290:
contributes to the change in creep mechanisms with location. While creep behavior is generally plotted as homologous temperature versus stress, in the case of the mantle it is often more useful to look at the pressure dependence of stress. Though stress is simply force over area, defining the area is difficult in geology. Equation 1 demonstrates the pressure dependence of stress. Since it is very difficult to simulate the high pressures in the mantle (1MPa at 300–400 km), the low pressure laboratory data is usually extrapolated to high pressures by applying creep concepts from metallurgy.
142:
1811:
172:
158:
1823:
150:
20:
256:). On a global scale, surface expression of this convection is the tectonic plate motions and therefore has speeds of a few cm per year. Speeds can be faster for small-scale convection occurring in low viscosity regions beneath the lithosphere, and slower in the lowermost mantle where viscosities are larger. A single shallow convection cycle takes on the order of 50 million years, though deeper convection can be closer to 200 million years.
1835:
500:
296:
568:
from preferred lattice orientations as a result of deformation. Under dislocation creep, crystal structures reorient into lower stress orientations. This does not happen under diffusional creep, thus observation of preferred orientations in samples lends credence to the dominance of dislocation creep.
567:
Additional deformation in the mantle can be attributed to transformation enhanced ductility. Below 400 km, the olivine undergoes a pressure-induced phase transformation, which can cause more deformation due to the increased ductility. Further evidence for the dominance of power law creep comes
563:
tends to dominate instead. 14 MPa is the stress below which diffusional creep dominates and above which power law creep dominates at 0.5Tm of olivine. Thus, even for relatively low temperatures, the stress diffusional creep would operate at is too low for realistic conditions. Though the power law
289:
characteristics of the upper mantle are largely those of olivine. The strength of olivine is proportional to its melting temperature, and is also very sensitive to water and silica content. The solidus depression by impurities, primarily Ca, Al, and Na, and pressure affects creep behavior and thus
200:
Although it is accepted that subducting slabs cross the mantle transition zone and descend into the lower mantle, debate about the existence and continuity of plumes persists, with important implications for the style of mantle convection. This debate is linked to the controversy regarding whether
127:, although the basic mechanisms are varied. Volcanism may occur due to processes that add buoyancy to partially melted mantle, which would cause upward flow of the partial melt as it decreases in density. Secondary convection may cause surface volcanism as a consequence of intraplate extension and
264:
consistent with upwelling. This broad-scale pattern of flow is also consistent with the tectonic plate motions, which are the surface expression of convection in the Earth's mantle and currently indicate convergence toward the western
Pacific and the Americas, and divergence away from the central
277:
Due to the varying temperatures and pressures between the lower and upper mantle, a variety of creep processes can occur, with dislocation creep dominating in the lower mantle and diffusional creep occasionally dominating in the upper mantle. However, there is a large transition region in creep
232:
suggest that they must be sourced from a part of the Earth that has not previously been melted and reprocessed in the same way as mid-ocean ridge basalts have been. This has been interpreted as their originating from a different less well-mixed region, suggested to be the lower mantle. Others,
564:
creep rate increases with increasing water content due to weakening (reducing activation energy of diffusion and thus increasing the NH creep rate) NH is generally still not large enough to dominate. Nevertheless, diffusional creep can dominate in very cold or deep parts of the upper mantle.
265:
Pacific and Africa. The persistence of net tectonic divergence away from Africa and the
Pacific for the past 250 myr indicates the long-term stability of this general mantle flow pattern and is consistent with other studies that suggest long-term stability of the
259:
Currently, whole mantle convection is thought to include broad-scale downwelling beneath the
Americas and the western Pacific, both regions with a long history of subduction, and upwelling flow beneath the central Pacific and Africa, both of which exhibit
551:
per second. Stresses in the mantle are dependent on density, gravity, thermal expansion coefficients, temperature differences driving convection, and the distance over which convection occurs—all of which give stresses around a fraction of 3-30MPa.
495:{\displaystyle \left({\frac {\partial \ln \sigma }{\partial P}}\right)_{T,{\dot {\epsilon }}}=\left({\frac {1}{TT_{m}}}\right)\times \left({\frac {\partial \ln \sigma }{\partial (1/T)}}\right)_{P,{\dot {\epsilon }}}\times {\frac {dT_{m}}{dP}}}
251:
for convection within Earth's mantle is estimated to be of order 10, which indicates vigorous convection. This value corresponds to whole mantle convection (i.e. convection extending from the Earth's surface to the border with the
73:. Upwelling beneath the spreading centers is a shallow, rising component of mantle convection and in most cases not directly linked to the global mantle upwelling. The hot material added at spreading centers cools down by
179:
During the late 20th century, there was significant debate within the geophysics community as to whether convection is likely to be "layered" or "whole". Although elements of this debate still continue, results from
196:
rise from the CMB all the way to the surface. This model is strongly based on the results of global seismic tomography models, which typically show slab and plume-like anomalies crossing the mantle transition zone.
1111:
184:, numerical simulations of mantle convection and examination of Earth's gravitational field are all beginning to suggest the existence of whole mantle convection, at least at the present time. In this
549:
1112:
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1972IAUS...48..212T&db_key=AST&page_ind=0&data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_VIEW&classic=YES
278:
processes between the upper and lower mantle, and even within each section creep properties can change strongly with location and thus temperature and pressure.
1501:
Borch, Robert S.; Green, Harry W. (1987-11-26). "Dependence of creep in olivine on homologous temperature and its implications for flow in the mantle".
233:
however, have pointed out that geochemical differences could indicate the inclusion of a small component of near-surface material from the lithosphere.
1095:
228:, helium-3 is not naturally produced on Earth. It also quickly escapes from Earth's atmosphere when erupted. The elevated He-3:He-4 ratio of
785:
1621:
212:
Many geochemistry studies have argued that the lavas erupted in intraplate areas are different in composition from shallow-derived
648:
1018:
991:
964:
922:
892:
859:
768:
85:
of the plate, the material has thermally contracted to become dense, and it sinks under its own weight in the process of
1124:
266:
65:. The lithosphere is divided into tectonic plates that are continuously being created or consumed at plate boundaries.
688:
1614:
43:
253:
1340:
Torsvik, Trond H.; Steinberger, Bernhard; Ashwal, Lewis D.; Doubrovine, Pavel V.; Trønnes, Reidar G. (2016).
706:"Mantle convection with a brittle lithosphere: thoughts on the global tectonic styles of the Earth and Venus"
1449:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
576:
A similar process of slow convection probably occurs (or occurred) in the interiors of other planets (e.g.,
153:
Earth's temperature vs depth. Dashed curve: layered mantle convection. Solid curve: whole-mantle convection.
1293:"Large igneous provinces generated from the margins of the large low-velocity provinces in the deep mantle"
1092:
611:
1839:
1161:
937:
Czechowski L. (1993) Geodesy and
Physics of the Earth pp 392-395, The Origin of Hotspots and The D” Layer
96:
This subducted material sinks through the Earth's interior. Some subducted material appears to reach the
1685:
1607:
508:
242:
1743:
1675:
882:
556:
1861:
1738:
730:
189:
131:. In 1993 it was suggested that inhomogeneities in D" layer have some impact on mantle convection.
1695:
1164:; Silver, Paul G. (1998). "Dynamic topography, plate driving forces and the African superswell".
784:
Fukao, Yoshio; Obayashi, Masayuki; Nakakuki, Tomoeki; Group, the Deep Slab
Project (2009-01-01).
1148:
Thermal
Convection with a Freely Moving Top Boundary, See section IV Discussion and Conclusions
725:
1035:
1008:
981:
948:
832:
1649:
1644:
1398:
1219:
847:
820:
756:
1544:
Karato, Shun-ichiro; Wu, Patrick (1993-05-07). "Rheology of the Upper Mantle: A Synthesis".
1414:
912:
505:
Most of the mantle has homologous temperatures of 0.65–0.75 and experiences strain rates of
1871:
1553:
1510:
1456:
1410:
1353:
1304:
1231:
1173:
1050:
812:
800:
717:
185:
117:
555:
Due to the large grain sizes (at low stresses as high as several mm), it is unlikely that
100:, while in other regions this material is impeded from sinking further, possibly due to a
8:
1866:
1827:
1753:
1220:"Stability of active mantle upwelling revealed by net characteristics of plate tectonics"
229:
109:
82:
66:
31:
1557:
1514:
1460:
1357:
1308:
1235:
1177:
1054:
804:
721:
1670:
1585:
1526:
1480:
1273:
1197:
1149:
1074:
261:
181:
74:
70:
1815:
1577:
1569:
1472:
1444:
1426:
1379:
1322:
1317:
1292:
1277:
1265:
1257:
1189:
1091:
Small-scale convection in the upper mantle beneath the
Chinese Tian Shan Mountains,
1066:
1014:
987:
960:
918:
888:
855:
764:
740:
705:
684:
560:
35:
1484:
1447:; White, S.; Cook, Alan H. (1978-02-14). "Creep Laws for the Mantle of the Earth ".
1078:
1768:
1758:
1589:
1561:
1530:
1518:
1464:
1418:
1369:
1361:
1312:
1291:
Torsvik, Trond H.; Smethurst, Mark A.; Burke, Kevin; Steinberger, Bernhard (2006).
1247:
1239:
1201:
1181:
1058:
808:
735:
652:
188:, cold subducting oceanic lithosphere descends all the way from the surface to the
175:
Cross-section diagram of Earth comparing two end-member models of mantle convection
101:
1728:
1690:
1565:
1099:
878:
676:
248:
213:
47:
1006:
845:
754:
1733:
1710:
1700:
1680:
1422:
633:
141:
113:
90:
1810:
1855:
1748:
1573:
1476:
1430:
1383:
1326:
1261:
1193:
589:
58:
1128:
1062:
171:
1773:
1581:
1468:
1365:
1269:
1070:
1034:
Montelli, R; Nolet, G; Dahlen, FA; Masters, G; Engdahl ER; Hung SH (2004).
951:
Lower-mantle material properties and convection models of multiscale plumes
206:
202:
193:
128:
97:
69:
occurs as mantle is added to the growing edges of a plate, associated with
62:
157:
1665:
605:
54:
1401:(2010). "Mantle Anchor Structure: An argument for bottom up tectonics".
1243:
1093:
http://www.vlab.msi.umn.edu/reports/allpublications/files/2007-pap79.pdf
1705:
1630:
1374:
1252:
1036:"Finite-frequency tomography reveals a variety of plumes in the mantle"
162:
86:
78:
39:
145:
Earth cross-section showing location of upper (3) and lower (5) mantle
1522:
1218:
Conrad, Clinton P.; Steinberger, Bernhard; Torsvik, Trond H. (2013).
979:
593:
585:
124:
1341:
149:
19:
286:
221:
217:
1339:
1185:
1794:
282:
225:
1290:
269:
of the lowermost mantle that form the base of these upwellings.
105:
93:. Subduction is the descending component of mantle convection.
571:
23:
Simplified model of mantle convection: Whole-mantle convection
1599:
1007:
Gerald
Schubert; Donald Lawson Turcotte; Peter Olson (2001).
846:
Gerald
Schubert; Donald Lawson Turcotte; Peter Olson (2001).
755:
Gerald Schubert; Donald Lawson Turcotte; Peter Olson (2001).
577:
81:
of heat as it moves away from the spreading centers. At the
1778:
581:
1033:
946:
783:
1396:
1217:
1160:
1342:"Earth evolution and dynamics—a tribute to Kevin Burke"
1122:
Picture showing convection with velocities indicated.
511:
299:
1150:
http://physics.nyu.edu/jz11/publications/ConvecA.pdf
236:
216:
basalts. Specifically, they typically have elevated
917:(4th ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 5.
543:
494:
46:to the planet's surface. Mantle convection causes
1443:
1853:
980:Donald Lawson Turcotte; Gerald Schubert (2002).
679:. In David Bercovici and Gerald Schubert (ed.).
281:Since the upper mantle is primarily composed of
703:
959:. Geological Society of America. p. 159.
910:
854:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35 ff.
763:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 16 ff.
704:Moresi, Louis; Solomatov, Viatcheslav (1998).
243:Heat transfer § Convection vs. conduction
1615:
877:
793:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
165:generated by cooling processes in the mantle.
986:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
1013:. Cambridge University Press. p. 616.
884:Plates vs. Plumes: A Geological Controversy
572:Mantle convection in other celestial bodies
201:intraplate volcanism is caused by shallow,
1622:
1608:
1500:
947:Ctirad Matyska & David A Yuen (2007).
761:Mantle convection in the earth and planets
665:Physics Department, University of Winnipeg
637:. Advances in Geophysics, Volume 56, 2015.
1373:
1316:
1251:
873:
871:
739:
729:
61:, and the two form the components of the
1543:
906:
904:
614:- Distribution of trace elements in melt
170:
156:
148:
140:
18:
1110:Polar Wandering and Mantle Convection,
957:Plates, plumes, and planetary processes
940:
681:Treatise on Geophysics: Mantle Dynamics
16:Gradual movement of the planet's mantle
1854:
868:
813:10.1146/annurev.earth.36.031207.124224
674:
608: – Study of dynamics of the Earth
272:
134:
1603:
1496:
1494:
1213:
1211:
914:Plate tectonics and crustal evolution
901:
839:
748:
668:
123:The subducted oceanic crust triggers
1834:
1397:Dziewonski, Adam M.; Lekic, Vedran;
50:to move around the Earth's surface.
1403:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
13:
1491:
1346:Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences
1208:
848:"§2.5.3: Fate of descending slabs"
414:
400:
322:
308:
267:large low-shear-velocity provinces
14:
1883:
1297:Geophysical Journal International
710:Geophysical Journal International
683:. Vol. 7. Elsevier Science.
677:"2. Physics of Mantle Convection"
646:
544:{\displaystyle 10^{-14}-10^{-16}}
237:Planform and vigour of convection
1833:
1822:
1821:
1809:
1318:10.1111/j.1365-246x.2006.03158.x
741:10.1046/j.1365-246X.1998.00521.x
631:Carlo Doglioni, Giuliano Panza:
205:processes or by plumes from the
1537:
1437:
1390:
1333:
1284:
1154:
1142:
1116:
1104:
1085:
1027:
1000:
973:
931:
1629:
777:
697:
640:
625:
431:
417:
1:
618:
584:) and some satellites (e.g.,
1566:10.1126/science.260.5109.771
1162:Lithgow-Bertelloni, Carolina
757:"Chapter 2: Plate tectonics"
612:Compatibility (geochemistry)
7:
1769:Precession of the equinoxes
599:
224:ratios. Being a primordial
10:
1888:
1686:Geophysical fluid dynamics
1423:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.08.013
557:Nabarro-Herring (NH) creep
240:
34:of Earth's solid silicate
1803:
1787:
1719:
1658:
1637:
786:"Stagnant Slab: A Review"
634:Polarized Plate Tectonics
1696:Near-surface geophysics
1415:2010E&PSL.299...69D
1063:10.1126/science.1092485
911:Kent C. Condie (1997).
1744:Earth's magnetic field
1469:10.1098/rsta.1978.0003
1399:Romanowicz, Barbara A.
1366:10.1139/cjes-2015-0228
545:
496:
176:
166:
154:
146:
44:heat from the interior
24:
1816:Geophysics portal
1739:Earth's energy budget
546:
497:
174:
160:
152:
144:
22:
1125:"IRIS Image Gallery"
509:
297:
285:((Mg,Fe)2SiO4), the
230:ocean island basalts
190:core–mantle boundary
118:endothermic reaction
1788:Related disciplines
1754:Geothermal gradient
1558:1993Sci...260..771K
1515:1987Natur.330..345B
1461:1978RSPTA.288....9W
1358:2016CaJES..53.1073T
1309:2006GeoJI.167.1447T
1244:10.1038/nature12203
1236:2013Natur.498..479C
1178:1998Natur.395..269L
1055:2004Sci...303..338M
887:. Wiley-Blackwell.
805:2009AREPS..37...19F
722:1998GeoJI.133..669M
675:Ricard, Y. (2009).
649:"Mantle Convection"
273:Creep in the mantle
135:Types of convection
110:silicate perovskite
1671:Geophysical survey
1098:2013-05-30 at the
831:has generic name (
541:
492:
262:dynamic topography
182:seismic tomography
177:
167:
155:
147:
71:seafloor spreading
25:
1849:
1848:
1764:Mantle convection
1352:(11): 1073–1087.
1230:(7455): 479–482.
1172:(6699): 269–272.
1020:978-0-521-79836-5
993:978-0-521-66624-4
966:978-0-8137-2430-0
924:978-0-7506-3386-4
894:978-1-4051-6148-0
861:978-0-521-79836-5
770:978-0-521-79836-5
561:dislocation creep
490:
457:
435:
383:
351:
329:
83:consumption edges
30:is the very slow
28:Mantle convection
1879:
1837:
1836:
1825:
1824:
1814:
1813:
1759:Gravity of Earth
1624:
1617:
1610:
1601:
1600:
1594:
1593:
1552:(5109): 771–78.
1541:
1535:
1534:
1523:10.1038/330345a0
1509:(6146): 345–48.
1498:
1489:
1488:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1377:
1337:
1331:
1330:
1320:
1303:(3): 1447–1460.
1288:
1282:
1281:
1255:
1215:
1206:
1205:
1158:
1152:
1146:
1140:
1139:
1137:
1136:
1127:. Archived from
1120:
1114:
1108:
1102:
1089:
1083:
1082:
1049:(5656): 338–43.
1040:
1031:
1025:
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997:
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971:
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938:
935:
929:
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774:
752:
746:
745:
743:
733:
701:
695:
694:
672:
666:
664:
662:
660:
651:. Archived from
644:
638:
629:
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542:
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539:
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523:
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102:phase transition
1887:
1886:
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1881:
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1878:
1877:
1876:
1862:Plate tectonics
1852:
1851:
1850:
1845:
1808:
1799:
1783:
1734:Coriolis effect
1729:Chandler wobble
1721:
1715:
1691:Mineral physics
1654:
1633:
1628:
1598:
1597:
1542:
1538:
1499:
1492:
1442:
1438:
1395:
1391:
1338:
1334:
1289:
1285:
1216:
1209:
1159:
1155:
1147:
1143:
1134:
1132:
1123:
1121:
1117:
1109:
1105:
1100:Wayback Machine
1090:
1086:
1038:
1032:
1028:
1021:
1005:
1001:
994:
978:
974:
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945:
941:
936:
932:
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909:
902:
895:
876:
869:
862:
844:
840:
828:
827:
818:
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782:
778:
771:
753:
749:
702:
698:
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673:
669:
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645:
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621:
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574:
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467:
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363:
359:
343:
342:
335:
321:
307:
305:
301:
300:
298:
295:
294:
275:
249:Rayleigh number
245:
239:
214:mid-ocean ridge
169:
168:
137:
114:magnesiowustite
57:rides atop the
48:tectonic plates
42:currents carry
17:
12:
11:
5:
1885:
1875:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1847:
1846:
1844:
1843:
1831:
1819:
1804:
1801:
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1798:
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1776:
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1736:
1731:
1725:
1723:
1717:
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1714:
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1711:Tectonophysics
1708:
1703:
1701:Paleomagnetism
1698:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1681:Geomathematics
1678:
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1627:
1626:
1619:
1612:
1604:
1596:
1595:
1536:
1490:
1455:(1350): 9–26.
1436:
1409:(1–2): 69–79.
1389:
1332:
1283:
1207:
1153:
1141:
1115:
1103:
1084:
1026:
1019:
999:
992:
972:
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949:"Figure 17 in
939:
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867:
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776:
769:
747:
731:10.1.1.30.5989
696:
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655:on 9 June 2011
647:Kobes, Randy.
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247:On Earth, the
238:
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139:
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91:oceanic trench
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203:upper mantle
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63:upper mantle
53:The Earth's
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1872:Geodynamics
1666:Geodynamics
1375:10852/61998
1253:10852/61522
983:Geodynamics
659:26 February
606:Geodynamics
559:dominates;
287:rheological
192:(CMB), and
55:lithosphere
1867:Convection
1856:Categories
1706:Seismology
1631:Geophysics
1135:2011-08-29
1010:Cited work
852:Cited work
619:References
241:See also:
194:hot plumes
163:superplume
87:subduction
79:convection
75:conduction
40:convection
1749:Geodynamo
1722:phenomena
1720:Physical
1659:Subfields
1574:0036-8075
1477:1364-503X
1431:0012-821X
1384:0008-4077
1327:0956-540X
1278:205234113
1262:0028-0836
1194:0028-0836
726:CiteSeerX
594:Enceladus
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526:−
518:−
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415:∂
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390:×
349:˙
346:ϵ
323:∂
318:σ
315:
309:∂
125:volcanism
67:Accretion
1828:Category
1638:Overview
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1096:Archived
1079:35802740
1071:14657505
881:(2010).
600:See also
222:helium-4
220: :
218:helium-3
1840:Commons
1795:Geodesy
1645:Outline
1590:8626640
1554:Bibcode
1546:Science
1531:4319163
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283:olivine
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1586:S2CID
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1075:S2CID
1039:(PDF)
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578:Venus
186:model
116:, an
104:from
32:creep
1779:Tide
1578:PMID
1570:ISSN
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