131:
1231:
fracturing, making it useful for auto parts such as bumpers and pillars. Three generations of advanced, high-strength steel are available. The first was created in the 1990s, increasing strength and ductility. A second generation used new alloys to further increase ductility, but were expensive and difficult to manufacture. The third generation is beginning to be adopted. Refined heating and cooling patterns increase both strength at some cost in ductility (vs 2nd generation). These steels are claimed to approach nearly ten times the strength of earlier steels; and are much cheaper to manufacture.
22:
720:
Alloying elements are added to achieve specific properties in the result. The alloying elements can affect multiple properties—flexibility, strength, formability, and hardenability. As a guideline, alloying elements are added in lower percentages (less than 5%) to increase strength or hardenability,
1216:
TRIP steels transform under deformation from relatively ductile to relatively hard under deformation such as a car crash. Such deformation transforms austenitic microstructure to martensitic microstructure. TRIP steels use relatively high carbon content to create the austenitic microstructure.
1230:
In one approach steel is heated to a high temperature, cooled somewhat, held stable for an interval and then quenched. This produces islands of austenite surrounded by a matrix of softer ferrite, with regions of harder bainite and martensite. The resulting product can absorb energy without
1221:
precipitation in the bainite region and helps accelerate ferrite/bainite formation. This helps retain carbon to support austenite at room temperature. A specific cooling process reduces the austenite/martensite transformation during forming. TRIP steels typically require an
1226:
hold at an intermediate temperature during cooling, which produces some bainite. The additional silicon/carbon requirements requires weld cycle modification, such as the use of pulsating welding or dilution welding.
883:
Manganese and nickel lower the eutectoid temperature and are known as austenite stabilizing elements. With enough of these elements the austenitic structure may be obtained at room temperature.
130:
482:
revealed their compositions. Alloy steels from earlier times were expensive luxuries made on the model of "secret recipes" and forged into tools such as knives and swords.
1208:(the most ductile). The phases are arranged by steelmakers by manipulating intervals (sometimes by seconds only) and temperatures of the heating and cooling process.
340:
Alloy steels divide into two groups: low and high alloy. The boundary between the two is disputed. Smith and
Hashemi define the difference at 4.0%, while Degarmo,
501:
properties, some alloys find important applications where their responses to magnetism are very important, including in electric motors and in transformers.
1042:; inhibits grain growth. Increases the toughness of steel, thus making molybdenum a very valuable alloy metal for making the cutting parts of
1173:
Stable carbides; increases strength while retaining ductility; promotes fine grain structure. Increases the toughness at high temperatures
1423:
1391:
329:
494:. Alloy steels serve many applications, from hand tools and flatware to turbine blades of jet engines and in nuclear reactors.
1458:
86:
721:
or in larger percentages (over 5%) to achieve properties such as corrosion resistance or extreme temperature stability.
58:
1488:
840:
Tungsten and molybdenum form carbides given enough carbon and an absence of stronger carbide forming elements (i.e.,
105:
886:
Carbide-forming elements raise the eutectoid temperature; these elements are known as ferrite stabilizing elements.
65:
205:
43:
837:. The type of carbide that chromium forms depends on the amount of carbon and other alloying elements present.
359:. However, alloy steel encompasses steels with additional (metal) alloying elements. Common alloyants include
758:
Nickel and copper improve corrosion resistance in small quantities. Molybdenum helps to resist embrittlement.
510:
72:
39:
1201:
54:
1025:
Increases hardenability by lowering transformation points and causing transformations to be sluggish
210:
32:
328:
with a variety of elements in amounts between 1.0% and 50% by weight, typically to improve its
440:
479:
456:
8:
1317:
817:
Chromium forms partitions between the ferrite and carbide phases in steel, forming (Fe,Cr
761:
Zirconium, cerium, and calcium increase toughness by controlling the shape of inclusions.
79:
1250:
1223:
751:
Chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, and tungsten increase strength by forming second-phase
147:
1484:
1454:
765:
523:
772:
The alloying elements tend to form either solid solutions or compounds or carbides.
709:
Ni 5%, Cr 2%, Si 1.25%, W 1%, Mn 0.85%, Mo 0.55%, Cu 0.5%, Cr 0.40%, C 0.2%, V 0.1%
1399:
1255:
1240:
1184:
The properties of steel depend on its microstructure: the arrangement of different
864:
860:
261:
256:
748:, and copper are added to increase strength by forming solid solutions in ferrite.
1506:
1469:
1147:
Fixes carbon in inert particles; reduces martensitic hardness in chromium steels
1051:
876:
868:
491:
452:
251:
1185:
498:
302:
246:
226:
176:
138:
1404:
1500:
859:
Vanadium, titanium, and niobium are strong carbide-forming elements, forming
468:
460:
1260:
1055:
1043:
464:
356:
307:
297:
236:
231:
946:
726:
704:
483:
185:
806:
Manganese mostly dissolves in ferrite forming the compounds MnS, MnO•SiO
1471:
FUNDAMENTALS OF MODERN MANUFACTURING: Materials, Processes, and
Systems
1245:
1193:
1030:
1014:
776:
Nickel is soluble in ferrite; therefore, it forms compounds, usually Ni
738:
550:
487:
475:
372:
292:
266:
200:
162:
467:. To achieve these improved properties the metal may require specific
1205:
1189:
1001:
916:
907:
448:
428:
388:
360:
355:(C) and nothing else (excepting slight impurities); these are called
287:
282:
157:
152:
21:
1288:
1286:
1165:
1152:
1139:
954:
841:
791:
and AlN. Silicon is also soluble and usually forms the compound SiO
444:
412:
408:
376:
368:
190:
167:
1218:
1197:
1097:
1084:
1047:
1039:
924:
845:
768:), lead, bismuth, selenium, and tellurium increase machinability.
752:
691:
Si 1.40% or 2.00%, Mn 0.65% or 0.82% or 0.85%, Cr 0.00% or 0.65%
404:
380:
195:
1371:
1335:
1283:
555:
Cr 0.50% or 0.80% or 0.95%, Mo 0.12% or 0.20% or 0.25% or 0.30%
1318:"What Are the Different Types of Steel? | Metal Exponents Blog"
1126:
1063:
1010:
975:
745:
734:
730:
400:
396:
392:
364:
352:
1359:
1347:
1192:. At the atomic level, the four phases of auto steel include
937:
384:
325:
321:
1017:
to reduce brittleness. Also helps to remove excess oxygen.
988:
424:
420:
348:
1298:
1271:
474:
Although alloy steels have been made for centuries, their
1449:
Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2007),
416:
783:
Aluminum dissolves in ferrite and forms the compounds Al
480:
the advancing chemical science of the nineteenth century
891:
Principal effects of major alloying elements for steel
344:, define it at 8.0%. Most alloy steels are low-alloy.
1217:
Relatively high silicon/aluminum content suppresses
1211:
46:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1448:
1377:
1341:
1292:
725:Manganese, silicon, or aluminum are added during
659:Cr 0.60% or 0.80% or 0.95%, V 0.10% or 0.15% min
1498:
1481:Foundations of Material Science and Engineering
1392:"New forms of steel for stronger, lighter cars"
699:Ni 0.45%, Cr 0.40%, Mo 0.12%, and added boron
875:Alloying elements also have an effect on the
627:Cr 0.80% or 0.87% or 0.92% or 1.00% or 1.05%
545:Mo 0.20% or 0.25% or 0.25% Mo & 0.042% S
1478:
1365:
1353:
1304:
1277:
1389:
1483:(4th ed.), McGraw-Hill, p. 394,
1479:Smith, William F.; Hashemi, Javad (2001),
1424:"Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP)"
471:, combined with strict cooling protocols.
1403:
106:Learn how and when to remove this message
1468:Groover, Mikell P. (February 26, 2009).
1451:Materials and Processes in Manufacturing
486:alloy steels were developed as improved
118:Steel alloyed with a variety of elements
1467:
1499:
1421:
587:Ni 1.05%, Cr 0.45%, Mo 0.20% or 0.35%
563:Ni 1.82%, Cr 0.50% to 0.80%, Mo 0.25%
1417:
1415:
579:Ni 0.85% or 1.82%, Mo 0.20% or 0.25%
603:Cr 0.27% or 0.40% or 0.50% or 0.65%
44:adding citations to reliable sources
15:
715:
619:Cr 0.28% or 0.50%, and added boron
504:
387:(B). Less common alloyants include
13:
1412:
1160:Also increases the melting point.
810:, but also forms carbides: (Fe,Mn)
14:
1518:
1212:Transformation-induced plasticity
1188:, some harder, some with greater
1179:
949:) A powerful hardenability agent
1390:Johnson, Jr, John (2024-08-05).
1378:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2007
1342:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2007
1293:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2007
1196:(the hardest yet most brittle),
129:
20:
1442:
1079:Increases corrosion resistance
970:Increases corrosion resistance
439:Alloy steels variously improve
351:(Fe) alloyed with (0.1% to 1%)
31:needs additional citations for
1383:
1310:
478:was not well understood until
1:
1474:. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
1266:
1121:Improves magnetic properties
683:Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.35%
675:Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.25%
667:Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.20%
511:High-strength low-alloy steel
434:
7:
1422:Hickey, Kate (2021-06-23).
1234:
889:
848:), they form the carbides W
703:
695:
687:
679:
671:
663:
655:
647:
639:
631:
623:
615:
607:
599:
591:
583:
575:
567:
559:
549:
541:
533:
10:
1523:
1134:Free-machining properties
1092:Stabilizes microstructure
879:temperature of the steel.
643:Cr 0.80%, and added boron
517:Principal low-alloy steels
508:
275:Other iron-based materials
1405:10.1146/knowable-080524-1
1096:
1062:
1000:
953:
522:
1453:(10th ed.), Wiley,
1366:Smith & Hashemi 2001
1354:Smith & Hashemi 2001
1305:Smith & Hashemi 2001
1278:Smith & Hashemi 2001
962:Increases hardenability
363:(Mn) (the most common),
347:The simplest steels are
335:
211:Widmanstätten structures
996:Improved machinability
932:Improves machinability
764:Sulfur (in the form of
490:and as newly available
651:Cr 1.45%, C 1.00% min
635:Cr 1.02%, C 1.00% min
611:Cr 0.50%, C 1.00% min
983:Corrosion resistance
330:mechanical properties
1204:(more ductile), and
915:Alloying element in
744:Manganese, silicon,
729:to remove dissolved
457:corrosion resistance
40:improve this article
1368:, pp. 395–396.
1356:, pp. 394–395.
1118:Higher percentages
1105:Increases strength
892:
595:Ni 3.50%, Mo 0.25%
519:
206:Tempered martensite
1251:Microalloyed steel
890:
571:Mo 0.40% or 0.52%
515:
497:Because of iron's
1460:978-0-470-05512-0
1396:Knowable Magazine
1177:
1176:
902:Primary function
766:manganese sulfide
713:
712:
315:
314:
116:
115:
108:
90:
1514:
1493:
1475:
1463:
1438:
1437:
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1419:
1410:
1409:
1407:
1387:
1381:
1375:
1369:
1363:
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1333:
1332:
1330:
1329:
1314:
1308:
1302:
1296:
1290:
1281:
1275:
1256:SAE steel grades
1241:Dual-phase steel
1052:turbojet engines
893:
865:titanium carbide
861:vanadium carbide
856:C, respectively.
716:Material science
520:
514:
505:Low-alloy steels
492:stainless steels
262:Weathering steel
257:High-speed steel
133:
121:
120:
111:
104:
100:
97:
91:
89:
48:
24:
16:
1522:
1521:
1517:
1516:
1515:
1513:
1512:
1511:
1497:
1496:
1491:
1461:
1445:
1432:
1430:
1428:AHSS Guidelines
1420:
1413:
1388:
1384:
1376:
1372:
1364:
1360:
1352:
1348:
1340:
1336:
1327:
1325:
1322:Metal Exponents
1316:
1315:
1311:
1303:
1299:
1291:
1284:
1276:
1272:
1269:
1237:
1214:
1182:
1054:. Also used in
871:, respectively.
869:niobium carbide
855:
851:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
813:
809:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
779:
718:
513:
507:
453:wear resistance
437:
338:
252:Stainless steel
177:Microstructures
119:
112:
101:
95:
92:
49:
47:
37:
25:
12:
11:
5:
1520:
1510:
1509:
1495:
1494:
1489:
1476:
1465:
1459:
1444:
1441:
1440:
1439:
1411:
1382:
1380:, p. 144.
1370:
1358:
1346:
1344:, p. 113.
1334:
1309:
1307:, p. 394.
1297:
1295:, p. 112.
1282:
1280:, p. 393.
1268:
1265:
1264:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1236:
1233:
1213:
1210:
1181:
1180:Microstructure
1178:
1175:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1162:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1149:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1136:
1135:
1132:
1129:
1123:
1122:
1119:
1115:
1114:
1113:Spring steels
1111:
1107:
1106:
1103:
1100:
1094:
1093:
1090:
1087:
1081:
1080:
1077:
1073:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1060:
1059:
1036:
1033:
1027:
1026:
1023:
1019:
1018:
1009:Combines with
1007:
1004:
998:
997:
994:
991:
985:
984:
981:
978:
972:
971:
968:
964:
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943:
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934:
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927:
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849:
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815:
811:
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792:
788:
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749:
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527:
509:Main article:
506:
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305:
303:Malleable iron
300:
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277:
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249:
247:Maraging steel
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227:Crucible steel
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1492:
1490:0-07-295358-6
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1228:
1225:
1220:
1209:
1207:
1203:
1200:(less hard),
1199:
1195:
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1187:
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1154:
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1075:
1074:
1070:
1067:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1056:rocket motors
1053:
1049:
1046:and also the
1045:
1044:machine tools
1041:
1037:
1034:
1032:
1029:
1028:
1024:
1021:
1020:
1016:
1012:
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1005:
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736:
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724:
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686:
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521:
518:
512:
502:
500:
499:ferromagnetic
495:
493:
489:
485:
481:
477:
472:
470:
469:heat treating
466:
462:
461:hardenability
458:
454:
450:
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432:
430:
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418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
357:carbon steels
354:
350:
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99:
88:
85:
81:
78:
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67:
64:
60:
57: –
56:
55:"Alloy steel"
52:
51:Find sources:
45:
41:
35:
34:
29:This article
27:
23:
18:
17:
1480:
1470:
1450:
1443:Bibliography
1431:. Retrieved
1427:
1395:
1385:
1373:
1361:
1349:
1337:
1326:. Retrieved
1324:. 2020-08-18
1321:
1312:
1300:
1273:
1261:Reynolds 531
1229:
1215:
1183:
942:0.001–0.003
874:
771:
719:
529:Composition
526:designation
516:
496:
473:
465:hot hardness
438:
346:
341:
339:
317:
316:
308:Wrought iron
298:Ductile iron
241:
237:Spring steel
232:Carbon steel
102:
93:
83:
76:
69:
62:
50:
38:Please help
33:verification
30:
947:Boron steel
899:Percentage
727:steelmaking
488:tool steels
484:Machine age
318:Alloy steel
242:Alloy steel
186:Spheroidite
96:August 2024
1433:2024-08-21
1328:2021-01-29
1267:References
1246:HSLA steel
1224:isothermal
1194:martensite
1131:0.08–0.15
1071:Toughener
1050:blades of
1031:Molybdenum
1015:phosphorus
1006:0.25–0.40
912:0.95–1.30
739:phosphorus
476:metallurgy
435:Properties
427:(Pb), and
383:(Si), and
373:molybdenum
293:White iron
267:Tool steel
201:Ledeburite
163:Martensite
66:newspapers
1206:austenite
1190:ductility
1013:and with
1002:Manganese
917:nitriding
877:eutectoid
537:Mn 1.75%
449:toughness
429:zirconium
361:manganese
288:Gray iron
283:Cast iron
158:Cementite
153:Austenite
1501:Category
1235:See also
1166:Vanadium
1153:Tungsten
1140:Titanium
1102:0.2–0.7
1040:carbides
980:0.1–0.4
955:Chromium
908:Aluminum
896:Element
852:C and Mo
842:titanium
829:, and Cr
753:carbides
445:hardness
441:strength
413:tungsten
409:titanium
389:aluminum
377:vanadium
369:chromium
324:that is
191:Pearlite
168:Graphite
1219:carbide
1202:ferrite
1198:bainite
1098:Silicon
1085:Niobium
1048:turbine
1038:Stable
925:Bismuth
919:steels
846:niobium
405:niobium
381:silicon
326:alloyed
219:Classes
196:Bainite
148:Ferrite
80:scholar
1507:Steels
1487:
1457:
1186:phases
1127:Sulfur
1076:12–20
1064:Nickel
1035:0.2–5
1022:>1
1011:sulfur
976:Copper
959:0.5–2
867:, and
844:&
821:)C, Cr
746:nickel
735:sulfur
731:oxygen
696:94Bxx
648:52xxx
640:51Bxx
632:51xxx
616:50Bxx
608:50xxx
463:, and
431:(Zr).
423:(Zn),
419:(Sn),
411:(Ti),
407:(Nb),
403:(Ce),
401:cerium
399:(Cu),
397:copper
395:(Co),
393:cobalt
391:(Al),
375:(Mo),
371:(Cr),
367:(Ni),
365:nickel
353:carbon
342:et al.
139:Phases
124:Steels
82:
75:
68:
61:
53:
1170:0.15
967:4–18
938:Boron
688:92xx
680:88xx
672:87xx
664:86xx
656:61xx
624:51xx
600:50xx
592:48xx
584:47xx
576:46xx
568:44xx
560:43xx
542:40xx
534:13xx
415:(W),
385:boron
379:(V),
336:Types
322:steel
87:JSTOR
73:books
1485:ISBN
1455:ISBN
1110:2.0
1068:2–5
989:Lead
737:and
705:ES-1
551:41xx
425:lead
421:zinc
349:iron
59:news
1400:doi
780:Al.
524:SAE
417:tin
320:is
42:by
1503::
1426:.
1414:^
1398:.
1394:.
1320:.
1285:^
1157:—
1144:—
1089:—
1058:.
993:—
929:—
863:,
831:23
814:C.
795:•M
733:,
459:,
455:,
451:,
447:,
443:,
332:.
1464:.
1436:.
1408:.
1402::
1331:.
945:(
854:2
850:2
835:6
833:C
827:3
825:C
823:7
819:3
812:3
808:2
803:.
801:y
799:O
797:x
793:2
789:3
787:O
785:2
778:3
755:.
741:.
109:)
103:(
98:)
94:(
84:·
77:·
70:·
63:·
36:.
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