:

had never seriously intended to allow African-American colonization, aware that it would harm relations with the British and French colonies on their borders, who feared the political tensions it could bring with it.

844:

The UNIA flag, a tricolour of red, black, and green. According to Garvey, the red symbolises the blood of martyrs, the black symbolizes the skin of Africans, and the green represents the vegetation of the African

828:

for his own personal expenses, the group's support began to decline. He became increasingly aware of how UNIA had failed to thrive in Jamaica and decided to migrate to the United States, sailing there aboard the

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that depicted these figures as black Africans. In doing so, he did not make use of pre-existing forms of black-dominated religions. Garvey had little experience with them, because he had attended a white-run

1066:

There were tensions between UNIA and the NAACP and the latter's supporters accused Garvey of stymieing their efforts at bringing about racial integration in the U.S. Garvey was dismissive of the NAACP leader

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during the 1950s and 1960s, even though that movement's call for racial integration and equality within the U.S. ran contrary to Garvey's belief in racial separation and his advocacy of migration to Africa.

2454:

Garvey in a military uniform as the "Provisional President of Africa" during a parade on the opening day of the annual Convention of the Negro Peoples of the World at Lenox Avenue in Harlem, New York City,

1696:

In early 1925, the U.S. Court of Appeal upheld the original court decision. Garvey was in Detroit at the time and was arrested while aboard a train back to New York City. In February he was taken to the

2098:

movement, to which he was sympathetic. He saw strong parallels between the subjugation of Ireland and the global subjugation of black people, and identified strongly with the Irish independence leader

1895:

in March 1935. Once in London, he told his friend Amy Bailey that he had "left Jamaica a broken man, broken in spirit, broken in health and broken in pocket... and I will never, never, never go back."

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of the U.S. would never tolerate the social integration which was being advocated by activists like Du Bois because he believed that campaigns for such integration would lead to anti-black riots and

1283:

ordering Garvey to pay her $ 12 a week. It refused to grant him the divorce. The court proceedings continued for two years. Now separated, Garvey moved into a 129th Street apartment with Jacques and

2661: 2562:". Garvey's ideas influenced many black people who never became paying members of the UNIA, with Graves noting that "more than anything else, Garvey gave Negroes self-assertion and self-reliance." 13133: 2425:

in Chicago in 1921. According to Graves, this Church preached "the orthodox Christian tradition with emphasis on racism", and Cronon suggested that Garvey promoted "racist ideas about religion".

1245: 1194:, the Assistant District Attorney in the District Attorney's office of the County of New York. When this case eventually came to court, the court ordered Garvey to provide a printed retraction. 707:

and taken a Basuto wife. Discovering more about colonial Africa from this man, Garvey began to envision a movement that would politically unify black people of African descent across the world.

493:

that reduced much of the city to rubble. He, his mother, and his sister were left to sleep in the open for several months. In March 1908, his mother died. While in Kingston, Garvey converted to

1587:

Having been postponed at least three times, in May 1923, the trial finally came to court, with Garvey and three other defendants accused of mail fraud. The judge overseeing the proceedings was

2652:

of the people" because he had a petty bourgeoise background and as a result, he had "enjoyed cultural, economic, and educational advantages which few of his black contemporaries" had enjoyed.

1836:

headquarter and spoke at the Club du Fauborg, before traveling to Switzerland. They then travelled to Canada, where Garvey was detained for one night before being barred from making speeches.

543:—although it only lasted three issues. He claimed it had a circulation of 3000, although this was likely an exaggeration. Garvey also enrolled in elocution lessons with the radical journalist 12677: 10033: 1482:(KKK) at the Klan's offices in Atlanta. Garvey made a number of incendiary speeches in the months leading up to that meeting; in some, he thanked the whites for Jim Crow. Garvey once stated: 750: 222: 2854:

at an affordable housing property in the country. It will use the energy storage system to cut electricity costs, improve grid reliability, and provide backup power during extended outages.

1934:. When he spoke in public, he was increasingly harangued by socialists for his conservative stances. He also had hopes of becoming a Member of Parliament, although this amounted to nothing. 1918:

In London, Garvey sought to rebuild UNIA, although found there was much competition in the city from other black activist groups. He established a new UNIA headquarters in Beaumont Avenue,

789: 7671: 1551:

suspected that the killing had been ordered by senior UNIA members, although Garvey publicly denied any involvement; he nevertheless launched a defense fund campaign for Eason's killers.

2414:

which would specifically be designed for black African people, a sort of black religion. Reflecting his own view of religion, he wanted this black-centric Christianity to be as close to

2102:. In 1922, he sent a message to Valera stating that "We believe Ireland should be free even as Africa shall be free for the Negroes of the world. Keep up the fight for a free Ireland." 10124: 2223:

titled "African Fundamentalism", in which he called for "the founding of a racial empire whose only natural, spiritual and political aims shall be God and Africa, at home and abroad."

777:. In April 1915 Brigadier General L. S. Blackden lectured to the group on the war effort; Garvey endorsed Blackden's calls for more Jamaicans to sign up to fight for the Empire on the 13148: 1852:

surrogate father to his niece, Ruth, whose father had recently died. In September 1930, his first son, Marcus Garvey III, was born; three years later a second son, Julius, followed.

1246: 2355:. His emphasis on capitalist ventures meant, according to Grant, that Garvey "was making a straight pitch to the petit-bourgeois capitalist instinct of the majority of black folk." 1705:

Garvey received regular letters from UNIA members and from his wife; she also visited him every three weeks. With his support, she assembled another book of his collected speeches,

2005:

removal of Garvey's body and its return to Jamaica. Alexander's campaign was successful and in 1964 Garvey's remains were exhumed and returned to Jamaica. The body lay in state at

1463:

After his arrest, Garvey announced that the activities of the BSL were being suspended. He also made plans for a tour of the western and southern states. This included a parade in

723:

the cultured class feel positively ashamed to move about. Well, this society has set itself the task to go among the people and raise them to the standard of civilised approval.

511:

Garvey involved himself with the National Club, Jamaica's first nationalist organization, becoming its first assistant secretary in April 1910. The group campaigned to remove the

2917:

became the first narrative film released about Marcus Garvey. The film was shot and directed by Jirard. The script was co-written by the lead actor, Samuel Lee Fudge and Jirard

1672:

dropped its longstanding ban on advertising skin lightening and hair straightening products. The additional revenues allowed the Black Star Line to purchase a new ship, the SS

2850:

neighborhood in Brooklyn, New York City, is home to Marcus Garvey Village, whose construction was completed in 1976. This building complex is home to the first energy storage

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ignorance. It has been suggested that the European colonial authorities would not have given Garvey permission to visit colonies where he would be calling for decolonization.

1515:

states that the Negro should have a country of his own in Africa He has been invited to speak at forthcoming convention to further assure the race of the stand of the Klan.

1421:, after which he sailed to Kingston. From there he sought a return to the U.S., but was repeatedly denied an entry visa. This was only granted after he wrote directly to the 2857:

In the 1980s, Garvey's two sons launched a campaign requesting that the U.S. government issue a pardon for their father. In this they had the support of Harlem Congressman

2193:

white groups were "better friends" of black people "than all other groups of hypocritical whites put together" because they were honest about their desires and intentions.

10922: 10754: 2876:

of Garvey's life. Those mentioned in connection with the role of Garvey have included the Jamaican-born actor Kevin Navayne and the British-born actor of Jamaican descent

1135:

had grown up around Garvey within the UNIA movement; life-size portraits of him hung in the UNIA headquarters and phonographs of his speeches were sold to the membership.

2260:

administrators and judges to minor offices". According to the scholar of African-American studies Wilson S. Moses, the future African state which Garvey envisioned was "

1832: 13128: 1210:. After the assassination attempt, Garvey hired a bodyguard, Marcellus Strong. Shortly after the incident, Garvey proposed marriage to Amy Ashwood and she accepted. On 2490:

For Grant, Garvey was "a man of grand, purposeful gestures". He thought that the black nationalist leader was an "ascetic" who had "conservative tastes". Garvey was a

1052: 486: 769:. Garvey wrote to Washington and received a brief, if encouraging reply; Washington died shortly after. UNIA officially expressed its loyalty to the British Empire, 1162:. Some of the West Africans attending the event were angered by this, believing it wrong that an Afro-Jamaican, rather than a native African, was taking this role. 602:("The Press"). In 1911, he became seriously ill with a bacterial infection and decided to return to Kingston. He then decided to travel to London, the heart of the 12650: 1731: 1091:, became his personal secretary. UNIA also obtained a partly-constructed church building at 114 West 138 Street in Harlem, which Garvey named "Liberty Hall" after 10543: 1018:

to investigate Garvey. Loving's report concluded that Garvey was a "very able young man" who was disseminating "clever propaganda". The Bureau of Investigation's

1378: 909:

By the end of 1917, Garvey had attracted many of Harrison's key associates in his Liberty League to join UNIA. Garvey also secured the support of the journalist

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In Jamaica, Garvey is considered a national hero. In 1969, Jamaica's government posthumously conferred the Order of the National Hero upon him. The scholar of

1972:

While Garvey was gone, his wife and sons returned to Jamaica. Doctors had recommended that Marcus Garvey III be moved to a warm climate to aid with his severe

1881: 1844:, was written by Garvey and performed in August 1930. Its plot revolved around the crowning of Prince Cudjoe of Sudan, although it anticipated the crowning of 1871:

While imprisoned, Garvey was removed from the Kingston council by other councillors. Garvey was furious and wrote an editorial against them, published in the

1350:

on 31 October. The company had been unable to find enough trained black seamen to staff the ship, so its initial chief engineer and chief officer were white.

1271:

The newlyweds embarked on a two-week honeymoon in Canada, accompanied by a small UNIA retinue, including Jacques. There, Garvey spoke at two mass meetings in

1174:

Garvey sent a UNIA team to assess the prospects of mass African-American settlement in Liberia. Internally, UNIA experienced various feuds. Garvey pushed out

13143: 13063: 373:

stance distanced him from many of the city's black activists. He died there in 1940, and in 1964 his body was returned to Jamaica for reburial in Kingston's

1668:

UNIA faced further setbacks when Bruce died; the group organised a funeral procession ending in a ceremony at Liberty Hall. In need of additional finances,

1146:

In August 1920, UNIA organized the First International Conference of the Negro Peoples in Harlem. This parade was attended by Gabriel Johnson, the Mayor of

1022:

decided that Garvey was politically subversive and should be deported from the U.S., adding his name to the list of those to be targeted in the forthcoming

12665: 914: 10338: 1594:

Garvey was furious with the verdict, shouting abuse in the courtroom and calling both the judge and district attorney "damned dirty Jews". Imprisoned in

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We must prepare now by organizing ourselves all over the world, by building businesses, stores and factories to sustain our people and free ourselves.

690: 10488: 2839:, Jamaica, has a marker signifying it as a site of importance in the nation's history. His likeness was on the 20-dollar coin and 25-cent coin of the 2479:

Cronon suggested that "Garvey's florid style of writing and speaking, his fondness for appearing in a richly colored cap and gown, and his use of the

13078: 13013: 1191: 2672:, there was strong concern by moderate members about Garvey as they were afraid of his radical nationalist approach, resulting in a cut of the ties. 1746:

acting head of UNIA. To deal with the organization's financial problems, he re-mortgaged Liberty Hall to pay off debts and ended up selling off the

685:. Washington's book heavily influenced Garvey. Now almost financially destitute and deciding to return to Jamaica, he unsuccessfully asked both the 13038: 12941: 12901: 10413: 6600: 523:", or indentured workers, to Jamaica, as they were seen as a source of economic competition by the established population. With fellow Club member 955:

products, urging black people to "take the kinks out of your mind, instead of out of your hair". By the end of its first year, the circulation of

13118: 13108: 1467:, partly to woo back members of UNIA's California branch, which had recently splintered off to become independent. In June 1922, Garvey met with 746:. He began earning money selling greeting and condolence cards which he had imported from Britain, before later switching to selling tombstones. 2617:, wrote in his autobiography that of all the works of literature which he had studied, the book that inspired him more than any other book was 10441: 2712:

Interest in Garvey's ideas would also be revived in the 1960s through the growth of independent states across Africa and the emergence of the

12998: 10132: 292:, governed by himself, that would enact laws to ensure black racial purity. Although he never visited the continent, he was committed to the 10047: 10816: 1800: 1583:, put up for sale by the United States Shipping Board. The Black Star Line had proposed to buy her but the transaction was never completed. 296:, arguing that part of the diaspora should migrate there. Garveyist ideas became increasingly popular and the UNIA grew in membership. His 11710: 12595: 10395: 3014: 2752:

shaped his political outlook during his stay in America. Thandeka K. Chapman believed that Garveyism contributed to the formation of the

2429:

God through our own spectacles we shall worship Him through the spectacles of Ethiopia." He called for black people to worship images of

1487:

a Klansman as far as the Negro in competition with whites socially, economically and politically is concerned, and there is no use lying.

1166:

In August 1921, UNIA held a banquet in Liberty Hall, at which Garvey gave out honors to various supporters, including such titles as the

781:. The group also sponsored musical and literary evenings as well as a February 1915 elocution contest, at which Garvey took first prize. 446: 10012: 1598:

jail while awaiting sentencing, he continued to blame a Jewish cabal for the verdict; in contrast, prior to this he had never expressed

797:

I was openly hated and persecuted by some of these colored men of the island who did not want to be classified as Negroes but as white.

221:(17 August 1887 – 10 June 1940) was a Jamaican political activist. He was the founder and first President-General of the 2476:

speechifying". Garvey enjoyed arguing with people, and he wanted to be seen as a learned man; he read widely, particularly in history.

811:. By appealing directly to Jamaica's white elite, Garvey had skipped the brown middle-classes, comprising those who were classified as 652:

for British-ruled Egypt. In 1914, Mohamed Ali began employing Garvey's services as a writer for the magazine. Garvey also took several

337:

shipping and passenger company, designed to forge a link between North America and Africa and facilitate African-American migration to

1781:

in Panama, where supporters again greeted him, but where the authorities refused his request to disembark. He then transferred to the

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Grant noted that "Garveyism would always remain a secular movement with a strong under-tow of religion". Garvey envisioned a form of

897:

in May to July 1917, in which white mobs targeted black people, Garvey began calling for armed self-defense. He produced a pamphlet,

757:", a term which was often employed as an insult: Garvey, however, embraced the term in reference to black people of African descent. 11362:

Hill, Robert A. (2013). ""Comradeship of the More Advanced Races": Marcus Garvey and the Brotherhood Movement in Britain, 1913–14".

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was sold for scrap metal, bringing the Black Star Line less than a hundredth of its original purchase price. The worn-out steamboat

353:, claiming that they were prejudiced against him because of his links to the KKK. After his sentence was commuted by U.S. president 12053: 11992: 10977:

Chapman, Thandeka K. (2004). "Foundations of Multicultural Education: Marcus Garvey and the United Negro Improvement Association".

807:

Garvey attracted financial contributions from many prominent patrons, including the Mayor of Kingston and the Governor of Jamaica,

323:

needed to be financially independent from white-dominated societies, Garvey launched various businesses in the U.S., including the

225:(UNIA-ACL, commonly known as UNIA), through which he declared himself Provisional President of Africa. Garvey was ideologically a 13008: 11967: 11561: 8462: 1131:, through which he opened a string of grocery stores, a restaurant, a steam laundry, and publishing house. According to Grant, a 450: 11774:

Marcus Garvey, Life and Lessons: A Centennial Companion to the Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers.

10942: 2025:, of Garvey, which was added to the park in 1956 (before his reinterment) and relocated after the construction of the monument. 1361:

The ship's first assignment was to sail to Cuba and then to Jamaica, before returning to New York. After that first voyage, the

457:

two died in infancy. Because of his profession, Malchus' family were wealthier than many of their peasant neighbours; they were

268:. On returning to Jamaica, he founded the UNIA in 1914. In 1916, he moved to the United States and established a UNIA branch in 10049:

Encyclopedia of the Sixties: A Decade of Culture and Counterculture [2 volumes]: A Decade of Culture and Counterculture

2068: 999: 858: 12671: 2668:. As the group was somewhat divided between a larger group of colonial reformists and a smaller group of representants of the 978:

Garvey appointed his old friend Domingo, who had also arrived in New York City, as the newspaper's editor. However, Domingo's

13123: 12549: 11746: 11696: 11674: 11655: 11596:

Vols. I–VII, IX. University of California Press, c. 1983– (ongoing). 1146 pages. University of California Press, 1 May 1991.

11492: 11440: 11421: 11288: 11161: 11100: 11019: 10967: 10911: 6584: 6540: 2641:

Grant noted that in the years after Garvey's death, his life was primarily presented by his political opponents. Writing for

1856: 1537:, although the speeches were edited to remove more inflammatory material. That year, UNIA also launched a new newspaper, the 362: 11944: 13023: 12894: 12630: 12021: 9631: 3025: 1986: 1966: 1504:, and Robert Bagnall—launched the "Garvey Must Go" campaign in the wake of the revelation. Many of these critics played to 1238: 959:

was nearing 10,000; copies circulated not only in the U.S., but also in the Caribbean, Central, and South America. Several

389: 8290: 1709:; these had often been edited to remove inflammatory comments about wielding violence against white people. He also wrote 13113: 13043: 11433:

Race First: The Ideological and Organizational Struggles of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association

9604: 1698: 1657:

In February 1924, UNIA put forward its plans to bring 3000 African-American migrants to Liberia. The latter's president,

808: 346: 2724:, the prominent Pan-Africanist activist who became Ghana's first president, acknowledged Garvey's influence on him. The 13103: 12786: 12600: 10057: 8472: 7060: 2161:. He also rallied against Eurocentric beauty standards among blacks, seeing them as impediments to black self-respect. 1715: 854: 434: 10515: 2765:

Garvey never regarded himself as a religious visionary but he was perceived as such by some of his followers. Various

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In the U.S., ideas about the need for black racial purity became central to Garvey's thought. He vehemently denounced

1154:. At the conference, UNIA delegates declared Garvey to be the Provisional President of Africa, charged with heading a 594:, undertaking casual work as he made his way through Honduras, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela. While in the port of 13153: 13098: 13093: 13058: 13018: 13003: 12660: 11632: 11617: 11601: 11583: 11569: 11543: 11535: 10855: 3115: 2829: 2770: 2006: 1757:

expressing his dissatisfaction with Sherrill's leadership. From prison, he organized an emergency UNIA convention in

1446:

In January 1922, Garvey was arrested and charged with mail fraud for having advertised the sale of stocks in a ship,

1422: 1027: 10590: 2621:. Nkrumah went on to name Ghana's national shipping line the "Black Star Line", and there is a Black Star Square in 1965:, not far from UNIA's headquarters. In public debates, Garvey repeatedly clashed with Padmore, who was chair of the 1903: 606:, in the hope of advancing his informal education. In the spring of 1912 he sailed to England. Renting a room along 10131:. The Divine and National Movement of North America, Inc #13 The Moorish American National Republic. Archived from 1218:, followed by a major ceremonial celebration in Liberty Hall, attended by 3000 UNIA members. Jacques was Ashwood's 465:

church. Malchus was an intolerant and punitive father and husband; he never had a close relationship with his son.

217: 40: 10463: 935:, which Edmund David Cronon later noted remained "the personal propaganda organ of its founder". Financially, the 784:

In August 1914, Garvey attended a meeting of the Queen Street Baptist Literary and Debating Society, where he met

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Grant, Otis B. (2003). "Social Justice versus Social Equality: The Capitalistic Jurisprudence of Marcus Garvey".

1943: 1807:, the leader of a group that had broken from UNIA, was killed, bringing the organization into further disrepute. 1215: 1075:

called him a "reactionary under pay of white men". Du Bois generally tried to ignore Garvey, regarding him as a

902: 632: 11192:

Fergus, Claudius (2010). "From Prophecy to Policy: Marcus Garvey and the Evolution of Pan-African Citizenship".

10865:

Barnett, Michael (2006). "Differences and Similarities Between the Rastafari Movement and the Nation of Islam".

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declined to pardon Garvey in 2011, writing that its policy was not to consider requests for posthumous pardons.

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was abandoned on the mud flats at Fort Lee, New Jersey in the fall of 1922, when the Black Star Line collapsed.

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A week after the sentence, 2000 Garveyite protesters met at Liberty Hall to denounce Garvey's conviction as a

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A postcard depicting the Atlanta Federal Penitentiary in 1920, a few years before Garvey was imprisoned there

1319:. Seeking to challenge white domination of the maritime industry, the Black Star Line based its name on the 349:

for nearly two years. Many commentators have argued that the trial was politically motivated; Garvey blamed

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According to Chevannes, Garvey would have regarded the Rastas' belief in the divinity of Haile Selassie as

2559: 2276:. Garvey told the historian J. A. Rogers that he and his followers were "the first fascists", adding that " 2211:. In Jamaica, he and his supporters were heavily influenced by the pan-Africanist teachings of Dr Love and 2119: 1877: 1855:

In Kingston, Garvey was elected a city councillor and established the country's first political party, the

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being the first to be recognized as such. His ideas exerted a considerable influence on such movements as

13073: 13053: 12755: 12289: 12017: 11952: 10544:"Actor Delroy Lindo to Play the Great Marcus Garvey in Upcoming Biographical Movie to Be Released..When?" 2995: 2551: 2080: 1128: 778: 559:

Economic hardship in Jamaica led to growing emigration from the island. In mid-1910, Garvey travelled to

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Garvey was a controversial figure. Some in the African diasporic community regarded him as a pretentious

324: 77: 11625:

The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers: Africa for the Africans 1921–1922.

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in Africa and advocated the political unification of the continent. He envisioned a unified Africa as a

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The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers: The Caribbean diaspora, 1920–1921

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In June 1937, Garvey's wife and children arrived in England, where the latter were sent to a school in

1938: 1563: 1409:

assisted his transportation around the country, hoping to gain his favor. There, he met with President

1042: 2369:. While he was living in the U.S., he strongly opposed attempts to recruit African Americans into the 308:—caused a division between Garvey and other prominent African-American civil rights activists such as 12925: 12620: 12585: 1414: 1179: 1104: 894: 11739:

The Age of Garvey: How a Jamaican Activist Created a Mass Movement and Changed Global Black Politics

2687:, Garvey was largely forgotten in the years after his death, but interest in him was revived by the 1768:, received a petition with 70,000 signatures urging for Garvey's release. Sargeant warned President 664:. He planned a tour of Europe, spending time in Glasgow, Paris, Monte Carlo, Boulogne, and Madrid. 13048: 12776: 12525: 12430: 12354: 12194: 10438: 2648: 2566: 2095: 1927: 1606:. When it came to sentencing, Mack sentenced Garvey to five years' imprisonment and a $ 1000 fine. 1526: 1034:, however Post's department refused to do so, stating that the case against Garvey was not proven. 926: 870: 849:

Arriving in the United States, Garvey initially lodged with a Jamaican expatriate family living in

490: 11171:

Elkins, W. F. (1972). "Marcus Garvey, the 'Negro World', and the British West Indies: 1919-1920".

10777:"Exclusive Interview: American Actor Samuel Lee Fudge, Bringing Marcus Garvey to Life in 'Mosiah'" 1830:. Later that year, he and his wife visited Paris, where he had his office at the black newspapers 13068: 12834: 12806: 12801: 12791: 12645: 12605: 12234: 12180: 12039: 11706: 11557: 11029:

Christian, Mark (2008). "Marcus Garvey and African Unity: Lessons for the Future From the Past".

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In the late 1920s Garvey had some ties to the French black movement, especially the group of the

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that were prevalent at the time; his ideas on race were also heavily informed by the writings of

943:, but six months after its launch was pursuing a special appeal for donations to keep it afloat. 453:. His surname, which was of Irish origin, had been inherited from his family's former enslavers. 293: 10802:"CBC Listen: On The Coast with Gloria Macarenko - The Vancouver Black Independent Film Festival" 10368: 3050: 1182:

from UNIA, wanting to place growing distance between himself and black socialist groups. In the

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in June 1914 for a three-week journey across the Atlantic. En route home, Garvey talked with an

563:, where an uncle had secured him employment as a timekeeper on a large banana plantation in the 12615: 12339: 12254: 12103: 11929: 7733: 2789: 2736: 2519: 2463:, and was prone to lung infections; and throughout his adult life, he was affected by bouts of 1735: 1619: 1371: 1284: 1151: 984: 437:

social hierarchy, Garvey was considered at the lowest end, being a black child who was of full

277: 11788:

Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia: Caribbean Radicalism in Early Twentieth-Century America.

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also contains a black star. Ghana's national football team is also nicknamed the Black Stars.

1455: 1410: 441:

descent. However, later genetic research nevertheless revealed that he had ancestors from the

369:. With the UNIA in increasing financial difficulty, he relocated to London in 1935, where his 12856: 12520: 11480: 10934: 10009: 8733:

Strange Bedfellows: Eugenicists, White Supremacists, And Marcus Garvey In Virginia, 1922-1927

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who had built empires and monumental architectural structures, which he cited as evidence of

1778: 1688: 1381:, and its captain, Joshua Cockburn; the latter was accused of corruption. In early 1922, the 1366:

ship by February 1920, with the Black Star Line putting down a $ 10,000 (~$ 115,240 in 2023)

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tasked various Jamaican lawyers with investigating how they could assist this campaign. The

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In 1921, Garvey traveled to the Caribbean aboard a Black Star Line ship, the newly-acquired

12988: 12983: 12920: 12702: 12655: 12385: 12309: 12274: 11819: 8379:"Egypt and Egyptology in the Pan-African Discourse of Amy Jacques Garvey and Marcus Garvey" 2968: 2896: 2777:, whom they regarded as a Jesus figure. Garvey's ideas were a significant influence on the 2713: 2359: 2231: 2143: 2084: 2076: 2013: 1525:

1922 also brought some successes for Garvey. He attracted the country's first black pilot,

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churches. While in Alabama, he visited the Tuskegee Institute and met with its new leader,

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Ifekwe, B. Steiner (2008). "Rastafarianism in Jamaica as a Pan-African Protest Movement".

10801: 8818: 8395: 8378: 7734:"Femme négritude : Jane Nardal, La Dépêche africaine , and the francophone new negro" 2273: 8: 12745: 12719: 12440: 12083: 11845:

African Fundamentalism: A Literary and Cultural Anthology of Garvey's Harlem Renaissance.

11014:. Utopianism and Communitarianism Series. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. 3685: 2729: 2484: 2378: 2305: 2208: 1505: 1468: 1155: 1124: 960: 901:, which was widely distributed; proceeds from its sale went to victims of the riots. The 619: 607: 32: 11729: 2088: 1026:. To ratify the deportation, the Bureau of Investigation presented Garvey's name to the 641: 12771: 12750: 12475: 12425: 12400: 12390: 12375: 12329: 12314: 11808: 11684: 11551: 11527: 11467: 11400: 11379: 11350: 11315: 11267: 11238: 11209: 11180: 11134:

Black Moses: The Story of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association

11079: 11054: 11046: 11008: 10994: 10890: 10882: 8400: 6594: 6273: 3605: 3008: 2924: 2888: 2803:. Many Rastas regard Garvey as a prophet, believing that he prophesied the crowning of 2749: 2740: 2569: 2555: 2515: 2190: 2150: 2064: 1950: 1810: 1727: 1720: 1658: 1497: 1288: 1088: 1056: 1011: 952: 940: 862: 762: 615: 544: 505: 458: 313: 305: 245: 183: 154: 11964: 10034:"The Black 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential African-Americans, Past and Present" 4608: 3789: 3498: 3392: 2585:, he would lead his people out of the oppressive situation which they were living in. 2099: 865:. After six months traveling across the U.S. lecturing, he returned to New York City. 13138: 12708: 12395: 12167: 12108: 12088: 11793:

Kearse, Gregory S. "Prince Hall's Charge of 1792: An Assertion of African Heritage."

11761: 11742: 11725: 11692: 11670: 11651: 11648:

Garveyism as a Religious Movement: The Institutionalization of a Black Civil Religion

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to make the Negro feel that he was somebody." The Vietnamese Communist revolutionary

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arrived in Britain, Garvey was among the black delegates who arranged to meet him at

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Garvey himself, this open ally of the Ku Klux Klan should be locked up or sent home.

1539: 1167: 1116: 1112: 910: 878: 623: 582: 442: 430: 249: 226: 133: 81: 12239: 12224: 11981: 10685:"Jamaican producer talks 'African Redemption: The Life and Legacy of Marcus Garvey'" 4048: 1353: 693:

to pay for his journey. After managing to save the funds for a fare, he boarded the

564: 12946: 12724: 12500: 12435: 12415: 12410: 12229: 12098: 11605: 11463: 11459: 11371: 11340: 11307: 11259: 11234: 11230: 11201: 11145:

Black and Green: The Fight for Civil Rights in Northern Ireland & Black America

11071: 11038: 10986: 10874: 8823: 8736: 8390: 7745: 6265: 2982: 2892: 2836: 2808: 2773:

regarded Garvey as a prophet akin to John the Baptist in relation to their prophet

2665: 2577: 2352: 2277: 2261: 2018: 1888: 1723: 1132: 1068: 611: 548: 309: 297: 281: 11939: 2381:. This led to heavy scrutiny from communist group leaders and figureheads such as 1969:. In the summer of 1938, Garvey returned to Toronto for the next UNIA conference. 1119:

in support of MacSwiney and made appeals to the British government on his behalf.

595: 547:, coming to regard him as a mentor. With Garvey's enhanced skill at speaking in a 12844: 12535: 12515: 12445: 12279: 12244: 12149: 12013: 12005:

United Fruit Company letters about Garvey's activities in Panama & Costa Rica

11971: 11948: 10445: 10016: 8294: 6574: 6095: 3020: 2910:, directed by Roy T. Anderson, was made with the collaboration of Julius Garvey. 2840: 2778: 2511: 2480: 2415: 2158: 1919: 1823: 1769: 1765: 1568: 1501: 1472: 1320: 1316: 1019: 882: 774: 686: 677: 653: 591: 524: 494: 397: 385: 354: 334: 289: 12264: 11930:"Garvey's Legacy in Context: Colourism, Black Movements and African Nationalism" 10938: 10325: 3570: 2094:

During the late 1910s and 1920s, Garvey was also influenced by the ideas of the

19:

This article is about the political leader. For the album by Burning Spear, see

12816: 12781: 12530: 12490: 12480: 12349: 12344: 12334: 12324: 12259: 12219: 12128: 12062: 11345: 11328: 11205: 8287: 2954: 2933: 2858: 2813: 2804: 2774: 2382: 2341: 2202: 2127: 2115: 2022: 1958: 1954: 1845: 1448: 1439: 1393: 1159: 991: 948: 700: 672: 603: 516: 370: 253: 230: 137: 13159:

Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League members

12909: 11919: 11797:, Vol. 20. Washington, D.C. Scottish Rite Research Society, 2012, p. 275. 7749: 4305: 1138: 12972: 12868: 12714: 12590: 12510: 12505: 12485: 12465: 12450: 12405: 12319: 12304: 12284: 12269: 11889:

Los Angeles: Center of Afro-American Studies, University of California, 1980.

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Fierce, Milfred C. (1972). "Economic Aspects of the Marcus Garvey Movement".

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There is no evidence to support the view that Garvey was ever sympathetic to

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that could take power in the continent when European colonial rule ended via

1108: 1100: 1031: 1015: 1003: 269: 241: 11907: 11866:

Marcus Garvey's Footsoldiers of the Universal Negro Improvement Association.

11578:

Compiled and edited by Tony Martin. 123 pages. Majority Press, 1 June 1983.

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A statue of Garvey now stands in Saint Ann's Bay, the town where he was born

12495: 12420: 12209: 12093: 11923: 9158: 4548: 4424: 4285: 4249: 4181: 3538: 3357: 2877: 2781:, a religious group for African Americans established in the U.S. in 1930. 2503:, where he noted that "had ever come to power, he would have been another 2411: 2309: 2292: 2272:", suggesting that it would have resembled the later Haitian government of 2111: 1990: 1865: 1860: 1611: 1599: 1479: 1367: 1347: 1315:

From 56 West 135th, UNIA also began selling shares for a new business, the

1239:"Explanation of the Objects of the Universal Negro Improvement Association" 1207: 1175: 1103:

of 1916. The adoption of this name reflected Garvey's fascination with the

1092: 1023: 736:

Garvey arrived back in Jamaica in July 1914. There, he saw his article for

637: 477:, where Garvey began to work, traveling from Saint Ann's Bay each morning. 366: 320: 301: 49: 12958:

International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition

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congregation when he was a child, and later, he converted to Catholicism.

2106: 1509:

from the KKK threatening him to stop criticising Garvey and to join UNIA.

12682: 12370: 12294: 12154: 11481:"Christianity on Trial: The Nation of Islam and the Rastafari, 1930–1950" 10702: 6573:

Compiled by Amy Jacques Garvey; with a new intro. by Essien-Udom (2013).

6379: 6284: 4115: 2766: 2745: 2504: 2491: 2434: 2370: 2216: 2139: 2123: 1994: 1907: 1804: 1588: 1464: 1418: 1340: 1076: 994:

declared his intention to present a 14-point plan for world peace at the

966: 931: 785: 742: 501: 462: 358: 357:, he was deported to Jamaica in 1927. Settling in Kingston with his wife 329: 285: 11813:

Imagining Home: Class, Culture, and Nationalism in the African Diaspora.

11711:"Marcus Garvey: a controversial figure in the history of Pan-Africanism" 11471: 11404: 11242: 11184: 11050: 10886: 3916: 2619:

The Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey, or Africa for the Africans

12936: 12470: 12380: 12008: 11319: 11083: 10998: 10820: 10520: 10147: 8372: 8370: 6277: 6253: 3188: 2928: 2851: 2824: 2450: 2348: 2269: 1973: 1648: 1336: 1263: 1107:. Liberty Hall's dedication ceremony was held in July 1919. During the 704: 661: 586:

In London, Garvey spent time in the Reading Room of the British Museum.

560: 474: 342: 257: 12678:

Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League

11783:. Vols. I–VII, IX. University of California Press, c. 1983– (ongoing). 11095:. New Religious Movements Series. Wellingborough: The Aquarian Press. 10607:"Author Interview – Jason Overstreet, author of The Strivers' Row Spy" 1961:. Once he had returned to London, Garvey took up a new family home in 751:

Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League

223:

Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League

12931: 12460: 12455: 12299: 12123: 12118: 12113: 11594:

The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers.

10163: 7547: 6772: 6339: 6055: 5729: 5701: 5530: 4520: 3657: 2990: 2800: 2785: 2728:

adopted when it became independent adopted the colours of UNIA (See:

2688: 2464: 2374: 2366: 1803:; the latter was summoned to Jamaica for a meeting with Garvey after 1595: 979: 820: 816: 649: 470: 393: 381: 234: 11781:

The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers

11311: 11075: 10990: 8367: 6576:

The Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey Africa for the Africans

6269: 5976: 5487: 2792:

that appeared in 1930 Jamaica. According to the scholar of religion

1492:

turning point in his popularity". Several prominent black Americans—

1433: 1377:. In July 1920, Garvey sacked both the Black Star Line's secretary, 1014:

in Russia, and in this context, military intelligence ordered Major

12851: 12214: 11838:

Literary Garveyism: Garvey, Black Arts, and the Harlem Renaissance.

9118: 4693: 4653: 4269: 2154: 1579:

did not exist; this is a doctored photograph of an ex-German ship,

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in Liberia. As part of it, an estimated 25,000 people assembled in

1147: 1060: 840: 812: 770: 695: 248:

and was apprenticed into the print trade as a teenager. Working in

129: 11530:. 412 pages. Majority Press; Centennial edition, 1 November 1986. 9805: 6532:

The world of Marcus Garvey : race and class in modern society

6395: 5753:"Marcus Garvey in His Harlem Office, 1914 – Harlem World Magazine" 4456: 4356: 4165: 4084: 4032: 3641: 630:

In early 1913 he was employed as a messenger and handyman for the

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religious movement. Jacques wrote a book about her late husband,

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United States, where it would become extinct within fifty years.

2235: 1758: 1603: 1276: 766: 473:, a local printer. In 1904, the printer opened another branch at 338: 265: 11802:

Seeing Red: Federal Campaigns Against Black Militancy 1919–1925.

9414: 9347: 8949: 8595: 8265: 7857: 7829: 4709: 3482:

A History of Organized Labor in the English-Speaking West Indies

3225: 1197: 417: 13134:

Prisoners and detainees of the United States federal government

12174: 12133: 11873:

The Cry Was Unity: Communists and African-Americans, 1917–1936.

11066:

Clarke, John Henrik (1974). "Marcus Garvey: The Harlem Years".

9726: 4592: 4372: 4325: 4068: 3948: 3888: 3860: 3813: 3733: 3522: 2873: 2696: 2460: 2389:

characterised Garveyism as a reactionary bourgeois philosophy.

1127:, to infiltrate UNIA. In January 1920, Garvey incorporated the 1096: 925:

UNIA membership grew rapidly in 1918. In June that year it was

850: 520: 438: 273: 261: 99: 11852:

The Pan-African Connection: From Slavery to Garvey and Beyond.

7249: 5099: 3773: 3321: 1331:

which banned the sale of stock in the city without a license.

728:— Garvey, from a 1915 Collegiate Hall speech published in the 11298:

Graves, John L. (1962). "The Social Ideas of Marcus Garvey".

10566:"a book review by E. Ethelbert Miller: The Strivers' Row Spy" 10283: 10259: 3257: 3241: 3092: 2622: 2614: 2582: 754: 345:

for selling the company's stock and he was imprisoned in the

11880:

The World of Marcus Garvey: Race and Class in Modern Society

11627:

740 pages. University of California Press, 1 February 1996.

10817:"Review: 'A Strange Loop' makes a remarkable Broadway debut" 8133: 6254:"The Black Star Line: The De-Mystification of Marcus Garvey" 5884: 5882: 2769:

for example regarded him as the reincarnation of Moses. The

1222:. After the wedding, Garvey moved into Ashwood's apartment. 10848:

100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia

10107: 10105: 9754:, Jamaica Information Service. Retrieved 22 September 2020. 9632:"Dr. Julius Garvey speaks to the people about emancipation" 681:, a book by the African-American entrepreneur and activist 433:. In the context of colonial Jamaican society, which had a 350: 12910:

Season of Emancipation in Barbados (14 April to 23 August)

11958: 10633:"African Redemption: The Life and Legacy of Marcus Garvey" 10516:"Delroy Lindo to Star as Marcus Garvey in Upcoming Biopic" 8157: 7460: 6498: 6139: 5075: 2507:", resorting to violence and terror to enforce his ideas. 2459:

Physically, Garvey was short and stocky. He suffered from

2377:

groups, and he urged African Americans not to support the

2009:

in Kingston and thousands of visitors came for a viewing.

1053:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

13149:

Recipients of orders, decorations, and medals of Ethiopia

11667:

Rasta and Resistance: From Marcus Garvey to Walter Rodney

11450:

Moses, Wilson S. (1972). "Marcus Garvey: A Reappraisal".

10295: 10271: 10227: 10215: 10125:"The Prophet Noble Drew Ali and Marcus Garvey Connection" 9979: 9967: 9900: 9873: 9678: 9522: 9486: 9193: 9146: 9039: 8913: 8712: 8481: 8411: 8085: 8046: 8019: 8007: 7968: 7917: 7845: 7764: 7710: 7652: 7628: 7616: 7592: 7508: 7496: 7472: 7436: 7424: 7325: 7301: 7261: 7225: 7189: 7177: 7150: 7126: 7007: 6971: 6896: 6848: 6836: 6812: 6800: 6788: 6721: 6697: 6670: 6658: 6619: 6579:(2nd ed.). Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. p. 71. 6450: 6367: 6355: 6315: 6083: 6071: 6016: 5879: 5855: 5759: 5689: 5650: 5455: 5348: 5290: 5239: 5135: 5111: 4853: 4813: 1848:

of Ethiopia later that year. In Jamaica, Garvey became a

1202:

In October 1919, George Tyler, a part-time vendor of the

998:. Garvey joined various African Americans in forming the 835: 551:

manner, he entered several public-speaking competitions.

12651:

Pan-African Freedom Movement for East and Central Africa

11560:. Foreword by Hon. Charles L. James, president-general, 10179: 10102: 9957: 9955: 9953: 9951: 9861: 9714: 9629: 9299: 9134: 9108: 9106: 9104: 9014: 9012: 8891: 8889: 8887: 8885: 8690: 8688: 8585: 8583: 8510: 8508: 8428: 8426: 8345: 8343: 8255: 8253: 8251: 8249: 8247: 8207: 8205: 8203: 8190: 8188: 8186: 8184: 8169: 8063: 8061: 8036: 8034: 7997: 7995: 7934: 7932: 7895: 7893: 7880: 7878: 7876: 7795: 7793: 7791: 7582: 7580: 7578: 7525: 7523: 7378: 7376: 7167: 7165: 7104: 7102: 7026: 7024: 7022: 6937: 6935: 6762: 6760: 6687: 6685: 6648: 6646: 6556: 6554: 6552: 6428: 6426: 6305: 6303: 6045: 6043: 5954: 5952: 5903: 5901: 5899: 5897: 5845: 5843: 5830: 5828: 5815: 5813: 5800: 5798: 5667: 5665: 5508: 5506: 5407: 5381: 5379: 5322: 5320: 5307: 5305: 5256: 5254: 5205: 5203: 5178: 5176: 5174: 5005: 5003: 5001: 4912: 4910: 4908: 4761: 2908:

African Redemption: The Life and Legacy of Marcus Garvey

2605:— Edmund David Cronon, one of Garvey's biographers, 1955 384:

and they were highly critical of his collaboration with

304:(KKK) in the interest of advancing their shared goal of 10090: 10078: 10066: 9890: 9888: 9551: 9549: 9464: 9462: 9447: 9437: 9435: 9433: 9368: 9366: 9335: 9277: 9275: 9273: 9260: 9258: 9256: 9183: 9181: 9091: 9089: 9087: 9085: 9083: 9070: 9068: 9066: 9029: 9027: 8769: 8767: 8765: 8752: 8750: 8651: 8649: 8647: 8645: 8643: 8618: 8616: 8614: 8570: 8568: 8566: 8564: 8551: 8549: 8547: 8222: 8220: 4737: 4643: 4641: 4639: 4637: 4635: 4239: 4237: 4235: 4233: 2717:"integral constituent of their own political destiny." 2558:

termed it "the first Black mass protest crusade in the

1826:

area for four months. On 6th June 1928 he spoke at the

1413:. Arriving in Panama, at one of his first speeches, in 1405:

From Jamaica, Garvey traveled to Costa Rica, where the

671:

magazine, and spent time reading in the library of the

667:

Back in London, he wrote an article on Jamaica for the

300:

views—and his relationship with white racists like the

11882:. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1986. 10728:"Director Jirard screens his powerful new film MOSIAH" 10307: 10191: 10045: 9821: 9793: 9781: 9702: 9654: 9323: 6920: 6474: 5419: 4580: 4536: 4484: 4444: 4400: 4388: 4346: 4344: 4208: 4206: 4204: 4155: 4153: 4140: 4138: 4105: 4103: 4008: 3984: 3876: 3850: 3848: 3749: 3709: 3595: 3593: 3423: 3421: 3419: 3382: 3380: 3215: 3213: 3211: 3139: 3137: 3116:"DNA used to reveal MLK and Garvey's European Lineage" 3051:"Order of National Hero – Jamaica Information Service" 1346:. The ship was formally launched in a ceremony on the 527:

he published a pamphlet expressing the group's ideas,

480: 10203: 10046:

Debolt, Abbe A; James S. Baugess (12 December 2011).

9991: 9948: 9924: 9912: 9690: 9666: 9642: 9573: 9561: 9534: 9510: 9498: 9474: 9390: 9311: 9287: 9229: 9217: 9205: 9101: 9009: 8985: 8925: 8901: 8882: 8854: 8842: 8830: 8799: 8685: 8673: 8661: 8628: 8580: 8532: 8520: 8505: 8493: 8423: 8355: 8340: 8328: 8300: 8244: 8200: 8181: 8145: 8121: 8109: 8097: 8073: 8058: 8031: 7992: 7980: 7956: 7944: 7929: 7905: 7890: 7873: 7817: 7805: 7788: 7776: 7698: 7686: 7640: 7604: 7575: 7563: 7535: 7520: 7484: 7448: 7412: 7400: 7388: 7373: 7361: 7349: 7337: 7313: 7289: 7237: 7213: 7201: 7162: 7138: 7114: 7099: 7019: 6995: 6983: 6959: 6947: 6932: 6908: 6884: 6872: 6860: 6824: 6757: 6745: 6733: 6709: 6682: 6643: 6631: 6607: 6549: 6510: 6486: 6462: 6438: 6423: 6411: 6327: 6300: 6163: 6151: 6127: 6115: 6040: 6028: 6004: 5992: 5964: 5949: 5937: 5925: 5913: 5894: 5867: 5840: 5825: 5810: 5795: 5783: 5771: 5717: 5677: 5662: 5602: 5590: 5562: 5518: 5503: 5443: 5431: 5376: 5317: 5302: 5278: 5266: 5251: 5227: 5215: 5200: 5188: 5171: 5159: 5147: 5123: 5087: 5063: 5051: 5039: 5027: 5015: 4998: 4986: 4974: 4962: 4934: 4922: 4905: 4893: 4881: 4841: 4801: 4789: 873:. In his speeches, he sought to reach across to both 531:. In early 1910, Garvey began publishing a magazine, 12666:

Popular and Social League of the Great Sahara Tribes

11281:

Negro with a Hat: The Rise and Fall of Marcus Garvey

9936: 9885: 9833: 9585: 9546: 9459: 9430: 9402: 9378: 9363: 9270: 9253: 9241: 9178: 9080: 9063: 9051: 9024: 8997: 8937: 8762: 8747: 8700: 8640: 8611: 8561: 8544: 8232: 8217: 7041: 7039: 6535:. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP. pp. 154–56. 6231:"4 Apr 1939, Page 4 – The Kingston Daily Freeman at" 4749: 4725: 4681: 4669: 4632: 4412: 4230: 3178: 3176: 2944: 2421:

Even so, he attended the foundation ceremony of the

2284:

from me, but the Negro reactionaries sabotaged it".

920: 504:, vice president of the compositors' section of the 11989:, Black Atlantic Resource, University of Liverpool. 11875:

Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 1998.

9769: 9757: 4568: 4472: 4341: 4218: 4201: 4150: 4135: 4100: 4020: 3996: 3936: 3904: 3845: 3761: 3721: 3673: 3629: 3590: 3558: 3461: 3416: 3377: 3309: 3297: 3285: 3273: 3208: 3161: 3134: 2760: 2655: 1880:, in which he secured 915 votes, being defeated by 1753:Garvey was angry and in February 1926 wrote to the 1719:. From prison, Garvey continued corresponding with 519:, from office, and to end the migration of Indian " 425:Marcus Mosiah Garvey was born on 17 August 1887 in 11435:(Revised ed.). Dover, Mass.: Majority Press. 11131: 11007: 10659:"Harlem debuts 'Garvey' doc – world premiere next" 3449: 1575:, central exhibit in the Mail Fraud case of 1921. 485:In 1905 he moved to Kingston, where he boarded in 11504:Ireland and India: Nationalism, Empire and Memory 8460: 7036: 3173: 3149: 1099:, Ireland, which had been established during the 12970: 11826:. Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1986, 1994. 11487:. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 35–48. 7731: 7055:. University of California Press. p. lvii. 2903:, among other historically significant figures. 2445: 2316:whose opinion Garvey challenged on the pages of 445:. Garvey's paternal great- grandfather had been 11776:Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987. 10491:. The Reel Network. 21 May 2014. Archived from 10489:"Kevin Navayne to Star in Marcus Garvey Biopic" 10414:"Marcus Garvey Apartments – Clean Energy Group" 2130:as "one of the noblest characters of the day". 1793: 691:Anti-Slavery and Aborigines' Protection Society 333:newspaper. In 1919, he became President of the 13129:People's Political Party (Jamaica) politicians 11485:The African Diaspora and the Study of Religion 1676:, in October 1924. It was then renamed the SS 1428: 1357:A certificate for stock of the Black Star Line 715: 12895: 12047: 11833:New York: New York Age Press, 1922, 20 pages. 10960:Rastaman: The Rastafarian Movement in England 2133: 1198:Assassination attempts, marriage, and divorce 240:Garvey was born into a moderately prosperous 13144:Recipients of American presidential clemency 13064:Converts to Roman Catholicism from Methodism 11914:"Marcus Garvey: 20th Century Pan-Africanist" 11906:BBC Radio 4 programme about Marcus Garvey – 11804:Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998. 11524:The Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey 11393:Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 11329:"The Life and Resurrection of Marcus Garvey" 10369:"Gov't Declares August 17 Marcus Garvey Day" 8288:Monument to the Rt. Excellent Marcus Garvey" 6599:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2883:Marcus Garvey appears in Jason Overstreet's 2872:There have been several proposals to make a 2784:Garvey and Garveyism was a key influence on 1898: 1535:The Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey 554: 11941:Marcus Garvey: Look for Me in the Whirlwind 11564:. 212 pages. Majority Press, 1 March 1986. 9630:The Caribbean Camera Inc (23 August 2019). 7085:"Jailing a Rainbow: The Marcus Garvey Case" 3015:Marcus Garvey: Look for me in the Whirlwind 2291:For instance, the Jamaican writer and poet 1887:In increasingly strained finances amid the 1750:at a quarter of what UNIA had paid for it. 990:After the First World War ended, President 970:In 1918 Garvey's UNIA began publishing the 881:. Through this, he began to associate with 802:— Garvey, on how he was received in Jamaica 710: 614:, where he was impressed by the politician 12902: 12888: 12054: 12040: 10923:"The Economic Philosophy of Marcus Garvey" 10393: 1683: 48: 12636:Organisation of African Trade Union Unity 12009:University of Toronto Mississauga Library 11896:. Berkeley, Calif.: Ramparts Press, 1971. 11847:Dover, Mass.: Majority Press, 1983, 1991. 11501: 11478: 11344: 11138:. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. 11028: 11005: 10755:""Mosiah" Skylark Film Festival - CVM TV" 10464:"Marcus Garvey Movie Biopic in the Works" 10301: 10289: 10277: 10265: 10233: 10221: 10185: 10169: 10111: 9985: 9879: 9850: 9848: 9684: 9045: 8730: 8394: 6566: 5413: 3479: 3473: 2079:." Garvey was exposed to the ideas about 1979: 1625: 1520:—Garvey's telegram to UNIA HQ, June 1922. 1083:has suggested, the two hated each other. 899:The Conspiracy of the East St Louis Riots 13079:Jamaican emigrants to the United Kingdom 13014:Alumni of Birkbeck, University of London 12596:All-African People's Revolutionary Party 11868:Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1989. 11664: 11093:Black Paradise: The Rastafarian Movement 10957: 10197: 8871: 8869: 7082: 6251: 4506: 2923:Garvey is briefly portrayed in composer 2891:. The novel also includes as characters 2828:Statue of Garvey on Harris Promenade in 2823: 2674: 2449: 2118:." He also expressed admiration for the 2045:When swords are thrust outward to gleam; 2039:As storm cloud at night suddenly gathers 1902: 1809: 1777:on 3 December. The ship then stopped at 1687: 1562: 1459:Garvey with his wife Amy Jacques in 1922 1454: 1432: 1352: 1137: 1041: 1037: 965: 839: 773:, and the British effort in the ongoing 581: 416: 16:Jamaican activist and orator (1887–1940) 13039:Black conservatism in the United States 12355:I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson 12014:Newspaper clippings about Marcus Garvey 11705: 11645: 11562:Universal Negro Improvement Association 11151: 10976: 10901: 10864: 10850:. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books. 10814: 10592:The Strivers' Row Spy\ | Kirkus Reviews 10375:. Government of Jamaica. 17 August 2012 10313: 10253: 10157: 10096: 10084: 10072: 10010:"Martin Luther King Jr. visits Jamaica" 9815: 9747: 9745: 9128: 8461:Hill, Robert A.; Marcus Garvey (1983). 8281: 4510: 2835:Garvey's birthplace, 32 Market Street, 2525: 2405:— Garvey, on viewing God as black, 1923 2049:When led by the red, black, and green. 1785:, which took him to Kingston, Jamaica. 1742:; the latter visited Garvey in prison. 1046:Garvey speaking at Liberty Hall in 1920 749:Also in July 1914, Garvey launched the 412: 284:, he campaigned for an end to European 13119:People deported from the United States 13109:Members of the African Orthodox Church 12971: 11755: 11689:Marcus Garvey and the Vision of Africa 11430: 11411: 11390: 11297: 11220: 11191: 11170: 11142: 11129: 11112:"This Is How We Lost to the White Man" 11109: 11090: 11065: 10962:(2nd ed.). London: Counterpoint. 10920: 10845: 10774: 10752: 10541: 10461: 10245: 10209: 10173: 10153: 9997: 9930: 9867: 9854:"Spirit of Garvey Lives on Even Now", 9845: 9827: 9799: 9787: 9775: 9763: 9732: 9720: 9708: 9696: 9672: 9660: 9567: 9468: 9441: 9420: 9396: 9353: 9329: 9317: 9305: 9264: 9211: 9199: 9187: 9168: 9140: 9124: 9112: 8991: 8975: 8931: 8907: 8875:"Spirit of Garvey Lives on Even Now", 8848: 8805: 8793: 8785: 8718: 8694: 8667: 8634: 8622: 8605: 8601: 8526: 8444: 8376: 8334: 8318: 8306: 7727: 7725: 7553: 7279: 6926: 6778: 6560: 6480: 6401: 6385: 6345: 6290: 6213: 6197: 6181: 6105: 6101: 6061: 5982: 5958: 5735: 5707: 5644: 5636: 5620: 5580: 5552: 5536: 5497: 5493: 5477: 5473: 5425: 5397: 5366: 5338: 4992: 4952: 4899: 4871: 4831: 4779: 4715: 4699: 4659: 4622: 4614: 4598: 4558: 4554: 4526: 4502: 4462: 4434: 4430: 4418: 4378: 4362: 4331: 4315: 4311: 4295: 4291: 4275: 4259: 4255: 4191: 4187: 4171: 4121: 4090: 4074: 4054: 4038: 3974: 3970: 3954: 3894: 3866: 3819: 3803: 3795: 3739: 3699: 3691: 3663: 3647: 3623: 3615: 3611: 3580: 3576: 3548: 3544: 3528: 3512: 3504: 3439: 3406: 3398: 3367: 3363: 3351: 3343: 3327: 3291: 3247: 3231: 3198: 3098: 3082: 3074: 2122:, which was seeking independence from 1294: 1000:International League for Darker People 939:was backed by philanthropists such as 836:Moving to the United States: 1916–1918 598:in Panama, he set up a new newspaper, 12883: 12035: 11987:"Information – People: Marcus Garvey" 11977:Marcus Garvey speaks – text and audio 11736: 11550:Message to the People: The Course of 11449: 11278: 11249: 10656: 10249: 9973: 9961: 9942: 9918: 9906: 9811: 9736: 9648: 9579: 9555: 9540: 9528: 9516: 9504: 9492: 9480: 9453: 9424: 9408: 9384: 9372: 9357: 9341: 9293: 9281: 9235: 9223: 9172: 9164: 9152: 9074: 9057: 9018: 8979: 8959: 8955: 8943: 8919: 8895: 8866: 8860: 8836: 8789: 8756: 8706: 8679: 8655: 8589: 8538: 8514: 8499: 8487: 8448: 8432: 8417: 8396:10.11606/issn.2177-4218.v13i1p147-178 8361: 8349: 8322: 8275: 8259: 8211: 8194: 8175: 8163: 8151: 8139: 8127: 8115: 8103: 8091: 8079: 8067: 8052: 8040: 8025: 8013: 8001: 7986: 7974: 7962: 7950: 7938: 7923: 7911: 7899: 7884: 7867: 7851: 7839: 7823: 7811: 7799: 7782: 7770: 7716: 7704: 7692: 7658: 7646: 7634: 7622: 7610: 7598: 7586: 7569: 7557: 7541: 7529: 7514: 7502: 7490: 7478: 7466: 7454: 7442: 7430: 7418: 7406: 7394: 7382: 7367: 7355: 7343: 7331: 7319: 7307: 7295: 7283: 7267: 7255: 7243: 7231: 7219: 7207: 7195: 7183: 7171: 7156: 7144: 7132: 7120: 7108: 7083:Hansford, Justin (29 December 2008). 7030: 7013: 7001: 6989: 6977: 6965: 6953: 6941: 6914: 6902: 6890: 6878: 6866: 6854: 6842: 6830: 6818: 6806: 6794: 6782: 6766: 6751: 6739: 6727: 6715: 6703: 6691: 6676: 6664: 6652: 6637: 6625: 6613: 6528: 6516: 6504: 6492: 6468: 6456: 6444: 6432: 6417: 6405: 6389: 6373: 6361: 6349: 6333: 6321: 6309: 6294: 6217: 6201: 6185: 6169: 6157: 6145: 6133: 6121: 6109: 6089: 6077: 6065: 6049: 6034: 6022: 6010: 5998: 5986: 5970: 5943: 5931: 5919: 5907: 5888: 5873: 5861: 5849: 5834: 5819: 5804: 5789: 5777: 5765: 5739: 5723: 5711: 5695: 5683: 5671: 5656: 5640: 5624: 5608: 5596: 5584: 5568: 5556: 5540: 5524: 5512: 5481: 5461: 5449: 5437: 5401: 5385: 5370: 5354: 5342: 5326: 5311: 5296: 5284: 5272: 5260: 5245: 5233: 5221: 5209: 5194: 5182: 5165: 5153: 5141: 5129: 5117: 5105: 5093: 5081: 5069: 5057: 5045: 5033: 5021: 5009: 4980: 4968: 4956: 4940: 4928: 4916: 4887: 4875: 4859: 4847: 4835: 4819: 4807: 4795: 4783: 4767: 4755: 4743: 4731: 4719: 4703: 4687: 4675: 4663: 4647: 4626: 4602: 4586: 4574: 4562: 4542: 4530: 4514: 4490: 4478: 4466: 4450: 4438: 4406: 4394: 4382: 4366: 4350: 4335: 4319: 4299: 4279: 4263: 4243: 4224: 4212: 4195: 4175: 4159: 4144: 4125: 4109: 4094: 4078: 4058: 4042: 4026: 4014: 4002: 3990: 3978: 3958: 3942: 3926: 3910: 3898: 3882: 3870: 3854: 3839: 3823: 3807: 3783: 3767: 3755: 3743: 3727: 3715: 3703: 3679: 3667: 3651: 3635: 3619: 3599: 3584: 3564: 3552: 3532: 3516: 3467: 3455: 3443: 3427: 3410: 3386: 3371: 3347: 3331: 3315: 3303: 3279: 3267: 3263: 3251: 3235: 3219: 3202: 3194: 3182: 3167: 3155: 3143: 3102: 3086: 2807:in a manner which was similar to how 2392: 2037:Thou land where the gods loved to be, 1814:While in London, Garvey spoke at the 12999:20th-century Jamaican businesspeople 12631:International African Service Bureau 11859:The Poetical Works of Marcus Garvey. 11824:Garvey: Africa, Europe, The Americas 11576:The Poetical Works of Marcus Garvey. 11361: 11326: 11154:Rastafari: A Very Short Introduction 10682: 10657:Pryce, Vinette K. (23 August 2021). 9894: 9839: 9742: 9591: 9247: 9095: 9033: 9003: 8971: 8773: 8574: 8555: 8271: 8238: 8226: 7863: 7835: 7732:Sharpley-Whiting, T. Denean (2000). 7045: 4618: 4129: 4062: 3930: 3922: 3835: 3799: 3779: 3695: 3508: 3402: 3078: 3026:Marcus Garvey Prize for Human Rights 2887:, a 2016 historical novel about the 2572:included Garvey on his 2002 list of 2207:Garvey was a Pan-Africanist, and an 1967:International African Service Bureau 1922:and launched a new monthly journal, 1142:A UNIA parade through Harlem in 1920 1051:smaller than the better established 987:, who had also joined the movement. 890:the U.S. entered the First World War 310:W. E. B. Du Bois 276:district. Emphasising unity between 12672:Rassemblement Démocratique Africain 11916:. A Public Radio Documentary online 11894:Black Power and the Garvey Movement 11861:Dover, Mass.: Majority Press, 1983. 11854:Dover, Mass.: Majority Press, 1983. 11840:Dover, Mass.: Majority Press, 1983. 10513: 7722: 2861:. In 2006, Jamaican Prime Minister 2576:, and in 2008, the American writer 2047:For us will the vict'ry be glorious 2035:Ethiopia, thou land of our fathers, 790:Westwood Training College for Women 481:Early career in Kingston: 1905–1909 347:United States Penitentiary, Atlanta 13: 12601:All-African Trade Union Federation 12061: 11517: 11512: 11483:. In Trost, Theodore Louis (ed.). 9605:"Marcus Garvey Jr dies in Florida" 8467:. University of California Press. 3484:. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. 2662:Comité de Défense de la Race Noire 2583:the eponymous Old Testament figure 2043:We must in the fight be victorious 1716:The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius 1227: 996:forthcoming Paris Peace Conference 855:African Methodist Episcopal Church 341:. In 1923 Garvey was convicted of 14: 13170: 12661:Pan Africanist Congress of Azania 11965:Marcus Garvey economic principles 11900: 10775:Cleary, Jamar (16 October 2023). 10683:Peru, Yasmine (16 October 2021). 10394:Bellafante, Ginia (1 June 2013). 2830:San Fernando, Trinidad and Tobago 2771:Moorish Science Temple of America 2664:, and the editor of its journal, 2322: 2196: 1926:. Garvey returned to speaking at 921:The growth of the UNIA: 1918–1921 877:migrants like himself and native 703:missionary who had spent time in 491:Kingston was hit by an earthquake 233:. His ideas came to be known as 12862: 12850: 12840: 12839: 12830: 12829: 11416:. Dover, Mass.: Majority Press. 10927:Western Journal of Black Studies 10808: 10794: 10768: 10746: 10720: 10695: 10676: 10650: 10625: 10599: 10583: 10558: 10535: 10507: 10481: 10455: 10431: 10406: 10387: 10361: 10331: 10319: 10117: 10039: 10026: 10003: 9623: 9597: 8811: 8724: 8454: 7664: 7076: 6522: 6245: 6223: 5745: 2975: 2961: 2947: 2761:Influence on religious movements 2656:Influence on political movements 2041:Our armies come rushing to thee. 1711:The Meditations of Marcus Garvey 1602:sentiment and was supportive of 1262:Problems playing this file? See 1243: 963:islands banned the publication. 610:in South London, he visited the 170: 12787:All-African Peoples' Conference 11982:Poem – Ras Nasibu of the Ogaden 11887:The UNIA and Black Los Angeles. 10815:Kennedy, Mark (26 April 2022). 10542:Taylor, F. (16 December 2015). 10514:Rao, Sameer (7 December 2015). 8817:Edward White (5 October 2016), 7052:Marcus Garvey: Life and Lessons 2347:Economically, Garvey supported 2230:, which had been influenced by 2087:and by his work in London with 633:African Times and Orient Review 192: 166: 13009:African and Black nationalists 11741:. Princeton University Press. 11718:Journal of Pan African Studies 11464:10.1080/00064246.1972.11431283 11300:The Journal of Negro Education 11235:10.1080/00064246.1972.11658623 11110:Coates, Ta-Nehisi (May 2008). 10979:The Journal of Negro Education 10396:"A Housing Solution Gone Awry" 6252:Harrison, Paul Carter (1997). 6233:. Newspapers.com. 4 April 1939 3108: 3043: 2679:Martin Luther King Jr. in 1964 2574:100 Greatest African Americans 2142:" notion of much 20th century 2069:theories of social engineering 2012:His body was then reburied in 1788: 1558: 788:, recently graduated from the 627:worked as a domestic servant. 590:Garvey then travelled through 365:in 1929, briefly serving as a 112:Birkbeck, University of London 1: 12812:United States of Latin Africa 12641:Organisation of African Unity 12570:African Leadership University 11130:Cronon, Edmund David (1955). 11010:Rastafari: Roots and Ideology 10902:Barrett, Leonard E. (1997) . 10462:Castle, Stan (3 April 2012). 10036:, Citadel Press, 1999, p. 82. 3480:Alexander, Robert J. (2004). 3031: 2446:Personality and personal life 2054:— Lyrics from the UNIA anthem 1842:Coronation of an African King 407: 13124:People from Saint Ann Parish 12942:Day of National Significance 12626:First Pan-African Conference 11756:Garvey, Amy Jacques (1963). 11646:Burkett, Randall K. (1978). 10846:Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 10753:CVM-TV (29 September 2023). 10373:Jamaican Information Service 3036: 2819: 2560:history of the United States 2268:, collectivist, racist, and 2151:European-American population 2120:Indian independence movement 2059:Ideologically, Garvey was a 2014:King George VI Memorial Park 1794:Return to Jamaica: 1927–1935 1740:Anglo-Saxon Clubs of America 1699:Atlanta Federal Penitentiary 1370:on a paddle ship called the 7: 13024:American Christian Zionists 12018:20th Century Press Archives 11994:Gunning for the Negro Moses 11479:Soumahoro, Maboula (2007). 11156:. Oxford University Press. 10958:Cashmore, E. Ellis (1983). 2996:African-American literature 2940: 2501:World's Great Men of Colour 2028: 1987:St Mary's Catholic Cemetery 1914:, London, installed in 2005 1429:Criminal charges: 1922–1923 1170:and the Order of Ethiopia. 1105:Irish independence movement 716:Forming the UNIA: 1914–1916 325:Negro Factories Corporation 54:Garvey photographed in 1924 10: 13175: 13114:National Heroes of Jamaica 13044:Black separatist activists 12565:African Leadership Academy 11800:Kornweibel Jr., Theodore. 11346:10.1177/030639686700900206 11206:10.2979/globalsouth.4.2.29 11152:Edmonds, Ennis B. (2012). 10838: 2906:The 2021 documentary film 2735:During a trip to Jamaica, 2373:movement by socialist and 2200: 2134:Race and racial separatism 1939:Second Italo-Ethiopian War 1713:, its name an allusion to 1071:, and in one issue of the 18: 13104:Jamaican male journalists 12915: 12857:Pan-Africanism portal 12825: 12764: 12733: 12695: 12621:Economic Freedom Fighters 12611:Convention People's Party 12586:African Unification Front 12578: 12557: 12548: 12363: 12202: 12193: 12142: 12076: 12069: 11772:Hill, Robert A., editor. 11665:Campbell, Horace (1987). 11623:Hill, Robert A., editor. 11283:. London: Jonathan Cape. 11091:Clarke, Peter B. (1986). 11006:Chevannes, Barry (1994). 10339:"Bank of Jamaica | Coins" 8827:. Retrieved 30 July 2020. 8731:Trembanis, Sarah (2001). 7750:10.1080/10999940009362232 6572: 2613:, the first president of 1899:Life in London: 1935–1940 1180:African Blood Brotherhood 1178:and other members of the 895:East St. Louis Race Riots 761:modelled on Washington's 644:. The magazine advocated 555:Travels abroad: 1910–1914 535:—its name a reference to 361:, Garvey established the 256:before living briefly in 203: 143: 125: 117: 107: 88: 59: 47: 30: 13154:Roman Catholic activists 13099:Jamaican Roman Catholics 13094:Jamaican pan-Africanists 13059:Colony of Jamaica people 13019:American anti-communists 13004:20th-century journalists 12777:African-American leftism 12526:Henry Sylvester Williams 12290:Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo 11947:27 February 2017 at the 11864:Smith-Irvin, Jeannette. 11639: 11506:. Palgrave Macmillan UK. 11376:10.1215/07990537-1665434 11264:10.1177/0021934702250031 11252:Journal of Black Studies 11043:10.1177/0021934708317364 11031:Journal of Black Studies 10906:. Boston: Beacon Press. 10879:10.1177/0021934705279611 10867:Journal of Black Studies 8377:Davies, Vanessa (2022). 8293:30 December 2007 at the 7258:, pp. 383, 386–387. 5108:, pp. 177–178, 182. 2913:In 2023, the short film 2649:African-American studies 2647:in 1972, the scholar of 2567:African-American studies 1868:prison and a £100 fine. 1857:People's Political Party 1527:Hubert Fauntleroy Julian 711:Organization of the UNIA 429:, a town in the British 363:People's Political Party 214:Marcus Mosiah Garvey Jr. 12835:Pan-Africanism category 12807:United States of Africa 12802:Union of African States 12792:East African Federation 12741:Ethnic groups of Africa 12646:Pan African Association 12235:Jean-Jacques Dessalines 12181:United States of Africa 11707:Dagnini, Jeremie Kroubo 11683: 10444:8 November 2011 at the 9858:, February 2020, p. 13. 8879:, February 2020, p. 12. 6258:African American Review 2754:multicultural education 2538:— Milfred C. Fierce in 2423:African Orthodox Church 2387:Communist International 2228:Back-to-Africa movement 1707:Philosophy and Opinions 1684:Imprisonment: 1925–1927 1123:full-time black agent, 903:Bureau of Investigation 294:Back-to-Africa movement 12994:20th-century criminals 12616:East African Community 12255:Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof 12104:Anti-Western sentiment 11669:. Africa World Press. 11502:Silvestri, M. (2009). 11327:Hart, Richard (1967). 11143:Dooley, Brian (1998). 10921:Carter, Shawn (2002). 10129:Moorish Science Temple 10015:8 October 2007 at the 9752:"Marcus Mosiah Garvey" 8142:, pp. 1, 448–449. 7672:"Murder at the Pulpit" 6529:Stein, Judith (1991). 2832: 2790:new religious movement 2737:Martin Luther King Jr. 2720:In his autobiography, 2680: 2602: 2535: 2520:cardiovascular surgeon 2456: 2402: 2331: 2254:— Garvey, August 1920 2251: 2169: 2105:For Garvey, Ireland's 2051: 2007:Holy Trinity Cathedral 1980:Death and burial: 1940 1915: 1818: 1764:The Attorney General, 1748:SS Booker T Washington 1732:White American Society 1693: 1643: 1626:Out on bail: 1923–1925 1620:miscarriage of justice 1584: 1517: 1489: 1460: 1443: 1358: 1304: 1285:Henrietta Vinton Davis 1232: 1152:Madison Square Gardens 1143: 1129:Negro Factories League 1047: 985:Henrietta Vinton Davis 975: 846: 799: 725: 675:. There he discovered 636:, a magazine based in 587: 422: 13089:Jamaican nationalists 12521:Frances Cress Welsing 11970:11 April 2021 at the 11807:Lemelle, Sidney, and 11610:10.1525/9780520342224 11431:Martin, Tony (2001). 11412:Martin, Tony (1983). 11279:Grant, Colin (2008). 11173:Science & Society 10546:. Urban Intellectuals 8741:10.21220/s2-eg2s-rc14 7674:. Coral Gables Museum 2885:The Strivers' Row Spy 2863:Portia Simpson-Miller 2827: 2748:said that Garvey and 2678: 2597: 2591:civil rights movement 2530: 2453: 2397: 2327: 2246: 2226:Garvey supported the 2215:. In the wake of the 2172:— Marcus Garvey, 1921 2164: 2124:British rule in India 2077:Western Enlightenment 2033: 1906: 1813: 1691: 1638: 1566: 1512: 1484: 1458: 1436: 1379:Edward D. Smith-Green 1356: 1299: 1231: 1214:, they had a private 1141: 1045: 1038:Success and obstacles 969: 843: 795: 720: 585: 537:George William Gordon 420: 252:, he got involved in 121:Publisher, journalist 21:Marcus Garvey (album) 13084:Jamaican journalists 13029:American eugenicists 12703:Black Star of Africa 12656:Pan-African Congress 12606:Conseil de l'Entente 12386:Edward Wilmot Blyden 12310:Abdias do Nascimento 12275:Toussaint Louverture 11829:Manoedi, M. Mokete. 11820:Maureen Warner-Lewis 11815:London: Verso, 1994. 11790:London: Verso, 1998. 11758:Garvey and Garveyism 11737:Ewing, Adam (2014). 10570:nyjournalofbooks.com 10439:No Pardon for Garvey 9636:The Caribbean Camera 8166:, pp. 1–2, 449. 7469:, pp. 396, 403. 6507:, pp. 322, 330. 6148:, pp. 217, 225. 5084:, pp. 128, 174. 2969:United States portal 2897:James Weldon Johnson 2867:Obama Administration 2714:Black Power movement 2693:Garvey and Garveyism 2526:Reception and legacy 2360:Booker T. Washington 2232:Edward Wilmot Blyden 2144:American nationalism 2085:Edward Wilmot Blyden 1882:George Seymour-Jones 1833:La Dépêche Africaine 1678:Booker T. Washington 1674:General G W Goethals 1630:In September, Judge 1407:United Fruit Company 1254:Complete 1921 speech 683:Booker T. Washington 569:United Fruit Company 451:abolition in Jamaica 413:Childhood: 1887–1904 402:Black Power Movement 375:National Heroes Park 169: 1919; 64:Marcus Mosiah Garvey 12979:Culture of Barbados 12756:Conflicts in Africa 12746:Languages of Africa 12720:Pan-African colours 12441:Yosef Ben-Jochannan 12084:African nationalism 11998:The Literary Digest 11892:Vincent, Theodore. 11818:Lewis, Rupert, and 11685:Clarke, John Henrik 11650:. Scarecrow Press. 11414:Marcus Garvey: Hero 10734:. 28 September 2023 10495:on 15 February 2016 10292:, pp. 100–101. 10268:, pp. 102–103. 10160:, pp. 879–880. 9976:, pp. 453–454. 9909:, pp. xiii–ix. 9609:jamaica-gleaner.com 9531:, pp. 257–258. 9495:, pp. 155–156. 9155:, pp. 496–497. 8922:, pp. 246–247. 8490:, pp. 331–332. 8420:, pp. 173–174. 8094:, pp. 444–445. 8055:, pp. 443–444. 8028:, pp. 441–442. 8016:, pp. 440–441. 7977:, pp. 447–448. 7926:, pp. 434–435. 7854:, pp. 428–429. 7773:, pp. 423–425. 7719:, pp. 422–423. 7661:, pp. 418–421. 7637:, pp. 417–418. 7625:, pp. 416–417. 7601:, pp. 413–414. 7560:, pp. 410–411. 7517:, pp. 404–405. 7505:, pp. 403–404. 7481:, pp. 402–403. 7445:, pp. 405–407. 7433:, pp. 401–402. 7334:, pp. 395–396. 7310:, pp. 390–391. 7270:, pp. 388–389. 7234:, pp. 385–386. 7198:, pp. 381–382. 7186:, pp. 380–381. 7159:, pp. 378–379. 7135:, pp. 375–376. 7016:, pp. 371–372. 6980:, pp. 369–370. 6905:, pp. 365–366. 6857:, pp. 361–362. 6845:, pp. 360–361. 6821:, pp. 345–347. 6809:, pp. 343–344. 6797:, pp. 341–343. 6785:, pp. 352–353. 6730:, pp. 340–341. 6706:, pp. 338–340. 6679:, pp. 349–351. 6667:, pp. 358–359. 6628:, pp. 320–321. 6459:, pp. 325–326. 6392:, pp. 295–296. 6388:, pp. 89, 91; 6376:, pp. 294–295. 6364:, pp. 293–294. 6352:, pp. 292–293. 6324:, pp. 289–290. 6297:, pp. 284–285. 6293:, pp. 85, 88; 6112:, pp. 204–205. 6092:, pp. 195–197. 6080:, pp. 190–191. 6068:, pp. 207–210. 6025:, pp. 192–193. 5891:, pp. 238–239. 5864:, pp. 236–238. 5768:, pp. 212–214. 5742:, pp. 254–255. 5714:, pp. 312–313. 5698:, pp. 311–313. 5659:, pp. 315–317. 5543:, pp. 242–243. 5464:, pp. 219–220. 5357:, pp. 210–212. 5299:, pp. 302–303. 5248:, pp. 181–182. 5144:, pp. 126–127. 5120:, pp. 122–123. 4862:, pp. 108–109. 4822:, pp. 105–106. 4517:, pp. 214–215. 4278:, pp. 33, 34; 4057:, pp. 19, 22; 2901:Adam Clayton Powell 2750:Korean nationalists 2730:Pan-African colours 2703:released the album 2209:African nationalist 2149:He argued that the 1878:Saint Andrew Parish 1469:Edward Young Clarke 1295:The Black Star Line 1156:government-in-exile 1125:James Wormley Jones 961:British West Indian 640:that was edited by 608:Borough High Street 529:The Struggling Mass 513:Governor of Jamaica 33:The Right Excellent 13074:Harlem Renaissance 13054:Christian fascists 12772:African philosophy 12751:Religion in Africa 12476:Zephania Mothopeng 12426:Amy Ashwood Garvey 12401:John Henrik Clarke 12391:Stokely Carmichael 12376:Molefi Kete Asante 12330:John Nyathi Pokela 12315:Gamal Abdel Nasser 12027:African Collective 11885:Tolbert, Emory J. 11831:Garvey and Africa. 11809:Robin D. G. Kelley 11552:African Philosophy 11528:Amy Jacques Garvey 10804:. 2 November 2023. 10468:Atlanta Black Star 10418:Clean Energy Group 10400:The New York Times 10349:on 26 October 2017 10032:Salley, Columbus, 9202:, pp. 58, 59. 8721:, pp. 66, 67. 8178:, pp. 2, 450. 5985:, pp. 50–51; 5755:. 3 November 2013. 4770:, pp. 98–100. 4529:, pp. 38–39; 4465:, pp. 35–36; 4365:, pp. 33–34; 4318:, pp. 36–37; 4174:, pp. 27–28; 4093:, pp. 26–27; 4065:, pp. 52, 57. 4061:, pp. 47–48; 4041:, pp. 25–26; 3666:, pp. 12–13; 3442:, pp. 12–13; 3350:, pp. 39–40; 3009:Double-duty dollar 2925:Michael R. Jackson 2889:Harlem Renaissance 2833: 2741:Coretta Scott King 2681: 2570:Molefi Kete Asante 2556:John Henrik Clarke 2516:Amy Jacques Garvey 2457: 2393:Black Christianity 2234:, who migrated to 2096:Irish independence 1951:Kensington Gardens 1916: 1819: 1728:Earnest Sevier Cox 1694: 1659:Charles D. B. King 1585: 1498:A. Philip Randolph 1461: 1444: 1359: 1289:Harlem Renaissance 1233: 1144: 1117:solidarity strikes 1048: 1012:October Revolution 976: 953:hair-straightening 941:Madam C. J. Walker 915:Old Fellows Temple 863:Robert Russa Moton 847: 763:Tuskegee Institute 618:. He also visited 616:David Lloyd George 588: 545:Joseph Robert Love 423: 386:white supremacists 314:racial integration 13034:American fascists 12966: 12965: 12921:Bussa's rebellion 12877: 12876: 12869:Africa portal 12709:Le Marron Inconnu 12691: 12690: 12544: 12543: 12340:Ahmed Sékou Touré 12189: 12188: 12109:Black nationalism 12089:African socialism 11748:978-0-691-15779-5 11709:(15 March 2008). 11698:978-0-394-71888-0 11691:. Vintage Books. 11676:978-0-86543-034-1 11657:978-0-8108-1163-8 11554:by Marcus Garvey. 11538:. Avery edition. 11494:978-1-4039-7786-1 11452:The Black Scholar 11442:978-0-912469-23-2 11423:978-0-912469-05-8 11290:978-0-09-950145-9 11223:The Black Scholar 11163:978-0-19-958452-9 11102:978-0-85030-428-2 11021:978-0-8156-0296-5 10969:978-0-04-301164-5 10913:978-0-8070-1039-6 10452:, 21 August 2011. 9870:, pp. 73–74. 9723:, pp. 72–73. 9611:. 9 December 2020 9456:, pp. 88–89. 9344:, pp. 43–44. 9308:, pp. 68–69. 9143:, pp. 57–58. 6586:978-1-136-23106-3 6542:978-0-8071-1670-8 5500:, pp. 56–57. 4746:, pp. 96–97. 4706:, pp. 91–93. 4666:, pp. 88–89. 4589:, pp. 83–84. 4545:, pp. 77–79. 4533:, pp. 72–73. 4493:, pp. 71–72. 4453:, pp. 65–66. 4409:, pp. 61–62. 4397:, pp. 57–58. 4017:, pp. 48–49. 3993:, pp. 45–46. 3885:, pp. 36–37. 3842:, pp. 34–35. 3758:, pp. 30–31. 3718:, pp. 27–28. 3706:, pp. 24–25. 3670:, pp. 21–22. 3654:, pp. 21–22. 3587:, pp. 20–21. 3579:, pp. 13–4; 3122:. 13 January 2011 2794:Maboula Soumahoro 2685:Colony of Jamaica 2644:The Black Scholar 2541:The Black Scholar 2431:Jesus of Nazareth 2302:ancient Egyptians 2274:François Duvalier 2213:Alexander Bedward 2061:black nationalist 1828:Royal Albert Hall 1816:Royal Albert Hall 1540:Daily Negro Times 1249: 1168:Order of the Nile 1115:Garvey supported 1113:Terence MacSwiney 911:John Edward Bruce 879:African Americans 533:Garvey's Watchman 459:petite bourgeoise 447:born into slavery 443:Iberian Peninsula 431:colony of Jamaica 306:racial separatism 227:black nationalist 211: 210: 134:black nationalism 82:Colony of Jamaica 13166: 12947:Emancipation Day 12904: 12897: 12890: 12881: 12880: 12867: 12866: 12865: 12855: 12854: 12843: 12842: 12833: 12832: 12725:Pan-African flag 12555: 12554: 12501:Randall Robinson 12436:Leonard Jeffries 12416:W. E. B. Du Bois 12411:Cheikh Anta Diop 12406:Martin R. Delany 12230:David Comissiong 12200: 12199: 12099:Anti-imperialism 12074: 12073: 12056: 12049: 12042: 12033: 12032: 11955:documentary film 11936:, 17 August 2005 11934:Race and History 11928:Ayanna Gillian, 11786:James, Winston. 11779:Hill, Robert A. 11769: 11752: 11733: 11715: 11702: 11680: 11661: 11507: 11498: 11475: 11446: 11427: 11408: 11387: 11358: 11348: 11323: 11294: 11275: 11246: 11217: 11194:The Global South 11188: 11167: 11148: 11139: 11137: 11126: 11124: 11122: 11106: 11087: 11062: 11025: 11013: 11002: 10973: 10954: 10952: 10950: 10941:. 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4885: 4879: 4869: 4863: 4857: 4851: 4845: 4839: 4829: 4823: 4817: 4811: 4805: 4799: 4793: 4787: 4777: 4771: 4765: 4759: 4753: 4747: 4741: 4735: 4729: 4723: 4713: 4707: 4697: 4691: 4685: 4679: 4673: 4667: 4657: 4651: 4645: 4630: 4612: 4606: 4596: 4590: 4584: 4578: 4572: 4566: 4552: 4546: 4540: 4534: 4524: 4518: 4500: 4494: 4488: 4482: 4476: 4470: 4460: 4454: 4448: 4442: 4428: 4422: 4416: 4410: 4404: 4398: 4392: 4386: 4376: 4370: 4360: 4354: 4348: 4339: 4329: 4323: 4309: 4303: 4289: 4283: 4273: 4267: 4253: 4247: 4241: 4228: 4222: 4216: 4210: 4199: 4185: 4179: 4169: 4163: 4157: 4148: 4142: 4133: 4119: 4113: 4107: 4098: 4088: 4082: 4072: 4066: 4052: 4046: 4036: 4030: 4024: 4018: 4012: 4006: 4000: 3994: 3988: 3982: 3968: 3962: 3952: 3946: 3940: 3934: 3920: 3914: 3908: 3902: 3892: 3886: 3880: 3874: 3864: 3858: 3852: 3843: 3833: 3827: 3817: 3811: 3793: 3787: 3777: 3771: 3765: 3759: 3753: 3747: 3737: 3731: 3725: 3719: 3713: 3707: 3689: 3683: 3677: 3671: 3661: 3655: 3645: 3639: 3633: 3627: 3609: 3603: 3597: 3588: 3574: 3568: 3562: 3556: 3542: 3536: 3526: 3520: 3502: 3496: 3495: 3477: 3471: 3465: 3459: 3453: 3447: 3437: 3431: 3425: 3414: 3396: 3390: 3384: 3375: 3361: 3355: 3341: 3335: 3325: 3319: 3313: 3307: 3301: 3295: 3289: 3283: 3277: 3271: 3261: 3255: 3245: 3239: 3234:, pp. 6–7; 3229: 3223: 3217: 3206: 3192: 3186: 3180: 3171: 3165: 3159: 3153: 3147: 3141: 3132: 3131: 3129: 3127: 3112: 3106: 3096: 3090: 3089:, pp. 8, 9. 3072: 3066: 3065: 3063: 3061: 3047: 2985: 2983:Biography portal 2980: 2979: 2978: 2971: 2966: 2965: 2964: 2957: 2952: 2951: 2950: 2893:W. E. B. Du Bois 2809:John the Baptist 2666:Maurice Satineau 2606: 2578:Ta-Nehisi Coates 2545: 2406: 2353:black capitalism 2335: 2318:The Negro World. 2255: 2173: 2089:Dusé Mohamed Ali 2055: 2023:Alvin T. Marriot 1944:Waterloo station 1928:Speakers' Corner 1889:Great Depression 1724:white separatist 1653: 1577:Phyllis Wheatley 1573:Phyllis Wheatley 1521: 1423:State Department 1311: 1251: 1250: 1230: 1216:Catholic wedding 1133:personality cult 1069:W. E. B. Du Bois 1028:Labor Department 803: 732: 658:Birkbeck College 642:Dusé Mohamed Ali 620:Speakers' Corner 612:House of Commons 549:Standard English 500:Garvey became a 298:black separatist 282:African diaspora 220: 196: 194: 174: 172: 168: 95: 73: 71: 52: 28: 27: 13174: 13173: 13169: 13168: 13167: 13165: 13164: 13163: 13049:Black Star Line 12969: 12968: 12967: 12962: 12926:National Heroes 12919:Anniversary of 12911: 12908: 12878: 12873: 12863: 12861: 12849: 12845:Africa category 12821: 12760: 12729: 12687: 12574: 12540: 12536:Omali Yeshitela 12516:Issa Laye Thiaw 12446:Maulana Karenga 12431:John G. Jackson 12359: 12280:Patrice Lumumba 12245:Muammar Gaddafi 12185: 12150:African century 12138: 12065: 12060: 11972:Wayback Machine 11949:Wayback Machine 11903: 11878:Stein, Judith. 11871:Solomon, Mark. 11749: 11713: 11699: 11677: 11658: 11642: 11590:Hill, Robert A. 11520: 11518:Works by Garvey 11515: 11513:Further reading 11510: 11495: 11443: 11424: 11312:10.2307/2294548 11291: 11164: 11120: 11118: 11103: 11076:10.2307/2934951 11022: 10991:10.2307/4129626 10970: 10948: 10946: 10945:on 22 July 2020 10914: 10858: 10841: 10836: 10835: 10825: 10823: 10813: 10809: 10800: 10799: 10795: 10785: 10783: 10773: 10769: 10759: 10757: 10751: 10747: 10737: 10735: 10726: 10725: 10721: 10711: 10709: 10701: 10700: 10696: 10681: 10677: 10667: 10665: 10655: 10651: 10641: 10639: 10631: 10630: 10626: 10616: 10614: 10605: 10604: 10600: 10589: 10588: 10584: 10574: 10572: 10564: 10563: 10559: 10549: 10547: 10540: 10536: 10526: 10524: 10512: 10508: 10498: 10496: 10487: 10486: 10482: 10472: 10470: 10460: 10456: 10446:Wayback Machine 10436: 10432: 10422: 10420: 10412: 10411: 10407: 10392: 10388: 10378: 10376: 10367: 10366: 10362: 10352: 10350: 10337: 10336: 10332: 10324: 10320: 10312: 10308: 10300: 10296: 10288: 10284: 10276: 10272: 10264: 10260: 10252:, p. 453; 10244: 10240: 10232: 10228: 10220: 10216: 10208: 10204: 10196: 10192: 10184: 10180: 10168: 10164: 10152: 10148: 10138: 10136: 10123: 10122: 10118: 10110: 10103: 10095: 10091: 10083: 10079: 10071: 10067: 10060: 10044: 10040: 10031: 10027: 10023:, 20 June 1965. 10021:Jamaica Gleaner 10017:Wayback Machine 10008: 10004: 9996: 9992: 9984: 9980: 9972: 9968: 9960: 9949: 9941: 9937: 9929: 9925: 9917: 9913: 9905: 9901: 9893: 9886: 9878: 9874: 9866: 9862: 9853: 9846: 9838: 9834: 9826: 9822: 9810: 9806: 9798: 9794: 9786: 9782: 9774: 9770: 9762: 9758: 9750: 9743: 9731: 9727: 9719: 9715: 9707: 9703: 9695: 9691: 9683: 9679: 9671: 9667: 9659: 9655: 9647: 9643: 9628: 9624: 9614: 9612: 9603: 9602: 9598: 9590: 9586: 9578: 9574: 9566: 9562: 9554: 9547: 9539: 9535: 9527: 9523: 9515: 9511: 9503: 9499: 9491: 9487: 9479: 9475: 9467: 9460: 9452: 9448: 9440: 9431: 9419: 9415: 9407: 9403: 9395: 9391: 9383: 9379: 9371: 9364: 9352: 9348: 9340: 9336: 9328: 9324: 9316: 9312: 9304: 9300: 9292: 9288: 9280: 9271: 9263: 9254: 9246: 9242: 9234: 9230: 9222: 9218: 9210: 9206: 9198: 9194: 9186: 9179: 9163: 9159: 9151: 9147: 9139: 9135: 9123: 9119: 9111: 9102: 9094: 9081: 9073: 9064: 9056: 9052: 9044: 9040: 9032: 9025: 9017: 9010: 9002: 8998: 8990: 8986: 8974:, p. 230; 8970: 8966: 8954: 8950: 8942: 8938: 8930: 8926: 8918: 8914: 8906: 8902: 8894: 8883: 8874: 8867: 8859: 8855: 8847: 8843: 8835: 8831: 8816: 8812: 8804: 8800: 8792:, p. 493; 8784: 8780: 8772: 8763: 8755: 8748: 8729: 8725: 8717: 8713: 8705: 8701: 8693: 8686: 8678: 8674: 8666: 8662: 8654: 8641: 8633: 8629: 8621: 8612: 8600: 8596: 8588: 8581: 8573: 8562: 8554: 8545: 8537: 8533: 8525: 8521: 8513: 8506: 8498: 8494: 8486: 8482: 8475: 8459: 8455: 8443: 8439: 8431: 8424: 8416: 8412: 8375: 8368: 8360: 8356: 8348: 8341: 8333: 8329: 8317: 8313: 8305: 8301: 8295:Wayback Machine 8286: 8282: 8274:, p. 218; 8270: 8266: 8258: 8245: 8237: 8233: 8225: 8218: 8210: 8201: 8193: 8182: 8174: 8170: 8162: 8158: 8150: 8146: 8138: 8134: 8126: 8122: 8114: 8110: 8102: 8098: 8090: 8086: 8078: 8074: 8066: 8059: 8051: 8047: 8039: 8032: 8024: 8020: 8012: 8008: 8000: 7993: 7985: 7981: 7973: 7969: 7961: 7957: 7949: 7945: 7937: 7930: 7922: 7918: 7910: 7906: 7898: 7891: 7883: 7874: 7866:, p. 224; 7862: 7858: 7850: 7846: 7838:, p. 223; 7834: 7830: 7822: 7818: 7810: 7806: 7798: 7789: 7781: 7777: 7769: 7765: 7730: 7723: 7715: 7711: 7703: 7699: 7691: 7687: 7677: 7675: 7670: 7669: 7665: 7657: 7653: 7645: 7641: 7633: 7629: 7621: 7617: 7609: 7605: 7597: 7593: 7585: 7576: 7568: 7564: 7552: 7548: 7540: 7536: 7528: 7521: 7513: 7509: 7501: 7497: 7489: 7485: 7477: 7473: 7465: 7461: 7453: 7449: 7441: 7437: 7429: 7425: 7417: 7413: 7405: 7401: 7393: 7389: 7381: 7374: 7366: 7362: 7354: 7350: 7342: 7338: 7330: 7326: 7318: 7314: 7306: 7302: 7294: 7290: 7278: 7274: 7266: 7262: 7254: 7250: 7242: 7238: 7230: 7226: 7218: 7214: 7206: 7202: 7194: 7190: 7182: 7178: 7170: 7163: 7155: 7151: 7143: 7139: 7131: 7127: 7119: 7115: 7107: 7100: 7081: 7077: 7067: 7065: 7063: 7047:Hill, Robert A. 7044: 7037: 7029: 7020: 7012: 7008: 7000: 6996: 6988: 6984: 6976: 6972: 6964: 6960: 6952: 6948: 6940: 6933: 6925: 6921: 6913: 6909: 6901: 6897: 6889: 6885: 6877: 6873: 6865: 6861: 6853: 6849: 6841: 6837: 6829: 6825: 6817: 6813: 6805: 6801: 6793: 6789: 6777: 6773: 6765: 6758: 6750: 6746: 6738: 6734: 6726: 6722: 6714: 6710: 6702: 6698: 6690: 6683: 6675: 6671: 6663: 6659: 6651: 6644: 6636: 6632: 6624: 6620: 6612: 6608: 6592: 6591: 6587: 6571: 6567: 6559: 6550: 6543: 6527: 6523: 6515: 6511: 6503: 6499: 6491: 6487: 6479: 6475: 6467: 6463: 6455: 6451: 6443: 6439: 6431: 6424: 6416: 6412: 6404:, p. 100; 6400: 6396: 6384: 6380: 6372: 6368: 6360: 6356: 6344: 6340: 6332: 6328: 6320: 6316: 6308: 6301: 6289: 6285: 6270:10.2307/3042340 6250: 6246: 6236: 6234: 6229: 6228: 6224: 6212: 6208: 6196: 6192: 6180: 6176: 6168: 6164: 6156: 6152: 6144: 6140: 6132: 6128: 6120: 6116: 6100: 6096: 6088: 6084: 6076: 6072: 6060: 6056: 6048: 6041: 6033: 6029: 6021: 6017: 6009: 6005: 5997: 5993: 5981: 5977: 5969: 5965: 5957: 5950: 5942: 5938: 5930: 5926: 5918: 5914: 5906: 5895: 5887: 5880: 5872: 5868: 5860: 5856: 5848: 5841: 5833: 5826: 5818: 5811: 5803: 5796: 5788: 5784: 5776: 5772: 5764: 5760: 5751: 5750: 5746: 5734: 5730: 5722: 5718: 5706: 5702: 5694: 5690: 5682: 5678: 5670: 5663: 5655: 5651: 5643:, p. 261; 5635: 5631: 5619: 5615: 5607: 5603: 5595: 5591: 5579: 5575: 5567: 5563: 5551: 5547: 5535: 5531: 5523: 5519: 5511: 5504: 5492: 5488: 5472: 5468: 5460: 5456: 5448: 5444: 5436: 5432: 5424: 5420: 5412: 5408: 5396: 5392: 5384: 5377: 5365: 5361: 5353: 5349: 5337: 5333: 5325: 5318: 5310: 5303: 5295: 5291: 5283: 5279: 5271: 5267: 5259: 5252: 5244: 5240: 5232: 5228: 5220: 5216: 5208: 5201: 5193: 5189: 5181: 5172: 5164: 5160: 5152: 5148: 5140: 5136: 5128: 5124: 5116: 5112: 5104: 5100: 5092: 5088: 5080: 5076: 5068: 5064: 5056: 5052: 5044: 5040: 5032: 5028: 5020: 5016: 5008: 4999: 4991: 4987: 4979: 4975: 4967: 4963: 4951: 4947: 4939: 4935: 4927: 4923: 4915: 4906: 4898: 4894: 4886: 4882: 4870: 4866: 4858: 4854: 4846: 4842: 4830: 4826: 4818: 4814: 4806: 4802: 4794: 4790: 4778: 4774: 4766: 4762: 4754: 4750: 4742: 4738: 4730: 4726: 4714: 4710: 4698: 4694: 4686: 4682: 4674: 4670: 4658: 4654: 4646: 4633: 4621:, p. 222; 4613: 4609: 4597: 4593: 4585: 4581: 4573: 4569: 4553: 4549: 4541: 4537: 4525: 4521: 4513:, p. 143; 4509:, p. 160; 4501: 4497: 4489: 4485: 4477: 4473: 4461: 4457: 4449: 4445: 4429: 4425: 4417: 4413: 4405: 4401: 4393: 4389: 4377: 4373: 4361: 4357: 4349: 4342: 4330: 4326: 4310: 4306: 4290: 4286: 4274: 4270: 4254: 4250: 4242: 4231: 4223: 4219: 4211: 4202: 4186: 4182: 4170: 4166: 4158: 4151: 4143: 4136: 4120: 4116: 4108: 4101: 4089: 4085: 4073: 4069: 4053: 4049: 4037: 4033: 4025: 4021: 4013: 4009: 4001: 3997: 3989: 3985: 3969: 3965: 3957:, pp. 20; 3953: 3949: 3941: 3937: 3925:, p. 220; 3921: 3917: 3909: 3905: 3893: 3889: 3881: 3877: 3865: 3861: 3853: 3846: 3838:, p. 220; 3834: 3830: 3818: 3814: 3802:, p. 220; 3794: 3790: 3782:, p. 220; 3778: 3774: 3766: 3762: 3754: 3750: 3738: 3734: 3726: 3722: 3714: 3710: 3698:, p. 220; 3690: 3686: 3678: 3674: 3662: 3658: 3646: 3642: 3634: 3630: 3610: 3606: 3598: 3591: 3575: 3571: 3563: 3559: 3543: 3539: 3527: 3523: 3511:, p. 219; 3503: 3499: 3492: 3478: 3474: 3466: 3462: 3454: 3450: 3438: 3434: 3426: 3417: 3405:, p. 219; 3397: 3393: 3385: 3378: 3362: 3358: 3342: 3338: 3326: 3322: 3314: 3310: 3302: 3298: 3290: 3286: 3278: 3274: 3262: 3258: 3246: 3242: 3230: 3226: 3218: 3209: 3193: 3189: 3181: 3174: 3170:, pp. 8–9. 3166: 3162: 3154: 3150: 3142: 3135: 3125: 3123: 3114: 3113: 3109: 3097: 3093: 3081:, p. 218; 3073: 3069: 3059: 3057: 3049: 3048: 3044: 3039: 3034: 3021:Right of return 2981: 2976: 2974: 2967: 2962: 2960: 2953: 2948: 2946: 2943: 2841:Jamaican dollar 2822: 2779:Nation of Islam 2763: 2726:flag that Ghana 2658: 2608: 2604: 2547: 2537: 2528: 2481:honorary degree 2448: 2408: 2404: 2395: 2379:Communist Party 2337: 2334:— Marcus Garvey 2333: 2325: 2257: 2253: 2217:First World War 2205: 2199: 2175: 2171: 2159:black supremacy 2136: 2100:Éamon de Valera 2073:African history 2057: 2053: 2048: 2046: 2044: 2042: 2040: 2038: 2036: 2031: 1982: 1920:West Kensington 1901: 1824:West Kensington 1796: 1791: 1770:Calvin Coolidge 1726:activists like 1686: 1655: 1645: 1628: 1569:Black Star Line 1561: 1533:it appeared as 1523: 1519: 1502:William Pickens 1473:Imperial Wizard 1431: 1321:White Star Line 1317:Black Star Line 1313: 1309:The Negro World 1306: 1297: 1269: 1268: 1260: 1258: 1257: 1256: 1255: 1252: 1244: 1241: 1234: 1228: 1200: 1192:Edwin P. Kilroe 1040: 1020:J. Edgar Hoover 949:skin-lightening 923: 883:Hubert Harrison 838: 832:in March 1916. 825:Daily Chronicle 809:William Manning 805: 801: 775:First World War 740:republished in 734: 730:Daily Chronicle 727: 718: 713: 687:Colonial Office 678:Up from Slavery 654:evening classes 592:Central America 557: 525:Wilfred Domingo 506:Printers' Union 483: 427:Saint Ann's Bay 415: 410: 398:Nation of Islam 367:city councillor 355:Calvin Coolidge 335:Black Star Line 319:Believing that 290:one-party state 246:Saint Ann's Bay 216: 199: 198: 195: 1922) 190: 186: 176: 173: 1922) 164: 160: 157: 108:Alma mater 103: 97: 93: 84: 78:Saint Ann's Bay 75: 69: 67: 66: 65: 55: 43: 38: 35: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 13172: 13162: 13161: 13156: 13151: 13146: 13141: 13136: 13131: 13126: 13121: 13116: 13111: 13106: 13101: 13096: 13091: 13086: 13081: 13076: 13071: 13069:Flag designers 13066: 13061: 13056: 13051: 13046: 13041: 13036: 13031: 13026: 13021: 13016: 13011: 13006: 13001: 12996: 12991: 12986: 12981: 12964: 12963: 12961: 12960: 12955: 12949: 12944: 12939: 12934: 12929: 12923: 12916: 12913: 12912: 12907: 12906: 12899: 12892: 12884: 12875: 12874: 12872: 12871: 12859: 12847: 12837: 12826: 12823: 12822: 12820: 12819: 12817:Year of Africa 12814: 12809: 12804: 12799: 12794: 12789: 12784: 12782:Africanization 12779: 12774: 12768: 12766: 12762: 12761: 12759: 12758: 12753: 12748: 12743: 12737: 12735: 12731: 12730: 12728: 12727: 12722: 12717: 12712: 12705: 12699: 12697: 12693: 12692: 12689: 12688: 12686: 12685: 12680: 12675: 12668: 12663: 12658: 12653: 12648: 12643: 12638: 12633: 12628: 12623: 12618: 12613: 12608: 12603: 12598: 12593: 12588: 12582: 12580: 12576: 12575: 12573: 12572: 12567: 12561: 12559: 12552: 12546: 12545: 12542: 12541: 12539: 12538: 12533: 12531:Amos N. Wilson 12528: 12523: 12518: 12513: 12508: 12503: 12498: 12493: 12491:Runoko Rashidi 12488: 12483: 12481:George Padmore 12478: 12473: 12468: 12463: 12458: 12453: 12448: 12443: 12438: 12433: 12428: 12423: 12418: 12413: 12408: 12403: 12398: 12393: 12388: 12383: 12378: 12373: 12367: 12365: 12361: 12360: 12358: 12357: 12352: 12350:Robert Sobukwe 12347: 12345:Haile Selassie 12342: 12337: 12335:Thomas Sankara 12332: 12327: 12325:Julius Nyerere 12322: 12317: 12312: 12307: 12302: 12297: 12292: 12287: 12282: 12277: 12272: 12267: 12262: 12260:Kenneth Kaunda 12257: 12252: 12247: 12242: 12240:Anténor Firmin 12237: 12232: 12227: 12225:Amílcar Cabral 12222: 12220:Nnamdi Azikiwe 12217: 12212: 12206: 12204: 12197: 12191: 12190: 12187: 12186: 12184: 12183: 12178: 12171: 12164: 12157: 12152: 12146: 12144: 12140: 12139: 12137: 12136: 12131: 12129:Uhuru Movement 12126: 12121: 12116: 12111: 12106: 12101: 12096: 12091: 12086: 12080: 12078: 12071: 12067: 12066: 12063:Pan-Africanism 12059: 12058: 12051: 12044: 12036: 12030: 12029: 12024: 12011: 12002: 11990: 11984: 11979: 11974: 11962: 11956: 11937: 11926: 11917: 11912:Lanset, Andy, 11910: 11908:listen online: 11902: 11901:External links 11899: 11898: 11897: 11890: 11883: 11876: 11869: 11862: 11857:Martin, Tony. 11855: 11850:Martin, Tony. 11848: 11843:Martin, Tony. 11841: 11836:Martin, Tony. 11834: 11827: 11816: 11805: 11798: 11791: 11784: 11777: 11770: 11753: 11747: 11734: 11724:(3): 198–210. 11703: 11697: 11687:, ed. (1974). 11681: 11675: 11662: 11656: 11641: 11638: 11637: 11636: 11621: 11587: 11573: 11547: 11519: 11516: 11514: 11511: 11509: 11508: 11499: 11493: 11476: 11447: 11441: 11428: 11422: 11409: 11388: 11359: 11339:(2): 217–237. 11324: 11295: 11289: 11276: 11258:(4): 490–498. 11247: 11218: 11189: 11168: 11162: 11149: 11147:. 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(1987). 7035: 7033:, p. 372. 7018: 7006: 7004:, p. 371. 6994: 6992:, p. 370. 6982: 6970: 6968:, p. 369. 6958: 6956:, p. 368. 6946: 6944:, p. 367. 6931: 6929:, p. 160. 6919: 6917:, p. 366. 6907: 6895: 6893:, p. 365. 6883: 6881:, p. 364. 6871: 6869:, p. 363. 6859: 6847: 6835: 6833:, p. 347. 6823: 6811: 6799: 6787: 6781:, p. 49; 6771: 6769:, p. 354. 6756: 6754:, p. 306. 6744: 6742:, p. 305. 6732: 6720: 6718:, p. 352. 6708: 6696: 6694:, p. 333. 6681: 6669: 6657: 6655:, p. 355. 6642: 6640:, p. 336. 6630: 6618: 6616:, p. 334. 6606: 6585: 6565: 6548: 6541: 6521: 6519:, p. 320. 6509: 6497: 6495:, p. 329. 6485: 6483:, p. 101. 6473: 6471:, p. 325. 6461: 6449: 6447:, p. 327. 6437: 6435:, p. 328. 6422: 6420:, p. 324. 6410: 6408:, p. 324. 6394: 6378: 6366: 6354: 6348:, p. 88; 6338: 6336:, p. 290. 6326: 6314: 6312:, p. 289. 6299: 6283: 6264:(4): 713–716. 6244: 6222: 6220:, p. 321. 6216:, p. 84; 6206: 6204:, p. 241. 6200:, p. 81; 6190: 6188:, p. 233. 6184:, p. 57; 6174: 6172:, p. 228. 6162: 6160:, p. 227. 6150: 6138: 6136:, p. 222. 6126: 6124:, p. 215. 6114: 6108:, p. 55; 6104:, p. 53; 6094: 6082: 6070: 6064:, p. 76; 6054: 6052:, p. 195. 6039: 6037:, p. 194. 6027: 6015: 6013:, p. 210. 6003: 6001:, p. 188. 5991: 5989:, p. 187. 5975: 5973:, p. 187. 5963: 5948: 5946:, p. 257. 5936: 5934:, p. 278. 5924: 5922:, p. 240. 5912: 5910:, p. 239. 5893: 5878: 5876:, p. 238. 5866: 5854: 5852:, p. 226. 5839: 5837:, p. 236. 5824: 5822:, p. 225. 5809: 5807:, p. 224. 5794: 5792:, p. 218. 5782: 5780:, p. 214. 5770: 5758: 5744: 5738:, p. 75; 5728: 5726:, p. 199. 5716: 5710:, p. 75; 5700: 5688: 5686:, p. 281. 5676: 5674:, p. 276. 5661: 5649: 5639:, p. 66; 5629: 5627:, p. 266. 5623:, p. 67; 5613: 5611:, p. 243. 5601: 5599:, p. 262. 5589: 5587:, p. 243. 5583:, p. 67; 5573: 5571:, p. 245. 5561: 5559:, p. 243. 5555:, p. 69; 5545: 5539:, p. 62; 5529: 5527:, p. 345. 5517: 5515:, p. 234. 5502: 5496:, p. 60; 5486: 5484:, p. 230. 5480:, p. 56; 5476:, p. 60; 5466: 5454: 5452:, p. 360. 5442: 5440:, p. 219. 5430: 5428:, p. 119. 5418: 5414:Silvestri 2009 5406: 5404:, p. 198. 5400:, p. 49; 5390: 5388:, p. 197. 5375: 5373:, p. 197. 5369:, p. 49; 5359: 5347: 5345:, p. 186. 5341:, p. 61; 5331: 5329:, p. 155. 5316: 5314:, p. 298. 5301: 5289: 5287:, p. 248. 5277: 5275:, p. 326. 5265: 5263:, p. 223. 5250: 5238: 5236:, p. 303. 5226: 5224:, p. 174. 5214: 5212:, p. 165. 5199: 5197:, p. 299. 5187: 5185:, p. 164. 5170: 5168:, p. 157. 5158: 5156:, p. 158. 5146: 5134: 5132:, p. 125. 5122: 5110: 5098: 5096:, p. 172. 5086: 5074: 5072:, p. 166. 5062: 5060:, p. 147. 5050: 5048:, p. 146. 5038: 5036:, p. 154. 5026: 5024:, p. 153. 5014: 5012:, p. 143. 4997: 4985: 4983:, p. 148. 4973: 4971:, p. 139. 4961: 4959:, p. 139. 4955:, p. 48; 4945: 4943:, p. 136. 4933: 4931:, p. 137. 4921: 4919:, p. 138. 4904: 4892: 4890:, p. 135. 4880: 4878:, p. 117. 4874:, p. 43; 4864: 4852: 4850:, p. 108. 4840: 4838:, p. 108. 4834:, p. 43; 4824: 4812: 4810:, p. 105. 4800: 4798:, p. 104. 4788: 4786:, p. 102. 4782:, p. 45; 4772: 4760: 4748: 4736: 4724: 4718:, p. 41; 4708: 4702:, p. 43; 4692: 4680: 4668: 4662:, p. 46; 4652: 4650:, p. 117. 4631: 4625:, p. 46; 4617:, p. 42; 4607: 4601:, p. 42; 4591: 4579: 4567: 4561:, p. 39; 4557:, p. 40; 4547: 4535: 4519: 4505:, p. 67; 4495: 4483: 4471: 4455: 4443: 4437:, p. 34; 4433:, p. 18; 4423: 4411: 4399: 4387: 4381:, p. 30; 4371: 4355: 4340: 4334:, p. 34; 4324: 4314:, p. 19; 4304: 4298:, p. 33; 4294:, p. 18; 4284: 4268: 4262:, p. 30; 4258:, p. 18; 4248: 4246:, p. xii. 4229: 4217: 4200: 4194:, p. 33; 4190:, p. 18; 4180: 4164: 4149: 4134: 4128:, p. 53; 4124:, p. 27; 4114: 4099: 4083: 4077:, p. 22; 4067: 4047: 4031: 4019: 4007: 3995: 3983: 3977:, p. 19; 3963: 3947: 3935: 3929:, p. 40; 3915: 3903: 3897:, p. 18; 3887: 3875: 3869:, p. 19; 3859: 3844: 3828: 3822:, p. 15; 3812: 3806:, p. 16; 3798:, p. 15; 3788: 3772: 3760: 3748: 3742:, p. 16; 3732: 3720: 3708: 3702:, p. 15; 3694:, p. 14; 3684: 3672: 3656: 3650:, p. 12; 3640: 3628: 3622:, p. 23; 3618:, p. 13; 3614:, p. 13; 3604: 3589: 3583:, p. 14; 3569: 3557: 3551:, p. 11; 3547:, p. 13; 3537: 3531:, p. 13; 3521: 3515:, p. 11; 3507:, p. 13; 3497: 3490: 3472: 3460: 3448: 3432: 3415: 3409:, p. 11; 3401:, p. 12; 3391: 3376: 3370:, p. 10; 3366:, p. 11; 3356: 3336: 3320: 3308: 3296: 3284: 3272: 3266:, p. 38; 3256: 3240: 3224: 3207: 3197:, p. 38; 3187: 3172: 3160: 3148: 3146:, p. 168. 3133: 3107: 3091: 3067: 3041: 3040: 3038: 3035: 3033: 3030: 3029: 3028: 3023: 3018: 3011: 3006: 3002:The Black King 2998: 2993: 2987: 2986: 2972: 2958: 2955:Jamaica portal 2942: 2939: 2934:A Strange Loop 2859:Charles Rangel 2821: 2818: 2814:Leonard Howell 2805:Haile Selassie 2775:Noble Drew Ali 2762: 2759: 2657: 2654: 2596: 2552:modern history 2529: 2527: 2524: 2447: 2444: 2396: 2394: 2391: 2383:Grace Campbell 2342:social justice 2326: 2324: 2323:Economic views 2321: 2314:George Reisner 2245: 2203:Pan-Africanism 2198: 2197:Pan-Africanism 2195: 2163: 2135: 2132: 2128:Mahatma Gandhi 2116:Roger Casement 2032: 2030: 2027: 1981: 1978: 1959:George Padmore 1955:C. L. R. James 1900: 1897: 1846:Haile Selassie 1795: 1792: 1790: 1787: 1783:SS Santa Maria 1685: 1682: 1637: 1627: 1624: 1560: 1557: 1511: 1437:The steamship 1430: 1427: 1298: 1296: 1293: 1259: 1253: 1242: 1237: 1236: 1235: 1226: 1225: 1224: 1199: 1196: 1160:decolonization 1057:talented tenth 1039: 1036: 1010:following the 992:Woodrow Wilson 922: 919: 875:Afro-Caribbean 837: 834: 794: 719: 717: 714: 712: 709: 701:Afro-Caribbean 673:British Museum 604:British Empire 565:Limón Province 556: 553: 517:Sydney Olivier 502:trade unionist 482: 479: 414: 411: 409: 406: 371:anti-socialist 254:trade unionism 231:Pan-Africanist 209: 208: 205: 201: 200: 188: 182: 181: 180: 179: 162: 158: 153: 152: 151: 150: 147: 145: 141: 140: 138:Pan-Africanism 127: 126:Known for 123: 122: 119: 115: 114: 109: 105: 104: 98: 96:(aged 52) 90: 86: 85: 76: 74:17 August 1887 63: 61: 57: 56: 53: 45: 44: 39: 36: 31: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13171: 13160: 13157: 13155: 13152: 13150: 13147: 13145: 13142: 13140: 13137: 13135: 13132: 13130: 13127: 13125: 13122: 13120: 13117: 13115: 13112: 13110: 13107: 13105: 13102: 13100: 13097: 13095: 13092: 13090: 13087: 13085: 13082: 13080: 13077: 13075: 13072: 13070: 13067: 13065: 13062: 13060: 13057: 13055: 13052: 13050: 13047: 13045: 13042: 13040: 13037: 13035: 13032: 13030: 13027: 13025: 13022: 13020: 13017: 13015: 13012: 13010: 13007: 13005: 13002: 13000: 12997: 12995: 12992: 12990: 12987: 12985: 12982: 12980: 12977: 12976: 12974: 12959: 12956: 12954: 12953:Marcus Garvey 12950: 12948: 12945: 12943: 12940: 12938: 12935: 12933: 12930: 12927: 12924: 12922: 12918: 12917: 12914: 12905: 12900: 12898: 12893: 12891: 12886: 12885: 12882: 12870: 12860: 12858: 12853: 12848: 12846: 12838: 12836: 12828: 12827: 12824: 12818: 12815: 12813: 12810: 12808: 12805: 12803: 12800: 12798: 12795: 12793: 12790: 12788: 12785: 12783: 12780: 12778: 12775: 12773: 12770: 12769: 12767: 12763: 12757: 12754: 12752: 12749: 12747: 12744: 12742: 12739: 12738: 12736: 12732: 12726: 12723: 12721: 12718: 12716: 12715:Lion of Judah 12713: 12711: 12710: 12706: 12704: 12701: 12700: 12698: 12694: 12684: 12681: 12679: 12676: 12674: 12673: 12669: 12667: 12664: 12662: 12659: 12657: 12654: 12652: 12649: 12647: 12644: 12642: 12639: 12637: 12634: 12632: 12629: 12627: 12624: 12622: 12619: 12617: 12614: 12612: 12609: 12607: 12604: 12602: 12599: 12597: 12594: 12592: 12591:African Union 12589: 12587: 12584: 12583: 12581: 12577: 12571: 12568: 12566: 12563: 12562: 12560: 12556: 12553: 12551: 12550:Organizations 12547: 12537: 12534: 12532: 12529: 12527: 12524: 12522: 12519: 12517: 12514: 12512: 12511:Burning Spear 12509: 12507: 12506:Walter Rodney 12504: 12502: 12499: 12497: 12494: 12492: 12489: 12487: 12486:Motsoko Pheko 12484: 12482: 12479: 12477: 12474: 12472: 12469: 12467: 12466:Archie Mafeje 12464: 12462: 12459: 12457: 12454: 12452: 12451:Alice Kinloch 12449: 12447: 12444: 12442: 12439: 12437: 12434: 12432: 12429: 12427: 12424: 12422: 12419: 12417: 12414: 12412: 12409: 12407: 12404: 12402: 12399: 12397: 12394: 12392: 12389: 12387: 12384: 12382: 12379: 12377: 12374: 12372: 12369: 12368: 12366: 12362: 12356: 12353: 12351: 12348: 12346: 12343: 12341: 12338: 12336: 12333: 12331: 12328: 12326: 12323: 12321: 12320:Kwame Nkrumah 12318: 12316: 12313: 12311: 12308: 12306: 12305:Robert Mugabe 12303: 12301: 12298: 12296: 12293: 12291: 12288: 12286: 12285:Samora Machel 12283: 12281: 12278: 12276: 12273: 12271: 12270:Jomo Kenyatta 12268: 12266: 12263: 12261: 12258: 12256: 12253: 12251: 12250:Marcus Garvey 12248: 12246: 12243: 12241: 12238: 12236: 12233: 12231: 12228: 12226: 12223: 12221: 12218: 12216: 12213: 12211: 12208: 12207: 12205: 12201: 12198: 12196: 12192: 12182: 12179: 12177: 12176: 12172: 12170: 12169: 12165: 12163: 12162: 12158: 12156: 12153: 12151: 12148: 12147: 12145: 12141: 12135: 12132: 12130: 12127: 12125: 12122: 12120: 12117: 12115: 12112: 12110: 12107: 12105: 12102: 12100: 12097: 12095: 12092: 12090: 12087: 12085: 12082: 12081: 12079: 12075: 12072: 12068: 12064: 12057: 12052: 12050: 12045: 12043: 12038: 12037: 12034: 12028: 12025: 12023: 12019: 12015: 12012: 12010: 12006: 12003: 12001: 12000:, August 1922 11999: 11995: 11991: 11988: 11985: 11983: 11980: 11978: 11975: 11973: 11969: 11966: 11963: 11960: 11957: 11954: 11950: 11946: 11943: 11942: 11938: 11935: 11931: 11927: 11925: 11921: 11920:Marcus Garvey 11918: 11915: 11911: 11909: 11905: 11904: 11895: 11891: 11888: 11884: 11881: 11877: 11874: 11870: 11867: 11863: 11860: 11856: 11853: 11849: 11846: 11842: 11839: 11835: 11832: 11828: 11825: 11821: 11817: 11814: 11810: 11806: 11803: 11799: 11796: 11792: 11789: 11785: 11782: 11778: 11775: 11771: 11767: 11763: 11759: 11754: 11750: 11744: 11740: 11735: 11731: 11727: 11723: 11719: 11712: 11708: 11704: 11700: 11694: 11690: 11686: 11682: 11678: 11672: 11668: 11663: 11659: 11653: 11649: 11644: 11643: 11634: 11633:0-520-20211-2 11630: 11626: 11622: 11619: 11618:9780520342224 11615: 11611: 11607: 11604:. (Volume 1: 11603: 11602:0-520-07208-1 11599: 11595: 11591: 11588: 11585: 11584:0-912469-02-1 11581: 11577: 11574: 11571: 11570:0-912469-19-6 11567: 11563: 11559: 11555: 11553: 11548: 11545: 11544:0-405-01873-8 11541: 11537: 11536:0-912469-24-2 11533: 11529: 11525: 11522: 11521: 11505: 11500: 11496: 11490: 11486: 11482: 11477: 11473: 11469: 11465: 11461: 11457: 11453: 11448: 11444: 11438: 11434: 11429: 11425: 11419: 11415: 11410: 11406: 11402: 11398: 11394: 11389: 11385: 11381: 11377: 11373: 11369: 11365: 11360: 11356: 11352: 11347: 11342: 11338: 11334: 11330: 11325: 11321: 11317: 11313: 11309: 11305: 11301: 11296: 11292: 11286: 11282: 11277: 11273: 11269: 11265: 11261: 11257: 11253: 11248: 11244: 11240: 11236: 11232: 11228: 11224: 11219: 11215: 11211: 11207: 11203: 11199: 11195: 11190: 11186: 11182: 11178: 11174: 11169: 11165: 11159: 11155: 11150: 11146: 11141: 11136: 11135: 11128: 11117: 11113: 11108: 11104: 11098: 11094: 11089: 11085: 11081: 11077: 11073: 11070:(46): 14–19. 11069: 11064: 11060: 11056: 11052: 11048: 11044: 11040: 11036: 11032: 11027: 11023: 11017: 11012: 11011: 11004: 11000: 10996: 10992: 10988: 10984: 10980: 10975: 10971: 10965: 10961: 10956: 10944: 10940: 10936: 10932: 10928: 10924: 10919: 10915: 10909: 10905: 10900: 10896: 10892: 10888: 10884: 10880: 10876: 10872: 10868: 10863: 10859: 10857:1-57392-963-8 10853: 10849: 10844: 10843: 10822: 10818: 10811: 10803: 10797: 10782: 10778: 10771: 10756: 10749: 10733: 10732:FOX 2 Detroit 10729: 10723: 10708: 10704: 10698: 10690: 10686: 10679: 10664: 10660: 10653: 10638: 10634: 10628: 10612: 10608: 10602: 10594: 10593: 10586: 10571: 10567: 10561: 10545: 10538: 10523: 10522: 10517: 10510: 10494: 10490: 10484: 10469: 10465: 10458: 10451: 10447: 10443: 10440: 10434: 10419: 10415: 10409: 10401: 10397: 10390: 10374: 10370: 10364: 10348: 10344: 10340: 10334: 10327: 10322: 10316:, p. 60. 10315: 10310: 10303: 10298: 10291: 10286: 10279: 10274: 10267: 10262: 10255: 10251: 10247: 10242: 10235: 10230: 10223: 10218: 10212:, p. 44. 10211: 10206: 10199: 10198:Cashmore 1983 10194: 10188:, p. 39. 10187: 10182: 10175: 10171: 10166: 10159: 10155: 10150: 10134: 10130: 10126: 10120: 10114:, p. 99. 10113: 10108: 10106: 10098: 10093: 10086: 10081: 10074: 10069: 10061: 10055: 10051: 10050: 10042: 10035: 10029: 10022: 10018: 10014: 10011: 10006: 10000:, p. 32. 9999: 9994: 9987: 9982: 9975: 9970: 9963: 9958: 9956: 9954: 9952: 9945:, p. 38. 9944: 9939: 9933:, p. 74. 9932: 9927: 9920: 9915: 9908: 9903: 9896: 9891: 9889: 9881: 9876: 9869: 9864: 9857: 9851: 9849: 9841: 9836: 9829: 9824: 9817: 9813: 9808: 9801: 9796: 9789: 9784: 9777: 9772: 9765: 9760: 9753: 9748: 9746: 9738: 9734: 9729: 9722: 9717: 9710: 9705: 9699:, p. 17. 9698: 9693: 9686: 9681: 9675:, p. 37. 9674: 9669: 9662: 9657: 9650: 9645: 9637: 9633: 9626: 9610: 9606: 9600: 9593: 9588: 9581: 9576: 9570:, p. 76. 9569: 9564: 9558:, p. xi. 9557: 9552: 9550: 9542: 9537: 9530: 9525: 9518: 9513: 9506: 9501: 9494: 9489: 9482: 9477: 9470: 9465: 9463: 9455: 9450: 9443: 9438: 9436: 9434: 9427:, p. xi. 9426: 9422: 9417: 9411:, p. 70. 9410: 9405: 9399:, p. 14. 9398: 9393: 9387:, p. 89. 9386: 9381: 9375:, p. 32. 9374: 9369: 9367: 9359: 9356:, p. 4; 9355: 9350: 9343: 9338: 9331: 9326: 9320:, p. 69. 9319: 9314: 9307: 9302: 9295: 9290: 9284:, p. 44. 9283: 9278: 9276: 9274: 9266: 9261: 9259: 9257: 9249: 9244: 9237: 9232: 9225: 9220: 9214:, p. 59. 9213: 9208: 9201: 9196: 9189: 9184: 9182: 9174: 9171:, p. 3; 9170: 9166: 9161: 9154: 9149: 9142: 9137: 9130: 9126: 9121: 9115:, p. 50. 9114: 9109: 9107: 9105: 9097: 9092: 9090: 9088: 9086: 9084: 9077:, p. 43. 9076: 9071: 9069: 9067: 9060:, p. 42. 9059: 9054: 9047: 9042: 9035: 9030: 9028: 9020: 9015: 9013: 9005: 9000: 8994:, p. 18. 8993: 8988: 8981: 8977: 8973: 8968: 8961: 8957: 8952: 8946:, p. 47. 8945: 8940: 8934:, p. 66. 8933: 8928: 8921: 8916: 8910:, p. 51. 8909: 8904: 8897: 8892: 8890: 8888: 8886: 8878: 8872: 8870: 8862: 8857: 8851:, p. 35. 8850: 8845: 8838: 8833: 8826: 8825: 8820: 8814: 8808:, p. 66. 8807: 8802: 8796:, p. 31. 8795: 8791: 8787: 8782: 8775: 8770: 8768: 8766: 8759:, p. 45. 8758: 8753: 8751: 8742: 8738: 8734: 8727: 8720: 8715: 8709:, p. 41. 8708: 8703: 8697:, p. 68. 8696: 8691: 8689: 8681: 8676: 8670:, p. 11. 8669: 8664: 8658:, p. 46. 8657: 8652: 8650: 8648: 8646: 8644: 8637:, p. 67. 8636: 8631: 8624: 8619: 8617: 8615: 8607: 8603: 8598: 8591: 8586: 8584: 8576: 8571: 8569: 8567: 8565: 8557: 8552: 8550: 8548: 8540: 8535: 8529:, p. 65. 8528: 8523: 8516: 8511: 8509: 8501: 8496: 8489: 8484: 8476: 8470: 8466: 8465: 8457: 8450: 8446: 8441: 8434: 8429: 8427: 8419: 8414: 8406: 8402: 8397: 8392: 8388: 8384: 8380: 8373: 8371: 8363: 8358: 8351: 8346: 8344: 8337:, p. 67. 8336: 8331: 8324: 8320: 8315: 8309:, p. 68. 8308: 8303: 8296: 8292: 8289: 8284: 8277: 8273: 8268: 8261: 8256: 8254: 8252: 8250: 8248: 8240: 8235: 8228: 8223: 8221: 8213: 8208: 8206: 8204: 8196: 8191: 8189: 8187: 8185: 8177: 8172: 8165: 8160: 8153: 8148: 8141: 8136: 8129: 8124: 8117: 8112: 8105: 8100: 8093: 8088: 8081: 8076: 8069: 8064: 8062: 8054: 8049: 8042: 8037: 8035: 8027: 8022: 8015: 8010: 8003: 7998: 7996: 7988: 7983: 7976: 7971: 7964: 7959: 7952: 7947: 7940: 7935: 7933: 7925: 7920: 7913: 7908: 7901: 7896: 7894: 7886: 7881: 7879: 7877: 7869: 7865: 7860: 7853: 7848: 7841: 7837: 7832: 7825: 7820: 7813: 7808: 7801: 7796: 7794: 7792: 7784: 7779: 7772: 7767: 7759: 7755: 7751: 7747: 7743: 7739: 7735: 7728: 7726: 7718: 7713: 7706: 7701: 7694: 7689: 7673: 7667: 7660: 7655: 7648: 7643: 7636: 7631: 7624: 7619: 7612: 7607: 7600: 7595: 7588: 7583: 7581: 7579: 7571: 7566: 7559: 7555: 7550: 7543: 7538: 7531: 7526: 7524: 7516: 7511: 7504: 7499: 7492: 7487: 7480: 7475: 7468: 7463: 7456: 7451: 7444: 7439: 7432: 7427: 7420: 7415: 7408: 7403: 7396: 7391: 7384: 7379: 7377: 7369: 7364: 7357: 7352: 7345: 7340: 7333: 7328: 7321: 7316: 7309: 7304: 7297: 7292: 7285: 7281: 7276: 7269: 7264: 7257: 7252: 7245: 7240: 7233: 7228: 7221: 7216: 7209: 7204: 7197: 7192: 7185: 7180: 7173: 7168: 7166: 7158: 7153: 7146: 7141: 7134: 7129: 7122: 7117: 7110: 7105: 7103: 7094: 7090: 7086: 7079: 7064: 7058: 7054: 7053: 7048: 7042: 7040: 7032: 7027: 7025: 7023: 7015: 7010: 7003: 6998: 6991: 6986: 6979: 6974: 6967: 6962: 6955: 6950: 6943: 6938: 6936: 6928: 6923: 6916: 6911: 6904: 6899: 6892: 6887: 6880: 6875: 6868: 6863: 6856: 6851: 6844: 6839: 6832: 6827: 6820: 6815: 6808: 6803: 6796: 6791: 6784: 6780: 6775: 6768: 6763: 6761: 6753: 6748: 6741: 6736: 6729: 6724: 6717: 6712: 6705: 6700: 6693: 6688: 6686: 6678: 6673: 6666: 6661: 6654: 6649: 6647: 6639: 6634: 6627: 6622: 6615: 6610: 6602: 6596: 6588: 6582: 6578: 6577: 6569: 6563:, p. 71. 6562: 6557: 6555: 6553: 6544: 6538: 6534: 6533: 6525: 6518: 6513: 6506: 6501: 6494: 6489: 6482: 6477: 6470: 6465: 6458: 6453: 6446: 6441: 6434: 6429: 6427: 6419: 6414: 6407: 6403: 6398: 6391: 6387: 6382: 6375: 6370: 6363: 6358: 6351: 6347: 6342: 6335: 6330: 6323: 6318: 6311: 6306: 6304: 6296: 6292: 6287: 6279: 6275: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6255: 6248: 6232: 6226: 6219: 6215: 6210: 6203: 6199: 6194: 6187: 6183: 6178: 6171: 6166: 6159: 6154: 6147: 6142: 6135: 6130: 6123: 6118: 6111: 6107: 6103: 6098: 6091: 6086: 6079: 6074: 6067: 6063: 6058: 6051: 6046: 6044: 6036: 6031: 6024: 6019: 6012: 6007: 6000: 5995: 5988: 5984: 5979: 5972: 5967: 5961:, p. 54. 5960: 5955: 5953: 5945: 5940: 5933: 5928: 5921: 5916: 5909: 5904: 5902: 5900: 5898: 5890: 5885: 5883: 5875: 5870: 5863: 5858: 5851: 5846: 5844: 5836: 5831: 5829: 5821: 5816: 5814: 5806: 5801: 5799: 5791: 5786: 5779: 5774: 5767: 5762: 5754: 5748: 5741: 5737: 5732: 5725: 5720: 5713: 5709: 5704: 5697: 5692: 5685: 5680: 5673: 5668: 5666: 5658: 5653: 5647:, p. 36. 5646: 5642: 5638: 5633: 5626: 5622: 5617: 5610: 5605: 5598: 5593: 5586: 5582: 5577: 5570: 5565: 5558: 5554: 5549: 5542: 5538: 5533: 5526: 5521: 5514: 5509: 5507: 5499: 5495: 5490: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5470: 5463: 5458: 5451: 5446: 5439: 5434: 5427: 5422: 5416:, p. 32. 5415: 5410: 5403: 5399: 5394: 5387: 5382: 5380: 5372: 5368: 5363: 5356: 5351: 5344: 5340: 5335: 5328: 5323: 5321: 5313: 5308: 5306: 5298: 5293: 5286: 5281: 5274: 5269: 5262: 5257: 5255: 5247: 5242: 5235: 5230: 5223: 5218: 5211: 5206: 5204: 5196: 5191: 5184: 5179: 5177: 5175: 5167: 5162: 5155: 5150: 5143: 5138: 5131: 5126: 5119: 5114: 5107: 5102: 5095: 5090: 5083: 5078: 5071: 5066: 5059: 5054: 5047: 5042: 5035: 5030: 5023: 5018: 5011: 5006: 5004: 5002: 4995:, p. 64. 4994: 4989: 4982: 4977: 4970: 4965: 4958: 4954: 4949: 4942: 4937: 4930: 4925: 4918: 4913: 4911: 4909: 4902:, p. 46. 4901: 4896: 4889: 4884: 4877: 4873: 4868: 4861: 4856: 4849: 4844: 4837: 4833: 4828: 4821: 4816: 4809: 4804: 4797: 4792: 4785: 4781: 4776: 4769: 4764: 4758:, p. 98. 4757: 4752: 4745: 4740: 4734:, p. 93. 4733: 4728: 4722:, p. 93. 4721: 4717: 4712: 4705: 4701: 4696: 4690:, p. 91. 4689: 4684: 4678:, p. 90. 4677: 4672: 4665: 4661: 4656: 4649: 4644: 4642: 4640: 4638: 4636: 4629:, p. 87. 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4611: 4605:, p. 86. 4604: 4600: 4595: 4588: 4583: 4577:, p. 83. 4576: 4571: 4565:, p. 80. 4564: 4560: 4556: 4551: 4544: 4539: 4532: 4528: 4523: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4507:Cashmore 1983 4504: 4499: 4492: 4487: 4481:, p. 66. 4480: 4475: 4469:, p. 64. 4468: 4464: 4459: 4452: 4447: 4441:, p. 60. 4440: 4436: 4432: 4427: 4421:, p. 18. 4420: 4415: 4408: 4403: 4396: 4391: 4385:, p. 57. 4384: 4380: 4375: 4369:, p. 62. 4368: 4364: 4359: 4353:, p. 63. 4352: 4347: 4345: 4338:, p. 59. 4337: 4333: 4328: 4322:, p. 69. 4321: 4317: 4313: 4308: 4302:, p. 60. 4301: 4297: 4293: 4288: 4282:, p. 56. 4281: 4277: 4272: 4266:, p. 56. 4265: 4261: 4257: 4252: 4245: 4240: 4238: 4236: 4234: 4227:, p. 59. 4226: 4221: 4215:, p. 54. 4214: 4209: 4207: 4205: 4198:, p. 54. 4197: 4193: 4189: 4184: 4178:, p. 53. 4177: 4173: 4168: 4162:, p. 61. 4161: 4156: 4154: 4147:, p. 56. 4146: 4141: 4139: 4132:, p. 58. 4131: 4127: 4123: 4118: 4112:, p. 64. 4111: 4106: 4104: 4097:, p. 52. 4096: 4092: 4087: 4081:, p. 49. 4080: 4076: 4071: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4051: 4045:, p. 49. 4044: 4040: 4035: 4029:, p. 49. 4028: 4023: 4016: 4011: 4005:, p. 46. 4004: 3999: 3992: 3987: 3981:, p. 45. 3980: 3976: 3973:, p. 7; 3972: 3967: 3961:, p. 43. 3960: 3956: 3951: 3945:, p. 40. 3944: 3939: 3933:, p. 53. 3932: 3928: 3924: 3919: 3913:, p. 45. 3912: 3907: 3901:, p. 38. 3900: 3896: 3891: 3884: 3879: 3873:, p. 36. 3872: 3868: 3863: 3857:, p. 36. 3856: 3851: 3849: 3841: 3837: 3832: 3826:, p. 32. 3825: 3821: 3816: 3810:, p. 31. 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3792: 3786:, p. 31. 3785: 3781: 3776: 3770:, p. 31. 3769: 3764: 3757: 3752: 3746:, p. 30. 3745: 3741: 3736: 3730:, p. 29. 3729: 3724: 3717: 3712: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3688: 3682:, p. 24. 3681: 3676: 3669: 3665: 3660: 3653: 3649: 3644: 3638:, p. 23. 3637: 3632: 3626:, p. 30. 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3608: 3602:, p. 21. 3601: 3596: 3594: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3573: 3567:, p. 19. 3566: 3561: 3555:, p. 20. 3554: 3550: 3546: 3541: 3535:, p. 19. 3534: 3530: 3525: 3519:, p. 18. 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3501: 3493: 3487: 3483: 3476: 3470:, p. 18. 3469: 3464: 3457: 3452: 3445: 3441: 3436: 3430:, p. 17. 3429: 3424: 3422: 3420: 3413:, p. 16. 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3395: 3389:, p. 14. 3388: 3383: 3381: 3374:, p. 13. 3373: 3369: 3365: 3360: 3353: 3349: 3346:, p. 8; 3345: 3340: 3334:, p. 10. 3333: 3330:, p. 9; 3329: 3324: 3318:, p. 11. 3317: 3312: 3306:, p. 13. 3305: 3300: 3293: 3288: 3282:, p. 10. 3281: 3276: 3269: 3265: 3260: 3253: 3250:, p. 7; 3249: 3244: 3238:, p. 12. 3237: 3233: 3228: 3222:, p. 39. 3221: 3216: 3214: 3212: 3204: 3201:, p. 8; 3200: 3196: 3191: 3184: 3179: 3177: 3169: 3164: 3157: 3152: 3145: 3140: 3138: 3121: 3117: 3111: 3105:, p. 55. 3104: 3101:, p. 5; 3100: 3095: 3088: 3085:, p. 8; 3084: 3080: 3077:, p. 4; 3076: 3071: 3056: 3052: 3046: 3042: 3027: 3024: 3022: 3019: 3017: 3016: 3012: 3010: 3007: 3005: 3003: 2999: 2997: 2994: 2992: 2989: 2988: 2984: 2973: 2970: 2959: 2956: 2945: 2938: 2936: 2935: 2931:Best Musical 2930: 2926: 2921: 2920: 2916: 2911: 2909: 2904: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2881: 2879: 2875: 2870: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2855: 2853: 2849: 2844: 2842: 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1955 4599:Martin 1983 4559:Martin 1983 4555:Cronon 1955 4527:Martin 1983 4503:Cronon 1955 4463:Martin 1983 4435:Martin 1983 4431:Cronon 1955 4419:Cronon 1955 4379:Martin 1983 4363:Martin 1983 4332:Martin 1983 4316:Martin 1983 4312:Cronon 1955 4296:Martin 1983 4292:Cronon 1955 4276:Martin 1983 4260:Martin 1983 4256:Cronon 1955 4192:Martin 1983 4188:Cronon 1955 4172:Martin 1983 4122:Martin 1983 4091:Martin 1983 4075:Martin 1983 4055:Martin 1983 4039:Martin 1983 3975:Martin 1983 3971:Cronon 1955 3955:Martin 1983 3895:Martin 1983 3867:Martin 1983 3820:Cronon 1955 3804:Martin 1983 3796:Cronon 1955 3740:Martin 1983 3700:Martin 1983 3692:Cronon 1955 3664:Martin 1983 3648:Martin 1983 3624:Fergus 2010 3616:Martin 1983 3612:Cronon 1955 3581:Martin 1983 3577:Cronon 1955 3549:Martin 1983 3545:Cronon 1955 3529:Cronon 1955 3513:Martin 1983 3505:Cronon 1955 3440:Cronon 1955 3407:Martin 1983 3399:Cronon 1955 3368:Martin 1983 3364:Cronon 1955 3352:Martin 1983 3344:Cronon 1955 3328:Martin 1983 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