Mangrove - Knowledge

1318: 616: 10182: 2332:. The intricate root systems of mangroves create a habitat conducive to the proliferation of microorganisms, crustaceans, and small fish, forming the foundational tiers of the food chain. This abundance of organisms serves as a critical food source for larger predators like birds, reptiles, and mammals within the ecosystem. Additionally, mangrove forests function as essential nurseries for many commercially important fish species, providing a sheltered environment rich in nutrients during their early life stages. The decomposition of leaves and organic matter in the water further enhances the nutrient content, supporting overall ecosystem productivity. In summary, mangrove forests play a crucial and unbiased role in sustaining biodiversity and ecological balance within coastal food webs. 2681: 840: 404: 2508: 1924: 1595: 461: 2108: 10878: 482: 2052: 2761:

component of the carbon cycle, mangroves sequester approximately 24 million metric tons of carbon each year. Most mangrove carbon is stored in soil and sizable belowground pools of dead roots, aiding in the conservation and recycling of nutrients beneath forests. Although mangroves cover only 0.5% of the earth's coastal area, they account for 10–15% of the coastal sediment carbon storage and 10–11% of the total input of terrestrial carbon into oceans. The disproportionate contribution of mangroves to carbon sequestration is now perceived as an important means to counterbalance greenhouse gas emissions.

1468: 956: 1012: 975: 505: 1087: 2765: 1275: 2286:. They limit high-energy wave erosion mainly during events such as storm surges and tsunamis. The mangroves' massive root systems are efficient at dissipating wave energy. Likewise, they slow down tidal water so that its sediment is deposited as the tide comes in, leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs. In this way, mangroves build their environments. Because of the uniqueness of mangrove ecosystems and the protection against erosion they provide, they are often the object of conservation programs, including national 9603: 40: 1994: 2100: 2211:. However, a given mangrove swamp typically features only a small number of tree species. It is not uncommon for a mangrove forest in the Caribbean to feature only three or four tree species. For comparison, the tropical rainforest biome contains thousands of tree species, but this is not to say mangrove forests lack diversity. Though the trees themselves are few in species, the ecosystem that these trees create provides a home (habitat) for a great variety of other species, including as many as 174 species of marine 2032: 1384: 1211: 1161: 2238:. Each species has its own solutions to these problems; this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines, mangrove tree species show distinct zonation. Small environmental variations within a mangal may lead to greatly differing methods for coping with the environment. Therefore, the mix of species is partly determined by the tolerances of individual species to physical conditions, such as tidal flooding and salinity, but may also be influenced by other factors, such as crabs preying on plant seedlings. 1142: 2617:

provide new insights into the niche differentiation of root-associated microbial communities, Nevertheless, amplicon-based community profiling may not provide the functional characteristics of root-associated microbial communities in plant growth and biogeochemical cycling. Unraveling functional patterns across the four root compartments holds a great potential for understanding functional mechanisms responsible for mediating root–microbe interactions in support of enhancing mangrove ecosystem functioning.

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roles in mangrove soil ecosystems. In view of the importance of viruses in structuring and regulating host communities and mediating element biogeochemical cycles, exploring viral communities in mangrove ecosystems is essential. Additionally, the intermittent flooding of sea water and resulting sharp transition of mangrove environments may result in substantially different genetic and functional diversity of bacterial and viral communities in mangrove soils compared with those of other systems.

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iron–sulphur clusters, anti-oxidation and sulphur and nitrogen cycling. Interestingly, a recent analysis of Pacific Ocean Virome data identified niche-specialised AMGs that contribute to depth-stratified host adaptations. Given that microbes drive global biogeochemical cycles, and a large fraction of microbes is infected by viruses at any given time, viral-encoded AMGs must play important roles in global biogeochemistry and microbial metabolic evolution.

1180: 1300: 1730: 1230: 1105: 12264: 2806: 1975: 67:. Mangroves grow in an equatorial climate, typically along coastlines and tidal rivers. They have special adaptations to take in extra oxygen and to remove salt, which allow them to tolerate conditions that would kill most plants. The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves are taxonomically diverse, as a result of convergent evolution in several plant families. They occur worldwide in the 633: 18067: 2409:

ecosystems. Knowing this, scientists seek to reconstruct the environment and investigate changes to the coastal ecosystem over thousands of years using sediment cores. However, an additional complication is the imported marine organic matter that also gets deposited in the sediment due to the tidal flushing of mangrove forests. Termites play an important role in the formation of peat from mangrove materials. They process fallen

596:. However, excess Naions may work on toxic element. Therefore, halophytes try to adjust salinity delicately between growth and survival strategies. In this point of view, a novel sustainable desalination method can be derived from halophytes, which are in contact with saline water through their roots. Halophytes exclude salt through their roots, secrete the accumulated salt through their aerial parts and sequester salt in 2119:-dominated vegetation, as at Westonport Bay and Corner Inlet, Victoria, Australia. The latter locality is the highest latitude (38° 45'S) at which mangroves occur naturally. The mangroves in New Zealand, which extend as far south as 37°, are of the same type; they start as low forest in the northern part of the North Island but become low scrub toward their southern limit. In both instances, the species is referred to as 1633: 1256: 2639: 881: 10510: 8484: 7206: 6346: 5940: 4447: 3867: 2242: 2219: 2160: 150:

gains of tidal wetlands estimates a 3,700 km (1,400 sq mi) net decrease in global mangrove extent from 1999 to 2019. Mangrove loss continues due to human activity, with a global annual deforestation rate estimated at 0.16%, and per-country rates as high as 0.70%. Degradation in quality of remaining mangroves is also an important concern.

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mangrove sediment and direct and indirect impacts on mangrove growth and stand-structures as coastal barriers and other ecological service providers. Thus, based on studies by Lai et al.'s systematic review, here they suggest sampling improvements and a fundamental environmental index for future reference.

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Xu, Jin; Zhang, Yunzeng; Zhang, Pengfan; Trivedi, Pankaj; Riera, Nadia; Wang, Yayu; Liu, Xin; Fan, Guangyi; Tang, Jiliang; Coletta-Filho, Helvécio D.; Cubero, Jaime; Deng, Xiaoling; Ancona, Veronica; Lu, Zhanjun; Zhong, Balian; Roper, M. Caroline; Capote, Nieves; Catara, Vittoria; Pietersen, Gerhard;

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Liu, Xingyu; Yang, Chao; Yu, Xiaoli; Yu, Huang; Zhuang, Wei; Gu, Hang; Xu, Kui; Zheng, Xiafei; Wang, Cheng; Xiao, Fanshu; Wu, Bo; He, Zhili; Yan, Qingyun (2020). "Revealing structure and assembly for rhizophyte-endophyte diazotrophic community in mangrove ecosystem after introduced Sonneratia apetala

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were reported to come from Gammaproteobacteria, followed by Deltaproteobacteria and Alphaproteobacteria. The diverse function and the phylogenic variation of Gammaproteobacteria, which consisted of orders such as Alteromonadales and Vibrionales, are found in marine and coastal regions and are high in

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At low tide, organisms are also exposed to increases in temperature and reduced moisture before being then cooled and flooded by the tide. Thus, for a plant to survive in this environment, it must tolerate broad ranges of salinity, temperature, and moisture, as well as several other key environmental

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that live in salt water along the world's subtropical and tropical coastlines. Mangroves are one of the most productive and ecologically important ecosystems on earth. The rates of primary production of mangroves equal those of tropical humid evergreen forests and coral reefs. As a globally relevant

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that contribute to important ecological functions in mangrove ecosystems. Like typical terrestrial plants, mangroves depend upon mutually beneficial interactions with microbial communities. In particular, microbes residing in developed roots could help mangroves transform nutrients into usable forms

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Bacterial and fungal community in a mangrove tree. Bacterial taxonomic community composition in the rhizosphere soil and fungal taxonomic community composition in all four rhizosphere soil and plant compartments. Information on the fungal ecological functional groups is also provided. Proportions of

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existence to which these trees are adapted represents the major limitation to the number of species able to thrive in their habitat. High tide brings in salt water, and when the tide recedes, solar evaporation of the seawater in the soil leads to further increases in salinity. The return of tide can

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is known for its special ultrafiltration system that can filter approximately 90% of Naions from the surrounding seawater through the roots. The species also exhibits a high rate of salt rejection. The water-filtering process in mangrove roots has received considerable attention for several decades.

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Polidoro, Beth A.; Carpenter, Kent E.; Collins, Lorna; Duke, Norman C.; Ellison, Aaron M.; Ellison, Joanna C.; Farnsworth, Elizabeth J.; Fernando, Edwino S.; Kathiresan, Kandasamy; Koedam, Nico E.; Livingstone, Suzanne R.; Miyagi, Toyohiko; Moore, Gregg E.; Ngoc Nam, Vien; Ong, Jin Eong; Primavera,

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The diversity of bacteria in disturbed mangroves is reported to be higher than in well-preserved mangroves Studies comparing mangroves in different conservation states show that bacterial composition in disturbed mangrove sediment alters its structure, leading to a functional equilibrium, where the

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coastal environments, where fine sediments (often with high organic content) collect in areas protected from high-energy wave action. Mangrove forests serve as vital habitats for a diverse array of aquatic species, offering a unique ecosystem that supports the intricate interplay of marine life and

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Roux, Simon; Brum, Jennifer R.; Dutilh, Bas E.; Sunagawa, Shinichi; Duhaime, Melissa B.; Loy, Alexander; Poulos, Bonnie T.; Solonenko, Natalie; Lara, Elena; Poulain, Julie; Pesant, Stéphane; Kandels-Lewis, Stefanie; Dimier, Céline; Picheral, Marc; Searson, Sarah; Cruaud, Corinne; Alberti, Adriana;

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Dinsdale, Elizabeth A.; Edwards, Robert A.; Hall, Dana; Angly, Florent; Breitbart, Mya; Brulc, Jennifer M.; Furlan, Mike; Desnues, Christelle; Haynes, Matthew; Li, Linlin; McDaniel, Lauren; Moran, Mary Ann; Nelson, Karen E.; Nilsson, Christina; Olson, Robert; Paul, John; Brito, Beltran Rodriguez;

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Despite the ecological importance of mangrove ecosystem, knowledge on mangrove biodiversity is notably limited. Previous reports mainly investigated the biodiversity of mangrove fauna, flora and bacterial communities. Particularly, little information is available about viral communities and their

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fungi are prevalent in the mangrove root environment; rhizosphere fungi could help mangroves survive in waterlogged and nutrient-restricted environments. These studies have provided increasing evidence to support the importance of root-associated bacteria and fungi for mangrove growth and health.

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Mangroves are a type of tropical vegetation with some outliers established in subtropical latitudes, notably in South Florida and southern Japan, as well as South Africa, New Zealand and Victoria (Australia). These outliers result either from unbroken coastlines and island chains or from reliable

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outside the rhizosphere . Furthermore, it was noted that the root episphere, rather than the rhizosphere, was primarily responsible for controlling the entry of specific microbial populations into the root, resulting in the selective enrichment of Proteobacteria in the endosphere. These findings

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rates of mangroves around the world. In 2018, the Global Mangrove Watch Initiative released a new global baseline which estimates the total mangrove forest area of the world as of 2010 at 137,600 km (53,100 sq mi), spanning 118 countries and territories. A 2022 study on losses and

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were observed in correlation with an increase in the salinity of the water to which the plant was exposed. In a frequently cited concept that has become known as the "sacrificial leaf", salt which does accumulate in the shoot (sprout) then concentrates in old leaves, which the plant then sheds.

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The following listings, based on Tomlinson, 2016, give the mangrove species in each listed plant genus and family. Mangrove environments in the Eastern Hemisphere harbor six times as many species of trees and shrubs as do mangroves in the New World. Genetic divergence of mangrove lineages from

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The mature propagule then drops into the water, which can transport it great distances. Propagules can survive desiccation and remain dormant for over a year before arriving in a suitable environment. Once a propagule is ready to root, its density changes so that the elongated shape now floats

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Despite many research advancements in mangrove sediment bacterial metagenomics diversity in various conditions over the past few years, bridging the research gap and expanding our knowledge towards the relationship between microbes mainly constituted of bacteria and its nutrient cycles in the

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In Puerto Rico, there is a clear succession of these three trees from the lower elevations, which are dominated by red mangroves, to farther inland with a higher concentration of white mangroves. Mangrove forests are an important part of the cycling and storage of carbon in tropical coastal

2499:. Different plant organs also have specific microbial communities depending on plant-associated factors (plant genotype, available nutrients, and organ-specific physicochemical conditions) and environmental conditions (associated with aboveground and underground surfaces and disturbances). 538:

gas and water vapor during photosynthesis). They also vary the orientation of their leaves to avoid the harsh midday sun and so reduce evaporation from the leaves. A captive red mangrove grows only if its leaves are misted with fresh water several times a week, simulating frequent tropical

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and include genes involved in photosynthesis, carbon turnover, phosphate uptake and stress response. Cultivation-independent metagenomic analysis of viral communities has identified additional AMGs that are involved in motility, central carbon metabolism, photosystem I, energy metabolism,

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Fujita, Miki; Fujita, Yasunari; Noutoshi, Yoshiteru; Takahashi, Fuminori; Narusaka, Yoshihiro; Yamaguchi-Shinozaki, Kazuko; Shinozaki, Kazuo (2006). "Crosstalk between abiotic and biotic stress responses: A current view from the points of convergence in the stress signaling networks".

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Agrawala, Shardul; Hagestad; Marca; Koshy, Kayathu; Ota, Tomoko; Prasad, Biman; Risbey, James; Smith, Joel; Van Aalst, Maarten. 2003. Development and Climate Change in Fiji: Focus on Coastal Mangroves. Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, Cedex 16,

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terrestrial relatives, in combination with fossil evidence, suggests mangrove diversity is limited by evolutionary transition into the stressful marine environment, and the number of mangrove lineages has increased steadily over the Tertiary with little global extinction.

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Andreote, Fernando Dini; Jiménez, Diego Javier; Chaves, Diego; Dias, Armando Cavalcante Franco; Luvizotto, Danice Mazzer; Dini-Andreote, Francisco; Fasanella, Cristiane Cipola; Lopez, Maryeimy Varon; Baena, Sandra; Taketani, Rodrigo Gouvêa; De Melo, Itamar Soares (2012).

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Recent studies have investigated the detailed structure of root-associated microbial communities at a continuous fine-scale in other plants, where a microhabitat was divided into four root compartments: endosphere, episphere, rhizosphere, and nonrhizosphere or

2612:. Moreover, the microbial communities in each compartment have been reported to have unique characteristics. Root exudates selectively enrich adapted microbial populations; however, these exudates were found to exert only marginal impacts on microbes in the 6571:

Xie, Xiangyu; Weng, Bosen; Cai, Bangping; Dong, Yiran; Yan, Chongling (2014). "Effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal inoculation and phosphorus supply on the growth and nutrient uptake of Kandelia obovata (Sheue, Liu & Yong) seedlings in autoclaved soil".

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terrestrial vegetation. The saline conditions tolerated by various mangrove species range from brackish water, through pure seawater (3 to 4% salinity), to water concentrated by evaporation to over twice the salinity of ocean seawater (up to 9% salinity).

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Danielsen, F.; Sørensen, M. K.; Olwig, M. F.; Selvam, V.; Parish, F.; Burgess, N. D.; Hiraishi, T.; Karunagaran, V. M.; Rasmussen, M. S.; Hansen, L. B.; Quarto, A.; Suryadiputra, N. (2005). "The Asian Tsunami: A Protective Role for Coastal Vegetation".

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for crop protection. Such inocula can stimulate plant growth by releasing phytohormones and enhancing uptake of some mineral nutrients (particularly phosphorus and nitrogen). However, most of the plant microbiome studies have focused on the model plant

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Xu, Shaohua; He, Ziwen; Zhang, Zhang; Guo, Zixiao; Guo, Wuxia; Lyu, Haomin; Li, Jianfang; Yang, Ming; Du, Zhenglin; Huang, Yelin; Zhou, Renchao; Zhong, Cairong; Boufford, David E; Lerdau, Manuel; Wu, Chung-I; Duke, Norman C.; Shi, Suhua (5 June 2017).

18015: 514:. (a) Schematic of the root. The outermost layer is composed of three layers. The root is immersed in NaCl solution. (b) Water passes through the outermost layer when a negative suction pressure is applied across the outermost layer. The 18005: 400:) allow mangroves to absorb gases directly from the atmosphere, and other nutrients such as iron, from the inhospitable soil. Mangroves store gases directly inside the roots, processing them even when the roots are submerged during high tide. 5211:

Mohd-Taib, Farah Shafawati; Mohd-Saleh, Wardah; Asyikha, Rosha; Mansor, Mohammad Saiful; Ahmad-Mustapha, Muzzneena; Mustafa-Bakray, Nur Aqilah; Mod-Husin, Shahril; Md-Shukor, Aisah; Amat-Darbis, Nurul Darsani; Sulaiman, Norela (June 2020).

1317: 2491:, organ, species, and health status) and environmental factors (e.g., land use, climate, and nutrient availability). Two of the plant-related factors, plant species, and genotypes, have been shown to play significant roles in shaping 8501:

Marcial Gomes, Newton C.; Borges, Ludmila R.; Paranhos, Rodolfo; Pinto, Fernando N.; Mendonã§a-Hagler, Leda C. S.; Smalla, Kornelia (2008). "Exploring the diversity of bacterial communities in sediments of urban mangrove forests".

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Natarajan, Purushothaman; Murugesan, Ashok Kumar; Govindan, Ganesan; Gopalakrishnan, Ayyaru; Kumar, Ravichandiran; Duraisamy, Purushothaman; Balaji, Raju; Shyamli, Puhan Sushree; Parida, Ajay K.; Parani, Madasamy (8 July 2021).

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The mangrove food chain extends beyond the marine ecosystem. Coastal bird species inhabit the tidal ecosystems feeding off small marine organisms and wetland insects. Common bird families found in mangroves around the world are

364:, which stick up out of the soil like straws for breathing. These "breathing tubes" typically reach heights of up to 30 cm (12 in), and in some species, over 3 m (9.8 ft). The roots also contain wide 16107: 3277:

Simard, M.; Fatoyinbo, L.; Smetanka, C.; Rivera-Monroy, V. H.; Castañeda-Moya, E.; Thomas, N.; Van der Stocken, T. (2018). "Mangrove canopy height globally related to precipitation, temperature and cyclone frequency".

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Duarte, Carlos M.; Gasol, Josep M.; Vaqué, Dolors; Bork, Peer; Acinas, Silvia G.; Wincker, Patrick; Sullivan, Matthew B. (2016). "Ecogenomics and potential biogeochemical impacts of globally abundant ocean viruses".

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Zhuang, Wei; Yu, Xiaoli; Hu, Ruiwen; Luo, Zhiwen; Liu, Xingyu; Zheng, Xiafei; Xiao, Fanshu; Peng, Yisheng; He, Qiang; Tian, Yun; Yang, Tony; Wang, Shanquan; Shu, Longfei; Yan, Qingyun; Wang, Cheng; He, Zhili (2020).

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Murray, M. R.; Zisman, S. A.; Furley, P. A.; Munro, D. M.; Gibson, J.; Ratter, J.; Bridgewater, S.; Mity, C. D.; Place, C. J. (2003). "The Mangroves of Belize: Part 1. Distribution, Composition and Classification".

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Plaziat, Jean-Claude; Cavagnetto, Carla; Koeniguer, Jean-Claude; Baltzer, Frédéric (2001). "History and biogeography of the mangrove ecosystem, based on a critical reassessment of the paleontological record".

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and storage. The success of mangrove restoration may depend heavily on engagement with local stakeholders, and on careful assessment to ensure that growing conditions will be suitable for the species chosen.

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vertically rather than horizontally. In this position, it is more likely to lodge in the mud and root. If it does not root, it can alter its density and drift again in search of more favorable conditions.

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Coleman-Derr, Devin; Desgarennes, Damaris; Fonseca-Garcia, Citlali; Gross, Stephen; Clingenpeel, Scott; Woyke, Tanja; North, Gretchen; Visel, Axel; Partida-Martinez, Laila P.; Tringe, Susannah G. (2016).

17624: 16870: 106:, and are adapted to live in harsh coastal conditions. They contain a complex salt filtration system and a complex root system to cope with saltwater immersion and wave action. They are adapted to the 16132: 16112: 13760: 2717:

their hosts, that is, by rupturing their cell membranes, viruses control host abundance and affect the structure of host communities. Viruses also influence their host diversity and evolution through

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can grow even in saline water and the salt level in its roots is regulated within a certain threshold value through filtration. The root possesses a hierarchical, triple layered pore structure in the

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The unique ecosystem found in the intricate mesh of mangrove roots offers a quiet marine habitat for young organisms. In areas where roots are permanently submerged, the organisms they host include

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in the sediments have concentrated from the water. Mangrove removal disturbs these underlying sediments, often creating problems of trace metal contamination of seawater and organisms of the area.

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Ruan, Yijun; Swan, Brandon K.; Stevens, Rick; Valentine, David L.; Thurber, Rebecca Vega; Wegley, Linda; White, Bryan A.; Rohwer, Forest (2008). "Functional metagenomic profiling of nine biomes".

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Sievers, M.; Brown, C. J.; Tulloch, V. J. D.; Pearson, R. M.; Haig, J. A.; Turschwell, M. P.; Connolly, R. M. (2019). "The Role of Vegetated Coastal Wetlands for Marine Megafauna Conservation".

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Twilley, R. R., V. H. Rivera-Monroy, E. Medina, A. Nyman, J. Foret, T. Mallach, and L. Botero. 2000. Patterns of forest development in mangroves along the San Juan River estuary, Venezuela.

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Alongi, Daniel M.; Clough, Barry F.; Dixon, Paul; Tirendi, Frank (2003). "Nutrient partitioning and storage in arid-zone forests of the mangroves Rhizophora stylosa and Avicennia marina".

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Edwards, Joseph; Johnson, Cameron; Santos-Medellín, Christian; Lurie, Eugene; Podishetty, Natraj Kumar; Bhatnagar, Srijak; Eisen, Jonathan A.; Sundaresan, Venkatesan (20 January 2015).

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eat the mangrove leaves, adding nutrients to the mangal mud for other bottom feeders. In at least some cases, the export of carbon fixed in mangroves is important in coastal food webs.

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Holguin, Gina; Vazquez, Patricia; Bashan, Yoav (2001). "The role of sediment microorganisms in the productivity, conservation, and rehabilitation of mangrove ecosystems: An overview".

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Bais, Harsh P.; Weir, Tiffany L.; Perry, Laura G.; Gilroy, Simon; Vivanco, Jorge M. (2006). "The Role of Root Exudates in Rhizosphere Interactions with Plants and Other Organisms".

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Primavera, J. H.; Savaris, J. P.; Bajoyo, B. E.; Coching, J. D.; Curnick, D. J.; Golbeque, R. L.; Guzman, A. T.; Henderin, J. Q.; Joven, R. V.; Loma, R. A.; Koldewey, H. J. (2012).

5284:) and their role in the mangrove C cycle (Puerto Rico): Chemical characterization and organic matter provenance using bulk δ13C, C/N, alkaline CuO oxidation-GC/MS, and solid-state" 16625: 16575: 16032: 15972: 15967: 15962: 15947: 15937: 15827: 15802: 15231: 15061: 14961: 14848: 14808: 14538: 14019: 10341: 9627: 9442: 9416: 8614: 5574:

Busby, Posy E.; Soman, Chinmay; Wagner, Maggie R.; Friesen, Maren L.; Kremer, James; Bennett, Alison; Morsy, Mustafa; Eisen, Jonathan A.; Leach, Jan E.; Dangl, Jeffery L. (2017).

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Murray, N. J.; Worthington, T. A.; Bunting, P.; Duce, S.; Hagger, V.; Lovelock, C. E.; Lucas, R.; Saunders, M. I.; Sheaves, M.; Spalding, M.; Waltham, N. J.; Lyons, M. B. (2022).

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Because of the limited fresh water available in salty intertidal soils, mangroves limit the amount of water they lose through their leaves. They can restrict the opening of their

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Anantharaman, Karthik; Duhaime, Melissa B.; Breier, John A.; Wendt, Kathleen A.; Toner, Brandy M.; Dick, Gregory J. (2014). "Sulfur Oxidation Genes in Diverse Deep-Sea Viruses".

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Reinhold-Hurek, Barbara; Bünger, Wiebke; Burbano, Claudia Sofía; Sabale, Mugdha; Hurek, Thomas (2015). "Roots Shaping Their Microbiome: Global Hotspots for Microbial Activity".

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Edwards, Joseph; Johnson, Cameron; Santos-Medellín, Christian; Lurie, Eugene; Podishetty, Natraj Kumar; Bhatnagar, Srijak; Eisen, Jonathan A.; Sundaresan, Venkatesan (2015).

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Purahong, Witoon; Orrù, Luigi; Donati, Irene; Perpetuini, Giorgia; Cellini, Antonio; Lamontanara, Antonella; Michelotti, Vania; Tacconi, Gianni; Spinelli, Francesco (2018).

6370:"A Systematic Review of the Physicochemical and Microbial Diversity of Well-Preserved, Restored, and Disturbed Mangrove Forests: What Is Known and What Is the Way Forward?" 16855: 16776: 16726: 16661: 16545: 16515: 16510: 16391: 16351: 16002: 15982: 15772: 15674: 15599: 15579: 15519: 15489: 15469: 15364: 15319: 15266: 15191: 15036: 15031: 15006: 14956: 14926: 14916: 14893: 14793: 14768: 14753: 14718: 14668: 14663: 9388: 8097:

Rosenwasser, Shilo; Ziv, Carmit; Creveld, Shiri Graff van; Vardi, Assaf (2016). "Virocell Metabolism: Metabolic Innovations During Host–Virus Interactions in the Ocean".

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10 lb) of carbon in 2012. Two percent of global mangrove carbon was lost between 2000 and 2012, equivalent to a maximum potential of 0.316996250 Gt (6.9885710

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Once established, mangrove roots provide an oyster habitat and slow water flow, thereby enhancing sediment deposition in areas where it is already occurring. The fine,

16905: 16801: 16706: 16550: 16461: 16441: 16426: 16406: 16291: 15737: 15594: 15589: 15379: 15294: 15256: 15221: 14623: 14034: 14029: 13982: 460: 16925: 16900: 16885: 16860: 16841: 16590: 16555: 16436: 16431: 16326: 16286: 16236: 15514: 15334: 15276: 15156: 15146: 15091: 15011: 14858: 14838: 14823: 14708: 14693: 14688: 14658: 14603: 14508: 9542: 3649: 17652: 16975: 16786: 16666: 16595: 16481: 16456: 16396: 16361: 16336: 16256: 16192: 16027: 15942: 15659: 15479: 15399: 15349: 15329: 15309: 15304: 15076: 15021: 14883: 14778: 14698: 14653: 14618: 14613: 14608: 14513: 14488: 14110: 14039: 8290:

Jennerjahn, Tim C.; Ittekkot, Venugopalan (2002). "Relevance of mangroves for the production and deposition of organic matter along tropical continental margins".

7937:

Frank, Jeremy A.; Lorimer, Don; Youle, Merry; Witte, Pam; Craig, Tim; Abendroth, Jan; Rohwer, Forest; Edwards, Robert A.; Segall, Anca M.; Burgin, Alex B. (2013).

3623: 8724:

Liang, Jun-Bin; Chen, Yue-Qin; Lan, Chong-Yu; Tam, Nora F. Y.; Zan, Qi-Jie; Huang, Li-Nan (2007). "Recovery of novel bacterial diversity from mangrove sediment".

2555:

abundance in mangrove sediments functioning as nutrient recyclers. Members of Deltaproteobacteria found in mangrove soil are mostly sulfur-related, consisting of

16875: 16816: 16761: 16691: 16671: 16565: 16491: 16466: 16451: 16331: 16281: 16251: 16231: 15649: 15439: 15051: 14946: 14853: 14758: 14648: 14135: 5898:"First Insights into the Microbiome of a Mangrove Tree Reveal Significant Differences in Taxonomic and Functional Composition among Plant and Soil Compartments" 5896:

Purahong, Witoon; Sadubsarn, Dolaya; Tanunchai, Benjawan; Wahdan, Sara Fareed Mohamed; Sansupa, Chakriya; Noll, Matthias; Wu, Yu-Ting; Buscot, François (2019).

5086:

Muro-Torres, Victor M.; Amezcua, Felipe; Soto-Jiménez, Martin; Balart, Eduardo F.; Serviere-Zaragoza, Elisa; Green, Lucinda; Rajnohova, Jana (5 November 2020).

3924:

Zheng, Wen-Jiao; Wang, Wen-Qing; Lin, Peng (1999). "Dynamics of element contents during the development of hypocotyles and leaves of certain mangrove species".

2366:, among many others dependent on ecological range. Bird predation plays a key role in maintaining prey species along coastlines and within mangrove ecosystems. 16716: 16610: 16560: 16446: 16366: 16356: 16321: 16241: 16226: 16187: 15987: 15917: 15509: 15419: 15141: 15041: 14828: 14683: 13730: 13011: 10336: 2207:

About 110 species are considered mangroves, in the sense of being trees that grow in such a saline swamp, though only a few are from the mangrove plant genus,

2710:, though as of 2019 little information was available about the community structure, genetic diversity and ecological roles of viruses in mangrove ecosystems. 16880: 16826: 16756: 16605: 16570: 16535: 16530: 16476: 16346: 16311: 16276: 16216: 16182: 16127: 15902: 15344: 15299: 15071: 14588: 14568: 14498: 14260: 14125: 17700: 16736: 16681: 16505: 16316: 16306: 16246: 15454: 15394: 15339: 14773: 14673: 16985: 16711: 16301: 14888: 14843: 14833: 14643: 14583: 14533: 12105: 9760: 5025:

Abrantes, K. G.; Johnston, R.; Connolly, R. M.; Sheaves, M. (2015). "Importance of Mangrove Carbon for Aquatic Food Webs in Wet–Dry Tropical Estuaries".

17733: 17500: 17384: 16751: 14898: 14628: 14478: 14140: 13775: 4333: 3119: 17547: 17273: 16890: 16221: 16092: 15206: 14863: 14818: 14723: 14678: 14548: 14493: 14255: 14130: 12538: 17662: 14563: 14185: 11055: 9227:

Vo Quoc, T.; Kuenzer, C.; Vo Quang, M.; Moder, F. & Oppelt, N. (December 2012). "Review of Valuation Methods for Mangrove Ecosystem Services".

607:

Morphological structures of plants and their functions have been evolved through a long history to survive against harsh environmental conditions.

17849: 17657: 17505: 16741: 14703: 14468: 14115: 13780: 10366: 2956:

Friess, D. A.; Rogers, K.; Lovelock, C. E.; Krauss, K. W.; Hamilton, S. E.; Lee, S. Y.; Lucas, R.; Primavera, J.; Rajkaran, A.; Shi, S. (2019).

2748:

It is presumed AMGs augment viral-infected host metabolism and facilitate the production of new viruses. AMGs have been extensively explored in

17916: 16935: 16915: 15932: 14270: 13967: 12048: 11060: 11027: 2910:"Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data: Status and distributions of global mangroves" 17667: 17195: 16540: 12133: 12058: 9785: 43:

Mangroves are hardy shrubs and trees that thrive in salt water and have specialised adaptations so they can survive the volatile energies of

17854: 17828: 17572: 13987: 9858: 9285:

Massó; Alemán, S.; Bourgeois, C.; Appeltans, W.; Vanhoorne, B.; De Hauwere, N.; Stoffelen, P.; Heaghebaert, A.; Dahdouh-Guebas, F. (2010).

705:, meaning their seeds germinate while still attached to the parent tree. Once germinated, the seedling grows either within the fruit (e.g. 565:

and most Na ions are filtered at the first sublayer of the outermost layer. The high blockage of Na ions is attributed to the high surface

3729:

Krishnamurthy, Pannaga; Jyothi-Prakash, Pavithra A.; Qin, Lin; He, Jie; Lin, Qingsong; Loh, Chiang-Shiong; Kumar, Prakash P. (July 2014).

3147:

Bunting, P.; Rosenqvist, A.; Lucas, R.; Rebelo, L.-M.; Hilarides, L.; Thomas, N.; Hardy, A.; Itoh, T.; Shimada, M.; Finlayson, C. (2018).

2452:

play crucial roles in the health and productivity of mangroves. Many researchers have successfully applied knowledge acquired about plant

18000: 17906: 17619: 17510: 17490: 17480: 17475: 17344: 14280: 13715: 11081: 11050: 10206: 9698: 9421: 3893: 17420: 13770: 13549: 13004: 9951: 9464:

broadcast a 15-minute program on mangrove forests. A transcript and MP3 of the program, intended for English learners, can be found at

6826:; Wu, Jinshui (2019). "Initial utilization of rhizodeposits with rice growth in paddy soils: Rhizosphere and N fertilization effects". 6135:

Durán, Paloma; Thiergart, Thorsten; Garrido-Oter, Ruben; Agler, Matthew; Kemen, Eric; Schulze-Lefert, Paul; Hacquard, Stéphane (2018).

5358:

Hamilton, S. E.; Friess, D. A. (2018). "Global carbon stocks and potential emissions due to mangrove deforestation from 2000 to 2012".

2346:

Mangrove plantations in Vietnam, Thailand, Philippines, and India host several commercially important species of fish and crustaceans.

320:

soils, and intense sunlight. Plant biodiversity is generally low in a given mangrove. The greatest biodiversity of mangroves occurs in

17743: 17455: 13725: 13520: 13122: 4002:

Krishnamurthy, Pannaga; Jyothi-Prakash, Pavithra A.; Qin, LIN; He, JIE; Lin, Qingsong; Loh, Chiang-Shiong; Kumar, Prakash P. (2014).

10181: 3601: 481: 18073: 17823: 17460: 17374: 17069: 14445: 13962: 13515: 13352: 9517:"Take Shelter - Mangroves work together to protect the Earth and its waters. What can they teach us about community and sacrifice?" 2435:

Globally, mangroves have been shown to provide measurable economic protections to coastal communities affected by tropical storms.

17995: 17833: 17793: 17773: 17485: 17440: 17058: 13720: 13260: 13245: 12311: 10356: 10141: 6065:

Vernière, Christian; Al-Sadi, Abdullah M.; Li, Lei; Yang, Fan; Xu, Xun; Wang, Jian; Yang, Huanming; Jin, Tao; Wang, Nian (2018).

4160:

concentration on the osmolality of xylem sap, leaf tissue and leaf glands secretion of the mangrove Avicennia germinans (L.) L".

2487:. There is less information on the microbiomes of tree species. Plant microbiomes are determined by plant-related factors (e.g., 2429: 697:

are buoyant and are therefore suited to water dispersal. Unlike most plants, whose seeds germinate in soil, many mangroves (e.g.

350:) survives in the most inundated areas, props itself above the water level with stilt or prop roots and then absorbs air through 9395: 7096:

Cotta, Simone Raposo; Cadete, Luana Lira; Van Elsas, Jan Dirk; Andreote, Fernando Dini; Dias, Armando Cavalcante Franco (2019).

6401:

Srikanth, Sandhya; Lum, Shawn Kaihekulani Yamauchi; Chen, Zhong (2016). "Mangrove root: Adaptations and ecological importance".

17813: 17808: 17788: 17783: 17329: 17250: 14200: 13821: 13816: 13228: 12153: 12085: 4974:

Skov, M. W.; Hartnoll, R.G. (2002). "Paradoxical selective feeding on a low-nutrient diet: Why do mangrove crabs eat leaves?".

4867:

Mazda, Y.; Wolanski, E.; King, B.; Sase, A.; Ohtsuka, D.; Magi, M. (1997). "Drag force due to vegetation in mangrove swamps".

18060: 13926: 13921: 13916: 13905: 13894: 13889: 13875: 13864: 13859: 13854: 13849: 13844: 13765: 13478: 13379: 13285: 13174: 13169: 13112: 12997: 11017: 9264: 5195: 4308: 4268: 3567: 3540: 3048: 6822:

Liu, Yalong; Ge, Tida; Ye, Jun; Liu, Shoulong; Shibistova, Olga; Wang, Ping; Wang, Jingkuan; Li, Yong; Guggenberger, Georg;

5694:"Pivotal roles of phyllosphere microorganisms at the interface between plant functioning and atmospheric trace gas dynamics" 615: 18130: 17977: 17758: 17552: 17515: 17399: 17283: 17028: 14346: 13977: 13826: 13473: 13453: 13433: 13374: 13270: 13265: 13250: 13154: 10371: 8926: 5628:

Berendsen, Roeland L.; Pieterse, Corné M.J.; Bakker, Peter A. H. M. (2012). "The rhizosphere microbiome and plant health".

2343:

to juvenile lemon sharks as they use the cover of mangroves to practice hunting before entering the food web of the Ocean.

316:, many of these species found similar solutions to the tropical conditions of variable salinity, tidal range (inundation), 134: 4395:

Jurgenne H.; Salmo, Severino G.; Sanciangco, Jonnell C.; Sukardjo, Sukristijono; Wang, Yamin; Yong, Jean Wan Hong (2010).

2339:

depend on mangrove creeks to give birth to their pups. The ecosystem provides little competition and minimizes threats of

17450: 17445: 17425: 17354: 17339: 17334: 17324: 17135: 17035: 17013: 14088: 13554: 13533: 13507: 13396: 13369: 13342: 13305: 13300: 13240: 13208: 13203: 13184: 13164: 13137: 13036: 12148: 10469: 10331: 9703: 9622: 9549: 8770:"The origin, diversification and adaptation of a major mangrove clade (Rhizophoreae) revealed by whole-genome sequencing" 5323:

Versteegh, G.J.; et al. (2004). "Taraxerol and Rhizophora pollen as proxies for tracking past mangrove ecosystems".

5278:

Vane, C. H.; Kim, A. W.; Moss-Hayes, V.; Snape, C. E.; Diaz, M. C.; Khan, N. S.; Engelhart, S. E.; Horton, B. P. (2013).

3627: 573:, also facilitates Na ion filtration. The study provides insights into the mechanism underlying water filtration through 17818: 17495: 17435: 17430: 17369: 17319: 14225: 14195: 14175: 13750: 13448: 13443: 13406: 13401: 13332: 13327: 13322: 13317: 13275: 13223: 13196: 13102: 13097: 11468: 9279: 2103:

Location and relative density of mangroves in South-east Asia and Australasia – based on Landsat satellite images, 2010

17798: 17470: 17465: 17394: 17298: 17288: 17220: 14245: 13972: 13463: 13458: 13428: 13411: 13347: 13310: 13233: 13213: 13191: 13179: 13092: 10991: 10361: 9447: 8888: 8873: 8837: 8624: 3505: 3414: 3364: 680: 8436:"A reference-grade genome identifies salt-tolerance genes from the salt-secreting mangrove species Avicennia marina" 2135:

in Florida occurs as far north as St. Augustine on the east coast and Cedar Point on the west. There are records of

662: 79:

coastal areas, mainly between latitudes 30° N and 30° S, with the greatest mangrove area within 5° of the

17951: 17768: 17690: 17308: 17215: 16701: 14205: 13957: 13796: 13391: 13386: 13364: 13359: 13337: 13280: 13255: 13159: 13147: 13132: 13082: 10940: 9996: 9851: 9790: 3083: 308:

According to Hogarth (2015), among the recognized mangrove species there are about 70 species in 20 genera from 16

9355: 8134:"Depth-stratified functional and taxonomic niche specialization in the 'core' and 'flexible' Pacific Ocean Virome" 2680: 1118:

Rhizophoraceae collectively form the tribe Rhizophorae, a monotypic group, within the otherwise terrestrial family

17389: 17359: 17349: 17008: 14300: 14295: 13791: 13528: 13468: 13438: 13421: 13295: 13290: 13218: 13142: 11644: 11373: 11107: 9122:

Lewis, Roy R. III (2004). "Ecological Engineering for Successful Management and Restoration of Mangrove Forest".

8858: 2702:

are one of the most carbon-rich biomes, accounting for 11% of the total input of terrestrial carbon into oceans.

2405:

varies between the species, as well between the different tissues of the plant (e.g., leaf matter versus roots).

422:

Red mangroves exclude salt by having significantly impermeable roots that are highly suberised (impregnated with

312:

that constitute the "true mangroves" – species that occur almost exclusively in mangrove habitats. Demonstrating

157:

for several reasons. Mangroves support sustainable coastal and marine ecosystems. They protect nearby areas from

9078: 9061: 6444:

McKee, Karen L. (1993). "Soil Physicochemical Patterns and Mangrove Species Distribution--Reciprocal Effects?".

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Following Tomlinson, 2016, the following 35 species are the true mangroves, contained in 5 families and 9 genera

693:

In this harsh environment, mangroves have evolved a special mechanism to help their offspring survive. Mangrove

17379: 17303: 17278: 17235: 14235: 13416: 13107: 13087: 11420: 10823: 9713: 9582: 7098:"Exploring bacterial functionality in mangrove sediments and its capability to overcome anthropogenic activity" 7097: 6306:"Diversity, function and assembly of mangrove root-associated microbial communities at a continuous fine-scale" 3451: 658: 454:

suggests that the older, yellowing leaves have no more measurable salt content than the other, greener leaves.

7274:

Holmfeldt, K.; Solonenko, N.; Shah, M.; Corrier, K.; Riemann, L.; Verberkmoes, N. C.; Sullivan, M. B. (2013).

17778: 17763: 17364: 17313: 17293: 17103: 16920: 13836: 13755: 12158: 11873: 11597: 9382: 8640:

Pratama, Akbar Adjie; Van Elsas, Jan Dirk (2018). "The 'Neglected' Soil Virome – Potential Role and Impact".

7481:"Modeling ecological drivers in marine viral communities using comparative metagenomics and network analyses" 5793:

Cregger, M. A.; Veach, A. M.; Yang, Z. K.; Crouch, M. J.; Vilgalys, R.; Tuskan, G. A.; Schadt, C. W. (2018).

3474: 2856: 526:

attach to the first layer to satisfy the electro-neutrality requirement and salt retention eventually occurs.

6998:

Ofek-Lalzar, Maya; Sela, Noa; Goldman-Voronov, Milana; Green, Stefan J.; Hadar, Yitzhak; Minz, Dror (2014).

2385:

conditions. The nature of these deposits depends on the environment and the types of mangroves involved. In

1540:

Tomlinson, 2016, lists about 19 species as minor mangrove components, contained in 10 families and 11 genera

839: 18115: 17577: 17180: 17170: 17145: 17079: 15832: 15797: 14402: 14310: 13020: 12168: 11086: 10843: 10828: 9800: 9592: 4374: 2580: 10949: 18125: 18120: 17230: 17093: 15494: 15359: 14145: 12304: 12053: 11327: 11012: 10838: 9844: 9637: 5746:"Plant compartment and biogeography affect microbiome composition in cultivated and native Agave species" 4248: 3391:"A General Account of the Fauna and Flora of Mangrove Swamps and Forests in the Indo-West-Pacific Region" 403: 9509: 7872:"Marine Viruses Exploit Their Host's Two-Component Regulatory System in Response to Resource Limitation" 7770:"Prevalence and Evolution of Core Photosystem II Genes in Marine Cyanobacterial Viruses and Their Hosts" 4602:

Saenger, P.; McConchie, D. (2004). "Heavy metals in mangroves: methodology, monitoring and management".

17956: 17614: 17404: 17185: 17118: 16261: 15574: 15459: 14463: 14407: 12138: 11332: 11022: 10146: 9577: 7819:

Thompson, L. R.; Zeng, Q.; Kelly, L.; Huang, K. H.; Singer, A. U.; Stubbe, J.; Chisholm, S. W. (2011).

5214:"Effects of anthropogenic disturbance on the species assemblages of birds in the back mangrove forests" 2513: 2401:

mangroves occupy different ecological niches and have slightly different chemical compositions, so the

2046: 1683: 9471: 4904:"Ontogenetic habitat shift, population growth, and burrowing behavior of the Indo-Pacific beach star, 17972: 17123: 17023: 15664: 14434: 14364: 13041: 11430: 11342: 10454: 10348: 9677: 9652: 4824:

Massel, S. R.; Furukawa, K.; Brinkman, R. M. (1999). "Surface wave propagation in mangrove forests".

3224: 2908:

Giri, C.; Ochieng, E.; Tieszen, L. L.; Zhu, Z.; Singh, A.; Loveland, T.; Masek, J.; Duke, N. (2011).

2742: 2584: 2516:(approximate species) that can colonise at least two of the compartments are shown in the left panel. 2507: 2107: 2021: 1923: 654: 31: 17: 4656: 4616: 2713:

Viruses are the most abundant biological entities on earth, present in virtually all ecosystems. By

2547:, thus close associations between the plant and microbes are established for their mutual benefits. 18105: 17803: 17225: 17190: 17155: 17128: 17018: 16930: 15569: 13051: 12117: 11352: 10907: 10700: 10695: 9991: 9780: 9017:

Bosire, J. O.; Dahdouh-Guebas, F.; Jayatissa, L. P.; Koedam, N.; Lo Seen, D.; Nitto, Di D. (2005).

7432:"Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Viruses Compensate for Microbial Metabolism in Virus-Host Interactions" 6871:"Microbial interactions in the mycorrhizosphere and their significance for sustainable agriculture" 6368:

Lai, Jiayong; Cheah, Wee; Palaniveloo, Kishneth; Suwa, Rempei; Sharma, Sahadev (16 December 2022).

5088:"Primary Sources and Food Web Structure of a Tropical Wetland with High Density of Mangrove Forest" 4775:

Dahdouh-Guebas, F.; Jayatissa, L. P.; Di Nitto, D.; Bosire, J. O.; Lo Seen, D.; Koedam, N. (2005).

2718: 2539:

or helping mangroves withstand heat and salinity. In turn, root-associated microbes receive carbon

2287: 1594: 643: 439:

exclude 90% to 95% of the salt in water taken up by the plant, depositing the excluded salt in the

5970:"Biodiversity and biotechnological potential of microorganisms from mangrove ecosystems: A review" 4902:

Bos, A. R.; Gumanao, G. S.; Van Katwijk, M. M.; Mueller, B.; Saceda, M. M.; Tejada, R. L. (2010).

2695:

are indicated with varied colours. The scale bar represents half amino acid substitution per site.

551:

investigated the biophysical characteristics of sea water filtration in the roots of the mangrove

18100: 14047: 12972: 11828: 11337: 10608: 10419: 10313: 10041: 10031: 9708: 6930: 6185: 5528:"Rhizobium and phosphate solubilizing bacteria improve the yield and phosphorus uptake in wheat ( 3885: 2791: 2328:

Mangrove forests contribute significantly to coastal ecosystems by fostering complex and diverse

2227: 2051: 647: 107: 7047:

Liu, Yong-Xin; Qin, Yuan; Chen, Tong; Lu, Meiping; Qian, Xubo; Guo, Xiaoxuan; Bai, Yang (2021).

5968:

Thatoi, Hrudayanath; Behera, Bikash Chandra; Mishra, Rashmi Ranjan; Dutta, Sushil Kumar (2013).

3959:

Parida, Asish Kumar; Jha, Bhavanath (2010). "Salt tolerance mechanisms in mangroves: A review".

2722: 203:

can only be speculative and is disputed. The term may have come to English from the Portuguese

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of the root. An increase in the production of suberin and in the activity of a gene regulating

325: 8996:

Barbier, E. B.; Sathirathai, S. (2001). "Valuing Mangrove Conservation in Southern Thailand".

7996:"The Sorcerer II Global Ocean Sampling Expedition: Expanding the Universe of Protein Families" 7821:"Phage auxiliary metabolic genes and the redirection of cyanobacterial host carbon metabolism" 5795:"The Populus holobiont: Dissecting the effects of plant niches and genotype on the microbiome" 5114: 4634:

Mazda, Y.; Kobashi, D.; Okada, S. (2005). "Tidal-Scale Hydrodynamics within Mangrove Swamps".

3809:

Kim, Kiwoong; Seo, Eunseok; Chang, Suk-Kyu; Park, Tae Jung; Lee, Sang Joon (5 February 2016).

3495: 3478: 17921: 17647: 17562: 17175: 17098: 15324: 14105: 14083: 11808: 11322: 10853: 10780: 10715: 10580: 10555: 10530: 10414: 10161: 9941: 9718: 6276: 5185: 3441: 3390: 2726: 2496: 2394: 2200:

flush out these soils, bringing them back to salinity levels comparable to that of seawater.

1983: 1515: 1489: 1346: 1052: 1002: 964: 889: 435: 317: 3354: 18110: 17941: 17901: 17165: 17150: 15429: 15314: 14068: 13046: 12711: 12433: 12068: 11435: 11415: 11357: 11317: 11312: 10933: 10588: 10550: 9881: 9825: 9744: 9739: 9667: 9617: 9326: 9236: 9207: 9156: 8964: 8733: 8701: 8684: 8567: 8511: 8397: 8350: 8299: 8254: 8145: 8055: 7950: 7883: 7722: 7713:

Rohwer, Forest; Thurber, Rebecca Vega (2009). "Viruses manipulate the marine environment".

7661: 7547: 7492: 7396: 7287: 7232: 7109: 7011: 6945: 6882: 6835: 6692: 6620: 6581: 6496: 6453: 6410: 6200: 6078: 6022: 5637: 5424: 5377: 5332: 5295: 5225: 5150: 5034: 4983: 4833: 4747: 4643: 4556: 4491: 4408: 4205: 4169: 3968: 3933: 3822: 3201: 3160: 2829: 2734: 2707: 2621:

dynamics of chemicals in mangrove soils lead to the remodeling of its microbial structure.

2463: 2115:"At the limits of distribution, the formation is represented by scrubby, usually monotypic 1584: 1405: 1373: 1333: 1201: 1169: 1150: 1132: 570: 313: 162: 154: 9178:

Lucien-Brun, H (1997). "Evolution of world shrimp production: Fisheries and aquaculture".

5871: 4545:"Interference competition as a key determinant for spatial distribution of mangrove crabs" 4334:"Rate of lineage origin explains the diversity anomaly in the world's mangrove vegetation" 2974: 2957: 2226:

Mangrove plants require a number of physiological adaptations to overcome the problems of

1706:

Genus of 3 species, one non-mangrove, forms tribe Xylocarpaeae with Carapa, a non–mangrove

8: 17931: 17240: 17140: 14265: 14072: 12952: 12762: 12737: 12415: 12248: 11899: 11388: 11229: 11045: 10810: 10464: 10273: 10231: 10001: 9961: 9693: 8410: 8385: 7408: 4341: 2398: 2063: 1854: 1720: 1392: 1219: 1095: 1076: 1011: 983: 356: 9330: 9240: 9211: 9160: 8968: 8737: 8571: 8515: 8401: 8354: 8303: 8258: 8149: 8059: 7954: 7887: 7768:; Lee, Jessica A.; Thompson, Luke R.; Bielawski, Joseph P.; Chisholm, Sallie W. (2006). 7726: 7665: 7551: 7496: 7400: 7291: 7236: 7113: 7015: 6949: 6886: 6839: 6800: 6696: 6624: 6585: 6500: 6457: 6414: 6204: 6082: 6026: 5641: 5428: 5381: 5336: 5299: 5229: 5154: 5038: 4987: 4837: 4751: 4647: 4560: 4495: 4412: 4209: 4173: 3972: 3937: 3826: 3205: 3164: 18095: 17557: 14387: 13031: 12893: 12886: 12837: 12608: 12468: 12445: 12394: 12112: 12030: 11939: 11813: 11798: 11778: 11679: 11674: 11256: 11246: 10730: 10725: 10593: 10535: 10429: 10278: 10196: 10081: 10061: 9971: 9914: 9795: 9535: 9516: 9375: 9104: 9048: 9009: 8980: 8913: 8802: 8769: 8749: 8665: 8590: 8555: 8535: 8468: 8435: 8366: 8323: 8272: 8166: 8133: 8079: 8022: 7995: 7971: 7938: 7919: 7847: 7820: 7796: 7769: 7746: 7695: 7633: 7581: 7515: 7480: 7456: 7431: 7361: 7334: 7310: 7275: 7256: 7190: 7163: 7133: 7073: 7048: 6977: 6908: 6851: 6764: 6740:"Interactions between plants and soil shaping the root microbiome under abiotic stress" 6739: 6715: 6680: 6651: 6608: 6512: 6469: 6426: 6330: 6305: 6240: 6161: 6136: 6099: 6066: 6046: 5991: 5924: 5897: 5821: 5794: 5770: 5745: 5720: 5693: 5671: 5602: 5575: 5543: 5503: 5476: 5447: 5412: 5393: 5367: 5249: 5213: 5138: 5068: 5007: 4932: 4903: 4884: 4849: 4806: 4716: 4669: 4579: 4544: 4525: 4431: 4396: 4366: 4260: 4229: 4141: 4124: 4100: 4075: 4060: 3984: 3851: 3810: 3305: 3237: 3015: 2990: 2883: 2871: 2819: 2685: 2564: 2560: 2264: 2069: 2057: 2055:

Global distribution of native mangrove species, 2010. Not shown are introduced ranges:

1964: 1932: 1775: 1476: 1467: 1419: 1188: 1020: 562: 553: 510: 377: 224: 9286: 9219: 5344: 4845: 4397:"The Loss of Species: Mangrove Extinction Risk and Geographic Areas of Global Concern" 4181: 3945: 3914:

Tomlinson, P. The botany of mangroves. (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986).

3406: 3189: 2764: 1274: 955: 504: 110:

conditions of waterlogged mud, but are most likely to thrive in the upper half of the

17911: 17542: 17205: 14392: 14382: 12812: 12774: 12719: 12278: 12188: 12095: 11904: 11846: 11709: 11684: 11454: 11425: 11347: 11276: 11266: 11189: 10740: 10618: 10565: 10484: 10151: 10116: 10056: 10016: 9986: 9956: 9867: 9775: 9770: 9672: 9662: 9275: 9260: 9040: 8976: 8946: 8884: 8869: 8833: 8807: 8789: 8706: 8683:

Williamson, Kurt E.; Fuhrmann, Jeffry J.; Wommack, K. Eric; Radosevich, Mark (2017).

8657: 8620: 8616:

Species Diversity in Ecological Communities: Historical and Geographical Perspectives

8595: 8527: 8523: 8473: 8455: 8415: 8315: 8276: 8220: 8215: 8190: 8171: 8114: 8071: 8027: 7976: 7911: 7852: 7801: 7738: 7687: 7625: 7573: 7520: 7461: 7412: 7366: 7315: 7248: 7195: 7125: 7078: 7029: 6981: 6969: 6961: 6900: 6855: 6804: 6769: 6720: 6656: 6638: 6553: 6335: 6280: 6244: 6232: 6224: 6216: 6166: 6104: 6050: 6038: 5929: 5875: 5846:"Disentangling the factors shaping microbiota composition across the plant holobiont" 5826: 5775: 5725: 5663: 5607: 5551: 5527: 5508: 5452: 5253: 5241: 5191: 5166: 5119: 5060: 5024: 4999: 4937: 4888: 4853: 4798: 4708: 4584: 4529: 4517: 4436: 4358: 4314: 4304: 4264: 4221: 4105: 4029: 3856: 3838: 3756: 3563: 3536: 3501: 3447: 3410: 3360: 3309: 3241: 3229: 3020: 2926: 2909: 2849: 2749: 2556: 2390: 2147:

occurs to about 31 °N (Tagawa in Hosakawa et al., 1977, but initially referred to as

2075: 1359: 1245: 974: 915: 902: 698: 589: 450: 346: 220: 9108: 8984: 8917: 8753: 8669: 8539: 8370: 8327: 7699: 7637: 7137: 7121: 6912: 6516: 6034: 5995: 5675: 5397: 5011: 4720: 4673: 4233: 1086: 199: 12940: 12921: 12572: 12549: 12543: 12331: 11909: 11823: 11704: 11513: 11286: 10848: 10540: 10444: 10396: 10308: 10201: 9899: 9461: 9334: 9301: 9244: 9215: 9164: 9131: 9096: 9073: 9052: 9030: 9005: 8972: 8941: 8905: 8797: 8781: 8741: 8696: 8649: 8585: 8575: 8519: 8463: 8447: 8405: 8358: 8307: 8262: 8210: 8202: 8161: 8153: 8106: 8083: 8063: 8017: 8007: 7966: 7958: 7923: 7901: 7891: 7842: 7832: 7791: 7781: 7750: 7730: 7677: 7669: 7615: 7563: 7555: 7510: 7500: 7451: 7443: 7404: 7356: 7346: 7305: 7295: 7260: 7240: 7185: 7175: 7117: 7068: 7060: 7019: 6953: 6890: 6847: 6843: 6796: 6759: 6751: 6710: 6700: 6646: 6628: 6589: 6543: 6504: 6461: 6430: 6418: 6381: 6325: 6317: 6272: 6208: 6156: 6148: 6094: 6086: 6030: 5981: 5919: 5909: 5867: 5857: 5816: 5806: 5765: 5757: 5715: 5705: 5653: 5645: 5597: 5587: 5498: 5488: 5442: 5432: 5385: 5340: 5303: 5233: 5158: 5109: 5099: 5072: 5050: 5042: 4991: 4927: 4919: 4876: 4841: 4810: 4788: 4755: 4700: 4661: 4574: 4564: 4507: 4499: 4426: 4416: 4370: 4350: 4256: 4213: 4177: 4136: 4095: 4087: 4056: 4019: 3988: 3976: 3941: 3846: 3830: 3746: 3402: 3295: 3287: 3219: 3209: 3168: 3056: 3010: 3002: 2969: 2921: 2878: 2770: 2741:

and nutrients from hosts and assist microbes in driving biogeochemical cycles with

2449: 2444: 2335:

Larger marine organisms benefit from the habitat as a nursery for their offspring.

2279: 2096:

supplies of propagules floating on warm ocean currents from rich mangrove regions.

1993: 1502: 1308: 928: 515: 471: 430: 409: 360:) lives on higher ground and develops many specialized root-like structures called 309: 293: 11863: 9248: 9135: 8206: 7585: 6957: 6212: 5914: 5649: 2495:

and plant microbiomes, as tree genotypes and species are associated with specific

2099: 2031: 1383: 1210: 1160: 17609: 16087: 15862: 14397: 14328: 14290: 14100: 14093: 12861: 12849: 12584: 12382: 12268: 12143: 12080: 11838: 11833: 11689: 11580: 11261: 11251: 11154: 10926: 10918: 10818: 10785: 10646: 10598: 10474: 10449: 10258: 10211: 10136: 9981: 9966: 9765: 9572: 9457: 9437: 9411: 8580: 8012: 7786: 6895: 6870: 6593: 5592: 5576:"Research priorities for harnessing plant microbiomes in sustainable agriculture" 4421: 4074:

Scholander, P. F.; Bradstreet, Edda D.; Hammel, H. T.; Hemmingsen, E. A. (1966).

3811:"Novel water filtration of saline water in the outermost layer of mangrove roots" 3557: 2866: 2844: 2839: 2811: 2699: 2567:, and Desulfarculales among others. Highly diverse microbial communities (mainly 2521: 2173: 2168: 1838: 1622: 1458: 1290: 1141: 593: 444: 440: 122: 111: 92: 84: 44: 18011:

National Environmental Management: Integrated Coastal Management Act, 24 of 2008

9602: 8685:"Viruses in Soil Ecosystems: An Unknown Quantity within an Unexplored Territory" 7000:"Niche and host-associated functional signatures of the root surface microbiome" 5187:

Soil Salinity Management in Agriculture: Technological Advances and Applications

4736:"Mangrove forest against dyke-break-induced tsunami on rapidly subsiding coasts" 2131:

extends as far south as Bunbury (33° 19'S). In the northern hemisphere, scrubby

1785: 1542:

Included on green backgrounds are annotations about the genera made by Tomlinson

1062: 787:

Included on green backgrounds are annotations about the genera made by Tomlinson

17936: 12989: 12928: 12725: 12489: 12402: 12218: 12025: 11699: 11302: 11281: 11271: 10682: 10636: 10631: 10603: 10570: 10439: 10298: 10226: 10216: 10066: 10011: 9929: 9924: 9919: 8927:"A review of the floral composition and distribution of mangroves in Sri Lanka" 8488: 8451: 7765: 7210: 7064: 6823: 6681:"Structure, variation, and assembly of the root-associated microbiomes of rice" 6609:"Structure, variation, and assembly of the root-associated microbiomes of rice" 6350: 6321: 6152: 6090: 5944: 5237: 4760: 4735: 4503: 4451: 3871: 2824: 2738: 2675: 2624: 2551: 2527: 2373:

deposits because of fungal and bacterial processes as well as by the action of

2247: 2235: 2143:

mangle for Bermuda, presumably supplied by the Gulf Stream. In southern Japan,

2087: 1864: 1831: 1793: 1112: 993: 871: 829: 822: 752: 566: 535: 321: 296: 250: 241: 232: 142: 96: 64: 39: 9035: 8909: 8745: 8653: 8362: 8311: 8110: 7896: 7871: 7180: 6548: 6531: 6422: 5986: 5969: 5811: 5389: 5046: 4995: 4923: 4880: 4793: 4665: 4569: 4217: 4125:"Physiology of Salt Excretion in the Mangrove Avicennia Marina (Forsk.) Vierh" 3980: 3291: 3061: 1747: 433:

from the rest of the plant. One study found that roots of the Indian mangrove

376:

Because the soil is perpetually waterlogged, little free oxygen is available.

18089: 17926: 12523: 12483: 12340: 12228: 11982: 11553: 11199: 11149: 11112: 10996: 10896: 10790: 10755: 10656: 10651: 10626: 10156: 10121: 10096: 9946: 9909: 9432: 9406: 9305: 9087:

Jin-Eong, Ong (2004). "The Ecology of Mangrove Conservation and Management".

9062:"Mangrove Forests: One of the World's Threatened Major Tropical Environments" 8793: 8459: 7620: 7603: 7351: 6642: 6220: 5710: 5555: 5547: 5245: 5170: 5123: 5064: 4318: 3842: 2536: 2322: 2318: 2256: 1692: 1564: 1264: 847: 466: 361: 189: 181: 146: 9272:

Let them eat shrimp: the tragic disappearance of the rainforests of the sea.

8556:"The Microbiome of Brazilian Mangrove Sediments as Revealed by Metagenomics" 7837: 7559: 7505: 7300: 7162:

Jin, Min; Guo, Xun; Zhang, Rui; Qu, Wu; Gao, Boliang; Zeng, Runying (2019).

6705: 6633: 5493: 5437: 4704: 3300: 3214: 2204:

factors—thus only a select few species make up the mangrove tree community.

1882: 145:

technologies and global data have been used to assess areas, conditions and

17886: 16945: 16147: 15704: 12686: 12501: 12213: 11999: 11914: 11649: 11639: 11602: 11533: 11508: 11307: 11184: 11179: 11174: 10882: 10661: 10641: 10545: 10283: 10166: 10086: 10046: 10036: 10006: 9143:

Kuenzer, C.; Bluemel, A.; Gebhardt, S.; Vo Quoc, T. & Dech, S. (2011).

9044: 8811: 8710: 8661: 8599: 8531: 8477: 8419: 8319: 8224: 8175: 8157: 8118: 8075: 8031: 7980: 7915: 7856: 7805: 7742: 7691: 7629: 7577: 7524: 7465: 7416: 7370: 7319: 7252: 7199: 7164:"Diversities and potential biogeochemical impacts of mangrove soil viruses" 7129: 7082: 7049:"A practical guide to amplicon and metagenomic analysis of microbiome data" 7033: 6973: 6904: 6808: 6773: 6724: 6660: 6557: 6339: 6284: 6236: 6170: 6137:"Microbial Interkingdom Interactions in Roots Promote Arabidopsis Survival" 6108: 6042: 5933: 5879: 5830: 5779: 5729: 5667: 5611: 5512: 5456: 5003: 4941: 4802: 4712: 4588: 4521: 4440: 4362: 4225: 4033: 3860: 3760: 3233: 3024: 2730: 2650: 2596: 2532: 2378: 2260: 1657: 1045: 1032: 743: 582: 578: 60: 9315:"Remote Sensing in Mapping Mangrove Ecosystems – An Object-Based Approach" 7447: 6508: 5742: 5139:"Diet and prey preference of juvenile lemon sharks Negaprion brevirostris" 4543:

Cannicci, S.; Fusi, M.; Cimó, F.; Dahdouh-Guebas, F.; Fratini, S. (2018).

4109: 3775: 3684:

The Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Government of Bermuda

2575:) have been found to inhabit and function in mangrove roots. For example, 2457: 17723: 16910: 12347: 12238: 12233: 12100: 12090: 11989: 11868: 11851: 11738: 11719: 11548: 11538: 11528: 11164: 10795: 10770: 10765: 10735: 10518: 10494: 10459: 10268: 10171: 10091: 10051: 9904: 9820: 8785: 7962: 7335:"Environmental bacteriophages: Viruses of microbes in aquatic ecosystems" 4331: 4004:"Role of root hydrophobic barriers in salt exclusion of a mangrove plant 3731:"Role of root hydrophobic barriers in salt exclusion of a mangrove plant 3704: 3149:"The Global Mangrove Watch—A New 2010 Global Baseline of Mangrove Extent" 3006: 2861: 2768:

Circular representation of the chloroplast genome for the grey mangrove,

2714: 2492: 2417: 2410: 2386: 2336: 2313:, which all require a hard surface for anchoring while they filter-feed. 2275: 2014: 1957: 1944: 1897: 1890: 1823: 1674: 1647: 857:

Old monogeneric family, now subsumed in Acanthaceae, but clearly isolated

397: 8432: 8067: 7906: 7734: 7673: 7276:"Twelve previously unknown phage genera are ubiquitous in global oceans" 7244: 6755: 6067:"The structure and function of the global citrus rhizosphere microbiome" 5055: 4512: 4091: 3675: 3087: 1179: 17896: 17537: 14323: 12358: 12198: 11894: 11878: 11858: 11724: 11714: 11617: 11585: 11568: 11563: 11558: 11393: 11169: 10775: 10710: 10499: 10479: 10263: 10236: 10021: 9934: 9723: 9587: 9472:"Water Center for the Humid Tropics of Latin America and the Caribbean" 9359: 9100: 9019:"How Effective were Mangroves as a Defense Against the Recent Tsunami?" 7682: 7024: 6999: 6473: 5658: 5308: 5279: 4961: 4777:"How effective were mangroves as a defence against the recent tsunami?" 3190:"High-resolution mapping of losses and gains of Earth's tidal wetlands" 3173: 3148: 3118:. Mangrove Manual. The Zoological Society of London ZSL. Archived from 3084:"Morphological and Physiological Adaptations: Florida mangrove website" 2834: 2655: 2645:

are viruses that infect bacteria, such as cyanobacteria. Shown are the

2600: 2588: 2576: 2540: 2453: 2355: 2306: 2196: 2127:, although genetic comparison is clearly needed. In Western Australia, 2081: 1873: 1847: 1806: 1713: 1602: 1577: 1451: 1445: 1326: 1299: 1070: 725: 707: 365: 288: 72: 11592: 10891: 9512:. Stacey Larner, John Oxley Library Blog. State Library of Queensland. 9339: 9314: 9169: 9144: 8955:

Ellison, Aaron M. (2000). "Mangrove Restoration: Do We Know Enough?".

8267: 8242: 7479:

Hurwitz, B. L.; Westveld, A. H.; Brum, J. R.; Sullivan, M. B. (2014).

6965: 6386: 6369: 6363: 6361: 6359: 6228: 5862: 5845: 5761: 5162: 5104: 5087: 4024: 4003: 3834: 3751: 3730: 2958:"The State of the World's Mangrove Forests: Past, Present, and Future" 1729: 1229: 1104: 17891: 14908: 14164: 12289: 12020: 11994: 11729: 11543: 11518: 11498: 11383: 11378: 11194: 10800: 10705: 10489: 10253: 10246: 10221: 10131: 9836: 7568: 4774: 2757: 2613: 2609: 2382: 2340: 2212: 2001: 1974: 1906: 1755: 1700: 1640: 1125: 864: 809: 748: 737: 719: 713: 602: 597: 574: 385: 331: 130: 103: 88: 76: 8132:

Hurwitz, Bonnie L.; Brum, Jennifer R.; Sullivan, Matthew B. (2015).

7939:"Structure and function of a cyanophage-encoded peptide deformylase" 6465: 5085: 4073: 3276: 632: 261:

Most broadly to refer to the habitat and entire plant assemblage or

14230: 14009: 12913: 12786: 12453: 12423: 12208: 12203: 12193: 12015: 11967: 11962: 11945: 11803: 11783: 11748: 11627: 11622: 11215: 10560: 10106: 10101: 10026: 9313:

Vo Quoc, T.; Oppelt, N.; Leinenkugel, P. & Kuenzer, C. (2013).

9018: 9016: 8682: 6997: 6356: 5372: 4776: 4734:

Takagi, H.; Mikami, T.; Fujii, D.; Esteban, M.; Kurobe, S. (2016).

4354: 3359:(Reprint of 2002 ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. 2568: 2488: 2363: 2329: 2310: 2298: 2231: 1768: 1283: 702: 519: 487: 381: 351: 161:

and extreme weather events. Mangrove forests are also effective at

158: 126: 18016:

National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act, 57 of 2003

14067: 11664: 6678: 6606: 3324:"International Day for the Conservation of the Mangrove Ecosystem" 1632: 1255: 228: 17734:

Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology Virtual Museum

17705: 14455: 12532: 12243: 12223: 11788: 11753: 11575: 11477: 11117: 10760: 10720: 10690: 10668: 10288: 10076: 9976: 8894: 8487:

Material was copied from this source, which is available under a

7209:

Material was copied from this source, which is available under a

6931:"Feed Your Friends: Do Plant Exudates Shape the Root Microbiome?" 6786: 6349:

Material was copied from this source, which is available under a

6186:"Feed Your Friends: Do Plant Exudates Shape the Root Microbiome?" 5943:

Material was copied from this source, which is available under a

4955: 4450:

Material was copied from this source, which is available under a

3870:

Material was copied from this source, which is available under a

2684:

Phylogenetic tree of tailed phages found in the mangrove virome.

2544: 2531:

before plant assimilation. These microbes also provide mangroves

2484: 2374: 2283: 2271: 2189: 1615: 1238: 880: 731: 600:

leaves and/or the bark. Mangroves are facultative halophytes and

531: 423: 393: 389: 80: 68: 14020:

List of marine invertebrates of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay

10509: 9879: 9628:

International Day for the Conservation of the Mangrove Ecosystem

8500: 5895: 5210: 4001: 3728: 171:

International Day for the Conservation of the Mangrove Ecosystem

102:

Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees, shrubs and ferns also called

18006:

National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 10 of 2004

15286: 14338: 12658: 12321: 11977: 11768: 11758: 11654: 11091: 10981: 10745: 10071: 9451: 9425: 9312: 8854: 6869:

Johansson, Jonas F.; Paul, Leslie R.; Finlay, Roger D. (2004).

6134: 4047:

Scholander, P. F. (1968). "How Mangroves Desalinate Seawater".

2692: 2689: 2671: 2646: 2638: 2592: 2472: 2402: 2314: 2302: 523: 427: 14025:

List of marine vertebrates of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay

9116: 7537: 4542: 3654:

Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Queensland Government

1590:

milky mangrove, blind-your-eye mangrove and river poison tree

1038:

Tribe Lagunculariae (including Macropteranthes = non-mangrove)

17728: 14430: 12825: 12629: 12620: 12592: 12556: 12476: 12366: 11818: 11773: 11763: 11743: 11694: 11659: 11634: 11607: 11503: 10986: 10957: 9491: 9284: 9142: 8924: 8483: 7273: 7205: 6345: 5939: 4446: 4194: 3866: 3108: 2703: 2642: 2572: 2480: 2476: 2359: 2351: 2294: 2241: 1799:

Monotypic genus and family of uncertain phylogenetic position

280: 268: 118: 56: 9527: 7095: 5474: 4901: 4689: 4393: 3187: 3146: 2625:

Suggestions for future mangrove microbial diversity research

2218: 751:(a ready-to-go seedling) which can produce its own food via 396:, which make the soil much less nutritious. Pneumatophores ( 12874: 12800: 12750: 12699: 12646: 11972: 11793: 11669: 11446: 11144: 10241: 9475: 9226: 9079:

10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0807:mfootw]2.0.co;2

9060:

Bowen, Jennifer L.; Valiela, Ivan; York, Joanna K. (2001).

8850: 7478: 5536:

International Journal of Agriculture and Biology (Pakistan)

5413:"Mangroves shelter coastal economic activity from cyclones" 2468: 2370: 2251:, the only palm species fully adapted to the mangrove biome 2185: 2159: 694: 569:

of the first layer. The second layer, which is composed of

235: 14035:

List of brown seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay

14030:

List of green seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay

13983:

List of Southern African indigenous trees and woody lianes

8096: 7763: 4481: 2955: 588:

Uptake of Na ions is desirable for halophytes to build up

577:

roots and could serve as a basis for the development of a

12458: 11612: 11523: 10303: 10293: 8925:

Jayatissa, L. P.; Dahdouh-Guebas, F.; Koedam, N. (2002).

8552: 7993: 6929:

Sasse, Joelle; Martinoia, Enrico; Northen, Trent (2018).

6184:

Sasse, Joelle; Martinoia, Enrico; Northen, Trent (2018).

4303:. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. 3598:

Botanical Garden, University of California at Los Angeles

3049:"Many mangrove restorations fail. Is there a better way?" 219:. Further back, it may be traced to South America and 91:

epochs, and became widely distributed in part due to the

17653:

South African Association for Marine Biological Research

14429: 14040:

List of red seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay

9466:

Mangrove Forests Could Be a Big Player in Carbon Trading

9255:

Spalding, Mark; Kainuma, Mami and Collins, Lorna (2010)

8340: 8044: 7387:

Breitbart, Mya (2012). "Marine Viruses: Truth or Dare".

4733: 4076:"Sap Concentrations in Halophytes and Some Other Plants" 3624:"Distribution of coral, mangrove and seagrass diversity" 3248: 2706:

are thought to significantly influence local and global

2259:

sediments under mangroves act as sinks for a variety of

2111:

Global distribution of threatened mangrove species, 2010

9196: 6367: 5967: 5627: 5573: 5280:"Degradation of mangrove tissues by arboreal termites ( 8489: