29:
707:: It leads to increase in dislocation density in the materials which in turn assists in the ease of formation of intermetallic precipitates due to availability of faster diffusion pathways through the dislocation cores. It has been observed that plastic deformation before aging leads to reduced peak aging time and increase in peak hardness. Precipitate morphology in severely plastically deformed steel changes and becomes plate-like when overaged which is attributed to higher dislocation density. This in turn leads to significant reduction in ductility and increase in strength of the material. Along with morphology, the orientation of precipitates also play an important role in micromechanism of deformation as they induce
672:. Along with the processing parameters, the type of heat treatment subjected to LPBF steels also play an important role. It is observed that processing parameters which have a higher magnitude reduce the relative density of the sample due to rapid vaporization or creation of voids and pores. It is also observed that the microhardness and strength of the steel decreases after solution treatment due to
298:
manganese has a similar effect as nickel, i.e. it stabilizes the austenite phase. Hence, depending on their manganese content, Fe-Mn maraging steels can be fully martensitic after quenching them from the high temperature austenite phase or they can contain retained austenite. The latter effect enables the design of maraging-TRIP steels where TRIP stands for
Transformation-Induced-Plasticity.
660:. The materials can be tailored to have specific mechanical properties by optimizing the process parameters associated with LPBF. It has been observed that processing parameters such as laser scanning speed, power and the scanning space can have significant effects on the mechanical properties of 300 maraging steel such as
958:. Testing has shown that the blade-breakage patterns in carbon steel and maraging steel are identical due to the similarity in the loading mode during bending. Additionally, a crack is likely to start at the same point and propagate along the same path (although much more slowly), as crack propagation in
725:
and have maximum service temperatures of over 400 °C (750 °F). They are suitable for engine components, such as crankshafts and gears, and the firing pins of automatic weapons that cycle from hot to cool repeatedly while under substantial load. Their uniform expansion and easy machinability
694:
compounds after aging process lead to marked increase in yield and ultimate tensile strength but substantial reduction in ductility of the material. This change in macroscopic behavior of the material can be linked to the evolution of microstructure from dimple to quasi-cleavage fracture morphology.
297:
when heat treated, while lower-nickel steels can transform to martensite. Alternative variants of nickel-reduced maraging steels are based on alloys of iron and manganese plus minor additions of aluminium, nickel and titanium where compositions between Fe-9wt% Mn to Fe-15wt% Mn have been used. The
645:
where precipitates hinder dislocation motion via Orowan mechanism or dislocation bowing lead to increase in the ultimate tensile strength of maraging steels. Aging is also beneficial for reducing the microstructural heterogeneities which may occur due to non-uniform thermal distribution along the
720:
Maraging steel's strength and malleability in the pre-aged stage allows it to be formed into thinner rocket and missile skins than other steels, reducing weight for a given strength. Maraging steels have very stable properties and, even after overaging due to excessive temperature, only soften
689:
Mo. The impact toughness increases after solution treatment but decreases after aging treatment, which can be attributed to the underlying microstructure consisting of tiny precipitates acting as regions of stress concentrators for crack formation. Formation of nanoscale precipitates of
515:
That family is known as the 18Ni maraging steels, from its nickel percentage. There is also a family of cobalt-free maraging steels which are cheaper but not quite as strong; one example is Fe-18.9Ni-4.1Mo-1.9Ti. There has been
Russian and Japanese research in Fe-Ni-Mn maraging alloys.
325:
the alloy has very little dimensional change, so it is often machined to its final dimensions. Due to the high alloy content maraging steels have a high hardenability. Since ductile FeNi martensites are formed upon cooling, cracks are non-existent or negligible. The steels can be
1442:
1044:
Raabe, D.; Sandlöbes, S.; Millan, J. J.; Ponge, D.; Assadi, H.; Herbig, M.; Choi, P.P. (2013), "Segregation engineering enables nanoscale martensite to austenite phase transformation at grain boundaries: A pathway to ductile martensite",
676:
reversion and disappearance of cellular microstructure. On the other hand, aging treatment after solution treatment increases the microhardness and tensile strength of steel which is attributed to formation of precipitates such as
1202:
Xu, Xiangfang; Ganguly, Supriyo; Ding, Jialuo; Guo, Shun; Williams, Stewart; Martina, Filomeno (2018), "Microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of maraging steel produced by wire + arc additive manufacture process",
1080:
Dmitrieva, O.; Ponge, D.; Inden, G.; Millan, J.; Choi, P.; Sietsma, J.; Raabe, D. (2011), "Chemical gradients across phase boundaries between martensite and austenite in steel studied by atom probe tomography and simulation",
1300:
Mutua, James; Nakata, Shinya; Onda, Tetsuhiko; Chen, Zhong-Chun (2018), "Optimization of selective laser melting parameters and influence of post heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of maraging steel",
595:
can be tailored for different applications using various processing techniques. Some of the most widely used processing techniques for manufacturing and tuning of mechanical behavior of maraging steels are listed as follows:
284:
The common, non-stainless grades contain 17–19 wt% nickel, 8–12 wt% cobalt, 3–5 wt% molybdenum and 0.2–1.6 wt% titanium. Addition of chromium produces stainless grades resistant to corrosion. This also indirectly increases
603:: As described in the section of Heat treatment cycle, the maraging steel is heated to a specific temperature range, after which it is quenched rapidly. In this step the alloying elements are dissolved, and a homogeneous
1406:
Jacob, Kevin; Roy, Abhinav; Gururajan, MP; Jaya, B Nagamani (2022), "Effect of dislocation network on precipitate morphology and deformation behaviour in maraging steels: modelling and experimental validation",
1371:
Tian, Jialong; Wang, Wei; Li, Huabing; Shahzad, M Babar; Shan, Yiyin; Jiang, Zhouhua; Yang, Ke (2019), "Effect of deformation on precipitation hardening behavior of a maraging steel in the aging process",
1247:
Bai, Yuchao; Yang, Yongqiang; Wang, Di; Zhang, Mingkang (2017), "Influence mechanism of parameters process and mechanical properties evolution mechanism of maraging steel 300 by selective laser melting",
1605:
Ernie Ball M-Steel
Electric Guitar Strings are made of a patented Super Cobalt alloy wrapped around a Maraging steel hex core wire, producing a richer and fuller tone with a powerful low-end response.
1189:
Military
Specification 46850D: STEEL : BAR, PLATE, SHEET, STRIP, FORGINGS, AND EXTRUSIONS, 18 PERCENT NICKEL ALLOY, MARAGING, 200 KSI, 250 KSI, 300 KSI, AND 350 KSI, HIGH QUALITY, available from
552:
elements added for such precipitation. Overaging leads to a reduction in stability of the primary, metastable, coherent precipitates, leading to their dissolution and replacement with semi-coherent
793:
The production, import, and export of maraging steels by certain entities, such as the United States, is closely monitored by international authorities because it is particularly suited for use in
567:
Newer compositions of maraging steels have revealed other intermetallic stoichiometries and crystallographic relationships with the parent martensite, including rhombohedral and massive complex Ni
757:
because crack propagation in maraging steel is 10 times slower than in carbon steel, resulting in less frequent breaking of the blade and fewer injuries. Stainless maraging steel is used in
699:
matrix and lead to change in the grain orientation. Aging can reduce the plastic anisotropy to some extent, but directionality of properties is largely influenced by its fabrication history.
641:
contribute to improvement of mechanical behavior by activating various strengthening mechanisms related to hindering of dislocation motion by precipitates. Strengthening mechanisms such as
765:
club heads. It is also used in surgical components and hypodermic syringes, but is not suitable for scalpel blades because the lack of carbon prevents it from holding a good cutting edge.
1327:
Mooney, Barry; Kourousis, Kyriakos I; Raghavendra, Ramesh (2019), "Plastic anisotropy of additively manufactured maraging steel: Influence of the build orientation and heat treatments",
528:
at approximately 820 °C (1,510 °F) for 15–30 minutes for thin sections and for 1 hour per 25 mm (1 in) thickness for heavy sections, to ensure formation of a fully
365:
200, 250, 300 or 350), which indicates the approximate nominal tensile strength in thousands of pounds per square inch (ksi); the compositions and required properties are defined in
1274:
Suryawanshi, Jyoti; Prashanth, K.G.; Ramamurty, U. (2017), "Tensile, fracture, and fatigue crack growth properties of a 3D printed maraging steel through selective laser melting",
28:
656:
technique used to create components of intricate geometries using a powder metal which is fused together layer by layer using localized high power-density heat source such as a
1690:
Ohue, Yuji; Matsumoto, Koji (10 September 2007). "Sliding–rolling contact fatigue and wear of maraging steel roller with ion-nitriding and fine particle shot-peening".
1777:
801:; lack of maraging steel significantly hampers the uranium-enrichment process. Older centrifuges used aluminum tubes, while modern ones use carbon fiber composite.
591:
The maraging steels are a popular class of structural materials because of their superior mechanical properties among different categories of steel. Their
1026:
768:
Maraging steel is used in oil and gas sector as downhole tools and components due to its high mechanical strength. The steel's resistance to
369:
MIL-S-46850D. The higher grades have more cobalt and titanium in the alloy; the compositions below are taken from table 1 of MIL-S-46850D:
746:
1590:
273:. Original development (by Bieber of Inco in the late 1950s) was carried out on 20 and 25 wt% Ni steels to which small additions of
1141:
Raabe, D.; Ponge, D.; Dmitrieva, O.; Sander, B. (2009), "Nano-precipitate hardened 1.5 GPa steels with unexpected high ductility",
540:) of the more common alloys for approximately 3 hours at a temperature of 480 to 500 °C (900 to 930 °F) produces a fine
1664:
536:
or quenching to room temperature to form a soft, heavily dislocated iron-nickel lath (untwinned) martensite. Subsequent aging (
1565:
Garrison, W.M.; Moody, N.R (2012). "Chapter 12 - Hydrogen embrittlement of high strength steels". In
Gangloff, Richard (ed.).
1648:
1540:
1475:
1774:
611:
thus achieved improves the overall mechanical behavior of maraging steels such as fracture toughness and fatigue resistance.
695:
Aging followed by solution treatment of selective laser melted steels also reduces the amount of retained austenite in the
1574:
992:
251:
835:
564:
Mo. Further excessive heat-treatment brings about the decomposition of the martensite and reversion to austenite.
281:
were made; a rise in the price of cobalt in the late 1970s led to the development of cobalt-free maraging steels.
103:
366:
1177:
310:. Prior to aging, they may also be cold rolled to as much as 90% without cracking. Maraging steels offer good
1617:
1491:
1516:
1167:
703:
1190:
548:(X,Y) intermetallic phases along dislocations left by martensitic transformation, where X and Y are
790:
out of maraging steel, claiming that this alloy provides more output and enhanced tonal response.
108:
537:
243:
851:: typically 1.6–2.5 GPa (230–360 ksi). Grades exist up to 3.5 GPa (510 ksi)
769:
653:
541:
525:
342:
1619:
Consolidated
Federal Regulations part 110--export and import of nuclear equipment and material
1443:"Nuclear ruse: Posing as toymaker, Chinese merchant allegedly sought U.S. technology for Iran"
722:
642:
592:
238:
refers to the extended heat-treatment process. These steels are a special class of very-low-
1100:
1054:
828:
8:
731:
1753:
1735:
1717:
1104:
1058:
1424:
1389:
1354:
1230:
1124:
1090:
959:
864:
798:
315:
45:
1644:
1570:
1471:
1428:
1393:
1358:
1234:
1173:
1154:
1116:
988:
1128:
1699:
1416:
1381:
1344:
1336:
1310:
1283:
1257:
1220:
1212:
1150:
1108:
1062:
848:
773:
661:
362:
338:
159:
154:
1385:
1287:
1216:
1112:
1066:
1796:
1781:
1314:
819:, mean for 0–100 °C (32–212 °F): 452 J/kg·K (0.108 Btu/lb·°F)
784:
780:
529:
346:
149:
1340:
242:
ultra-high-strength steels that derive their strength not from carbon, but from
1703:
1420:
1261:
841:
794:
608:
604:
200:
124:
74:
36:
1790:
1120:
937:(Inexpensive maraging steels with less nickel and other expensive materials.)
880:
822:
816:
787:
727:
691:
665:
618:
327:
307:
289:
as they require less nickel; high-chromium, high-nickel steels are generally
286:
247:
230:
that are known for possessing superior strength and toughness without losing
617:: It is an important processing step as this step leads to precipitation of
955:
896:
750:
634:
322:
270:
205:
195:
134:
129:
306:
Due to the low carbon content (less than 0.03%) maraging steels have good
1012:
Maraging Steels: Modelling of
Microstructure, Properties and Applications
934:
696:
553:
533:
350:
311:
223:
219:
139:
83:
637:
obtained during normal aging and incoherent precipitates obtained after
954:
However, the notion that maraging steel blades break flat is a fencing
749:
are usually made with maraging steel. Maraging blades are superior for
708:
314:, but must be aged afterward to restore the original properties to the
294:
262:
190:
164:
98:
60:
1349:
1225:
754:
673:
669:
638:
334:
290:
274:
231:
185:
180:
55:
50:
912:
726:
before aging make maraging steel useful in high-wear components of
266:
88:
65:
1567:
Gaseous
Hydrogen Embrittlement of Materials in Energy Technologies
1191:
http://everyspec.com/MIL-SPECS/MIL-SPECS-MIL-S/MIL-S-46850D_19899/
1095:
915:(aged): 50 HRC (grade 250); 54 HRC (grade 300); 58 HRC (grade 350)
721:
slightly. These alloys retain their properties at mildly elevated
930:
810:
758:
742:
330:
to increase case hardness and polished to a fine surface finish.
278:
93:
738:
alloys, are not as machinable because of their carbide content.
925:
735:
549:
258:
254:
239:
1273:
657:
227:
745:, blades used in competitions run under the auspices of the
1470:(Fourth ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 69.
762:
1326:
983:
Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J. T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003),
1140:
1079:
1043:
361:
Maraging steels are usually described by a number (e.g.,
333:
Non-stainless varieties of maraging steel are moderately
1541:"The Impact of 18NI300-AM Maraging Steel in 3D Printing"
1492:"Reynolds turns 120: The history of Reynolds Technology"
646:
building direction in arc additive manufactured samples.
772:
is critical in downhole environments where exposure to
250:
compounds. The principal alloying element is 15 to 25
1405:
1027:"18% Nickel Maraging Steel – Engineering Properties"
962:
is a plastic phenomenon rather than microstructural.
1299:
844:: typically 1,400–2,400 MPa (200–350 ksi)
982:
761:frames (e.g. Reynolds 953 introduced in 2013) and
1370:
1788:
1246:
1201:
1465:
586:
1466:Juvinall, Robert C.; Marshek, Kurt M. (2006).
776:can lead to material degradation and failure.
1689:
1564:
257:. Secondary alloying elements, which include
1638:
1440:
779:American musical instrument string producer
734:. Other ultra-high-strength steels, such as
356:
345:. Corrosion-resistance can be increased by
1641:Nuclear Iran: The Birth of an Atomic State
1569:. Woodhead Publishing. pp. 421–492.
1348:
1224:
1094:
1005:
1003:
978:
976:
974:
1591:"Slinky M-Steel Electric Guitar Strings"
1468:Fundamentals of Machine Component Design
1459:
1183:
1037:
985:Materials and Processes in Manufacturing
861:fracture toughness: up to 175 MPa·m
1073:
519:
1789:
1671:. International Molybdenum Association
1134:
1009:
1000:
971:
804:
373:Maraging steel compositions, by grade
16:Steel known for strength and toughness
1639:Patrikarakos, David (November 2012).
269:, are added to produce intermetallic
1250:Materials Science and Engineering: A
987:(9th ed.), Wiley, p. 119,
1754:"Maraging 350 / VASCOMAX 350 Steel"
1736:"Maraging 300 / VASCOMAX 300 Steel"
1718:"Maraging 250 / VASCOMAX 250 Steel"
1169:Introduction to Aerospace Materials
747:Fédération Internationale d'Escrime
13:
838:: 11.3×10 K (20.3×10 °F)
14:
1808:
1768:
813:: 8.1 g/cm (0.29 lb/in)
1155:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2009.02.062
1024:
836:coefficient of thermal expansion
652:: Laser Powder Bed Fusion is an
27:
1746:
1728:
1710:
1683:
1657:
1632:
1610:
1583:
1558:
1533:
1509:
1484:
1434:
1399:
1364:
1320:
1293:
1276:Journal of Alloys and Compounds
1267:
1240:
948:
825:: 1,413 °C (2,575 °F)
532:structure. This is followed by
1517:"Maraging Steel in Golf Clubs"
1195:
1160:
1018:
854:Elongation at break: up to 15%
783:has made a specialist type of
650:Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF)
1:
1386:10.1016/j.matchar.2019.109827
1288:10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.07.177
1217:10.1016/j.matchar.2017.12.002
1113:10.1016/j.actamat.2010.09.042
1067:10.1016/j.actamat.2013.06.055
1010:Sha, W; Guo, Z (2009-10-26).
941:
711:to the mechanical properties.
301:
1643:. I.B. Tauris. p. 168.
1315:10.1016/j.matdes.2017.11.042
587:Processing of maraging steel
497:Tensile strength, MPa (ksi)
7:
1545:Stanford Advanced Materials
1441:Joby Warrick (2012-08-11).
1341:10.1016/j.addma.2018.10.032
919:
293:and unable to transform to
10:
1813:
1775:Maraging steel data sheets
1704:10.1016/j.wear.2007.01.055
1496:www.reynoldstechnology.biz
1421:10.1016/j.mtla.2022.101358
1374:Materials Characterization
1262:10.1016/j.msea.2017.06.033
1205:Materials Characterization
704:Severe plastic deformation
633:Ti, etc. The semicoherent
173:Other iron-based materials
1172:, p. 244, Elsevier, 2012
607:is achieved. Homogeneous
583:in simplified notation).
496:
479:
462:
445:
428:
411:
394:
389:
386:
383:
380:
377:
615:Aging of maraging steels
357:Grades of maraging steel
109:Widmanstätten structures
1758:Service Steel Aerospace
1740:Service Steel Aerospace
1722:Service Steel Aerospace
715:
538:precipitation hardening
1329:Additive Manufacturing
1303:Materials & Design
842:Yield tensile strength
774:hydrogen sulfide (H₂S)
770:hydrogen embrittlement
723:operating temperatures
654:additive manufacturing
343:hydrogen embrittlement
337:-resistant and resist
643:precipitate hardening
593:mechanical properties
829:Thermal conductivity
524:The steel is first
520:Heat treatment cycle
367:US military standard
1760:. 10 December 2019.
1742:. 10 December 2019.
1724:. 10 December 2019.
1447:The Washington Post
1105:2011AcMat..59..364D
1059:2013AcMat..61.6132R
883:: 77 GPa (11.2
805:Physical properties
374:
226:" and "aging") are
104:Tempered martensite
1780:2016-08-15 at the
1498:. 20 December 2018
1166:Adrian P Mouritz,
1143:Scripta Materialia
899:: 140 GPa (20
867:: 210 GPa (30
799:uranium enrichment
601:Solution treatment
372:
316:heat affected zone
1665:"Maraging Steels"
1650:978-1-78076-125-1
1477:978-0-471-66177-1
1053:(16): 6132–6152,
831:: 25.5 W/m·K
621:compounds such Ni
513:
512:
213:
212:
1804:
1762:
1761:
1750:
1744:
1743:
1732:
1726:
1725:
1714:
1708:
1707:
1698:(1–6): 782–789.
1687:
1681:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1661:
1655:
1654:
1636:
1630:
1629:
1627:
1626:
1614:
1608:
1607:
1602:
1601:
1587:
1581:
1580:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1537:
1531:
1530:
1528:
1527:
1513:
1507:
1506:
1504:
1503:
1488:
1482:
1481:
1463:
1457:
1456:
1454:
1453:
1438:
1432:
1431:
1403:
1397:
1396:
1368:
1362:
1361:
1352:
1324:
1318:
1317:
1297:
1291:
1290:
1271:
1265:
1264:
1244:
1238:
1237:
1228:
1199:
1193:
1187:
1181:
1164:
1158:
1157:
1138:
1132:
1131:
1098:
1077:
1071:
1069:
1041:
1035:
1034:
1031:Nickel Institute
1022:
1016:
1015:
1007:
998:
997:
980:
963:
952:
905:
904:
889:
888:
873:
872:
849:tensile strength
741:In the sport of
662:tensile strength
375:
371:
363:SAE steel grades
339:stress corrosion
277:, titanium, and
160:Weathering steel
155:High-speed steel
31:
19:
18:
1812:
1811:
1807:
1806:
1805:
1803:
1802:
1801:
1787:
1786:
1782:Wayback Machine
1771:
1766:
1765:
1752:
1751:
1747:
1734:
1733:
1729:
1716:
1715:
1711:
1688:
1684:
1674:
1672:
1663:
1662:
1658:
1651:
1637:
1633:
1624:
1622:
1616:
1615:
1611:
1599:
1597:
1589:
1588:
1584:
1577:
1563:
1559:
1549:
1547:
1539:
1538:
1534:
1525:
1523:
1521:Golf Compendium
1515:
1514:
1510:
1501:
1499:
1490:
1489:
1485:
1478:
1464:
1460:
1451:
1449:
1439:
1435:
1404:
1400:
1369:
1365:
1325:
1321:
1298:
1294:
1272:
1268:
1245:
1241:
1200:
1196:
1188:
1184:
1165:
1161:
1139:
1135:
1083:Acta Materialia
1078:
1074:
1047:Acta Materialia
1042:
1038:
1023:
1019:
1008:
1001:
995:
981:
972:
967:
966:
953:
949:
944:
922:
902:
900:
886:
884:
870:
868:
865:Young's modulus
860:
807:
795:gas centrifuges
785:electric guitar
718:
688:
684:
680:
632:
628:
624:
589:
582:
578:
574:
570:
563:
559:
547:
522:
359:
347:cadmium plating
304:
216:Maraging steels
150:Stainless steel
75:Microstructures
17:
12:
11:
5:
1810:
1800:
1799:
1785:
1784:
1770:
1769:External links
1767:
1764:
1763:
1745:
1727:
1709:
1682:
1656:
1649:
1631:
1609:
1582:
1575:
1557:
1532:
1508:
1483:
1476:
1458:
1433:
1398:
1363:
1319:
1292:
1266:
1239:
1194:
1182:
1159:
1133:
1089:(1): 364–374,
1072:
1036:
1017:
999:
993:
969:
968:
965:
964:
946:
945:
943:
940:
939:
938:
928:
921:
918:
917:
916:
910:
894:
878:
862:
858:
855:
852:
845:
839:
832:
826:
820:
814:
806:
803:
728:assembly lines
717:
714:
713:
712:
700:
686:
682:
678:
647:
630:
626:
622:
612:
609:microstructure
605:microstructure
588:
585:
580:
576:
572:
568:
561:
557:
545:
521:
518:
511:
510:
507:
504:
501:
498:
494:
493:
490:
487:
484:
481:
477:
476:
473:
470:
467:
464:
460:
459:
456:
453:
450:
447:
443:
442:
439:
436:
433:
430:
426:
425:
422:
419:
416:
413:
409:
408:
405:
402:
399:
396:
392:
391:
388:
385:
382:
379:
358:
355:
303:
300:
211:
210:
209:
208:
203:
201:Malleable iron
198:
193:
188:
183:
175:
174:
170:
169:
168:
167:
162:
157:
152:
147:
145:Maraging steel
142:
137:
132:
127:
125:Crucible steel
119:
118:
114:
113:
112:
111:
106:
101:
96:
91:
86:
78:
77:
71:
70:
69:
68:
63:
58:
53:
48:
40:
39:
33:
32:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1809:
1798:
1795:
1794:
1792:
1783:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1772:
1759:
1755:
1749:
1741:
1737:
1731:
1723:
1719:
1713:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1686:
1670:
1666:
1660:
1652:
1646:
1642:
1635:
1621:
1620:
1613:
1606:
1596:
1592:
1586:
1578:
1576:9781845696771
1572:
1568:
1561:
1546:
1542:
1536:
1522:
1518:
1512:
1497:
1493:
1487:
1479:
1473:
1469:
1462:
1448:
1444:
1437:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1402:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1367:
1360:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1323:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1296:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1270:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1243:
1236:
1232:
1227:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1198:
1192:
1186:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1170:
1163:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1137:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1097:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1076:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1040:
1032:
1028:
1021:
1013:
1006:
1004:
996:
994:0-471-65653-4
990:
986:
979:
977:
975:
970:
961:
957:
951:
947:
936:
932:
929:
927:
924:
923:
914:
911:
908:
898:
895:
892:
882:
881:Shear modulus
879:
876:
866:
863:
856:
853:
850:
846:
843:
840:
837:
833:
830:
827:
824:
823:Melting point
821:
818:
817:Specific heat
815:
812:
809:
808:
802:
800:
796:
791:
789:
786:
782:
777:
775:
771:
766:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
739:
737:
733:
729:
724:
710:
706:
705:
701:
698:
693:
692:intermetallic
675:
671:
668:, and impact
667:
666:microhardness
663:
659:
655:
651:
648:
644:
640:
636:
620:
619:intermetallic
616:
613:
610:
606:
602:
599:
598:
597:
594:
584:
565:
555:
551:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
517:
508:
505:
502:
499:
495:
491:
488:
485:
482:
478:
474:
471:
468:
465:
461:
457:
454:
451:
448:
444:
440:
437:
434:
431:
427:
423:
420:
417:
414:
410:
406:
403:
400:
397:
393:
376:
370:
368:
364:
354:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
331:
329:
324:
319:
317:
313:
309:
308:machinability
299:
296:
292:
288:
287:hardenability
282:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
253:
249:
248:intermetallic
245:
244:precipitation
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
207:
204:
202:
199:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
184:
182:
179:
178:
177:
176:
172:
171:
166:
163:
161:
158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
146:
143:
141:
138:
136:
133:
131:
128:
126:
123:
122:
121:
120:
116:
115:
110:
107:
105:
102:
100:
97:
95:
92:
90:
87:
85:
82:
81:
80:
79:
76:
73:
72:
67:
64:
62:
59:
57:
54:
52:
49:
47:
44:
43:
42:
41:
38:
35:
34:
30:
26:
25:
21:
20:
1757:
1748:
1739:
1730:
1721:
1712:
1695:
1691:
1685:
1673:. Retrieved
1668:
1659:
1640:
1634:
1623:, retrieved
1618:
1612:
1604:
1598:. Retrieved
1594:
1585:
1566:
1560:
1548:. Retrieved
1544:
1535:
1524:. Retrieved
1520:
1511:
1500:. Retrieved
1495:
1486:
1467:
1461:
1450:. Retrieved
1446:
1436:
1412:
1408:
1401:
1377:
1373:
1366:
1332:
1328:
1322:
1306:
1302:
1295:
1279:
1275:
1269:
1253:
1249:
1242:
1208:
1204:
1197:
1185:
1168:
1162:
1149:(12): 1141,
1146:
1142:
1136:
1086:
1082:
1075:
1050:
1046:
1039:
1030:
1020:
1011:
984:
956:urban legend
950:
906:
897:Bulk modulus
890:
874:
792:
778:
767:
740:
719:
702:
649:
635:precipitates
614:
600:
590:
566:
554:Laves phases
530:austenitized
523:
514:
509:2,413 (350)
360:
332:
323:heat-treated
320:
305:
283:
271:precipitates
235:
215:
214:
206:Wrought iron
196:Ductile iron
144:
135:Spring steel
130:Carbon steel
1309:: 486–497,
1282:: 355–364,
1256:: 116–123,
1211:: 152–162,
1014:. Elsevier.
935:Eglin steel
697:martensitic
534:air cooling
506:2,068 (300)
503:1,724 (250)
500:1,379 (200)
446:Molybdenum
351:phosphating
312:weldability
224:martensitic
220:portmanteau
140:Alloy steel
84:Spheroidite
1625:2009-11-11
1600:2020-07-15
1595:Ernie Ball
1526:2022-12-29
1502:2022-12-29
1452:2014-02-21
1415:: 101358,
1409:Materialia
1380:: 109827,
1350:10344/7510
1226:1826/12819
1178:0857095153
942:References
909: psi)
893: psi)
877: psi)
781:Ernie Ball
709:anisotropy
556:such as Fe
542:dispersion
492:0.05–0.15
480:Aluminium
441:11.5–12.5
424:18.0–19.0
390:Grade 350
387:Grade 300
384:Grade 250
381:Grade 200
302:Properties
295:martensite
291:austenitic
263:molybdenum
191:White iron
165:Tool steel
99:Ledeburite
61:Martensite
1669:imoa.info
1429:246668007
1394:199188852
1359:139243144
1335:: 19–31,
1235:115137237
1121:1359-6454
1096:1402.0232
847:Ultimate
674:austenite
670:toughness
639:overaging
489:0.05–0.15
486:0.05–0.15
483:0.05–0.15
466:0.15–0.25
463:Titanium
421:18.0–19.0
418:17.0–19.0
415:17.0–19.0
335:corrosion
275:aluminium
232:ductility
186:Gray iron
181:Cast iron
56:Cementite
51:Austenite
1791:Category
1778:Archived
1129:13781776
920:See also
913:Hardness
526:annealed
475:1.3–1.6
458:4.6–5.2
407:balance
378:Element
328:nitrided
267:titanium
89:Pearlite
66:Graphite
1675:8 April
1101:Bibcode
1055:Bibcode
960:fatigue
931:USAF-96
811:Density
759:bicycle
743:fencing
571:(X,Y,Z)
472:0.5–0.8
469:0.3–0.5
455:4.6–5.2
452:4.6–5.2
449:3.0–3.5
438:8.5–9.5
435:7.0–8.5
432:8.0–9.0
429:Cobalt
412:Nickel
404:balance
401:balance
398:balance
279:niobium
117:Classes
94:Bainite
46:Ferrite
1797:Steels
1647:
1573:
1550:Aug 1,
1474:
1427:
1392:
1357:
1233:
1176:
1127:
1119:
1025:INCO.
991:
926:Aermet
788:string
736:AerMet
685:Ti, Fe
681:Mo, Ni
629:Mo, Ni
625:Al, Ni
550:solute
259:cobalt
255:nickel
240:carbon
228:steels
37:Phases
22:Steels
1425:S2CID
1390:S2CID
1355:S2CID
1231:S2CID
1125:S2CID
1091:arXiv
834:Mean
658:laser
560:Ni/Fe
544:of Ni
395:Iron
321:When
236:Aging
1692:Wear
1677:2015
1645:ISBN
1571:ISBN
1552:2024
1472:ISBN
1174:ISBN
1117:ISSN
989:ISBN
933:and
797:for
763:golf
755:épée
753:and
751:foil
732:dies
730:and
716:Uses
341:and
265:and
222:of "
1700:doi
1696:263
1417:doi
1382:doi
1378:155
1345:hdl
1337:doi
1311:doi
1307:139
1284:doi
1280:725
1258:doi
1254:703
1221:hdl
1213:doi
1209:143
1151:doi
1109:doi
1063:doi
575:(Ni
349:or
252:wt%
246:of
218:(a
1793::
1756:.
1738:.
1720:.
1694:.
1667:.
1603:.
1593:.
1543:.
1519:.
1494:.
1445:.
1423:,
1413:21
1411:,
1388:,
1376:,
1353:,
1343:,
1333:25
1331:,
1305:,
1278:,
1252:,
1229:,
1219:,
1207:,
1147:60
1145:,
1123:,
1115:,
1107:,
1099:,
1087:59
1085:,
1061:,
1051:61
1049:,
1029:.
1002:^
973:^
903:10
887:10
871:10
859:IC
677:Ni
664:,
581:50
577:50
573:50
569:50
353:.
318:.
261:,
234:.
1706:.
1702::
1679:.
1653:.
1628:.
1579:.
1554:.
1529:.
1505:.
1480:.
1455:.
1419::
1384::
1347::
1339::
1313::
1286::
1260::
1223::
1215::
1180:.
1153::
1111::
1103::
1093::
1070:.
1065::
1057::
1033:.
907:^
901:×
891:^
885:×
875:^
869:×
857:K
687:2
683:3
679:3
631:3
627:3
623:3
579:M
562:2
558:2
546:3
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
