Plate tectonics - Knowledge

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faster than the plates of the Atlantic basin, which are attached (perhaps one could say 'welded') to adjacent continents instead of subducting plates. It is thus thought that forces associated with the downgoing plate (slab pull and slab suction) are the driving forces which determine the motion of plates, except for those plates which are not being subducted. This view however has been contradicted by a recent study which found that the actual motions of the Pacific Plate and other plates associated with the East Pacific Rise do not correlate mainly with either slab pull or slab push, but rather with a mantle convection upwelling whose horizontal spreading along the bases of the various plates drives them along via viscosity-related traction forces. The driving forces of plate motion continue to be active subjects of on-going research within

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the Pacific Ocean basins derives simply from the eastward bias of the Pacific spreading center (which is not a predicted manifestation of such lunar forces). In the same paper the authors admit, however, that relative to the lower mantle, there is a slight westward component in the motions of all the plates. They demonstrated though that the westward drift, seen only for the past 30 Ma, is attributed to the increased dominance of the steadily growing and accelerating Pacific plate. The debate is still open, and a recent paper by Hofmeister et al. (2022) revived the idea advocating again the interaction between the Earth's rotation and the Moon as main driving forces for the plates.

1095: 2163:" hypothesis of S. Warren Carey (see above). Therefore, the question remained as to how new crust could continuously be added along the oceanic ridges without increasing the size of Earth. In reality, this question had been solved already by numerous scientists during the 1940s and the 1950s, like Arthur Holmes, Vening-Meinesz, Coates and many others: The crust in excess disappeared along what were called the oceanic trenches, where so-called "subduction" occurred. Therefore, when various scientists during the early 1960s started to reason on the data at their disposal regarding the ocean floor, the pieces of the theory quickly fell into place. 1149: 1367:

mechanisms view plate motion driven by friction between the convection currents in the asthenosphere and the more rigid overlying lithosphere. This is due to the inflow of mantle material related to the downward pull on plates in subduction zones at ocean trenches. Slab pull may occur in a geodynamic setting where basal tractions continue to act on the plate as it dives into the mantle (although perhaps to a greater extent acting on both the under and upper side of the slab). Furthermore, slabs that are broken off and sink into the mantle can cause viscous mantle forces driving plates through slab suction.

2229: 2083:, a theory which had been proposed by other workers decades earlier. In this hypothesis, the shifting of the continents is explained by a large increase in the size of Earth since its formation. However, although the theory still has supporters in science, this is generally regarded as unsatisfactory because there is no convincing mechanism to produce a significant expansion of Earth. Other work during the following years would soon show that the evidence was equally in support of continental drift on a globe with a stable radius. 1291: 57: 1996: 105: 1851: 1785:) (i.e., it was assumed that the north pole location had been shifting through time). An alternative explanation, though, was that the continents had moved (shifted and rotated) relative to the north pole, and each continent, in fact, shows its own "polar wander path". During the late 1950s, it was successfully shown on two occasions that these data could show the validity of continental drift: by Keith Runcorn in a paper in 1956, and by Warren Carey in a symposium held in March 1956. 1984: 2606: 9038: 2410:

importance of the gravitational pull of subducted slabs through the works of Elsasser, Solomon, Sleep, Uyeda and Turcotte. Other authors evoked external driving forces due to the tidal drag of the Moon and other celestial bodies, and, especially since 2000, with the emergence of computational models reproducing Earth's mantle behaviour to first order, following upon the older unifying concepts of van Bemmelen, authors re-evaluated the important role of mantle dynamics.

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along the spreading ridges to form new crust. In effect, the ocean basins are perpetually being "recycled", with the forming of new crust and the destruction of old oceanic lithosphere occurring simultaneously. Thus, the new mobilistic concepts neatly explained why Earth does not get bigger with sea floor spreading, why there is so little sediment accumulation on the ocean floor, and why oceanic rocks are much younger than continental rocks.

827: 10839: 9664: 10863: 2192:, but priority belongs to Hess who had already distributed an unpublished manuscript of his 1962 article by 1960) were among the small number who really understood the broad implications of sea floor spreading and how it would eventually agree with the, at that time, unconventional and unaccepted ideas of continental drift and the elegant and mobilistic models proposed by previous workers like Holmes. 1450:: Scientific opinion is that the asthenosphere is insufficiently competent or rigid to directly cause motion by friction along the base of the lithosphere. Slab pull is therefore most widely thought to be the greatest force acting on the plates. In this understanding, plate motion is mostly driven by the weight of cold, dense plates sinking into the mantle at trenches. Recent models indicate that 2274:) and can locally distort compass readings. This distortion was recognized by Icelandic mariners as early as the late 18th century. More importantly, because the presence of magnetite gives the basalt measurable magnetic properties, these newly discovered magnetic variations provided another means to study the deep ocean floor. When newly formed rock cools, such magnetic materials recorded 1436:". This is a misnomer as there is no force "pushing" horizontally, indeed tensional features are dominant along ridges. It is more accurate to refer to this mechanism as "gravitational sliding", since the topography across the whole plate can vary considerably and spreading ridges are only the most prominent feature. Other mechanisms generating this gravitational secondary force include 1128:. As the ocean plate splits, the ridge forms at the spreading center, the ocean basin expands, and finally, the plate area increases causing many small volcanoes and/or shallow earthquakes. At zones of continent-to-continent rifting, divergent boundaries may cause new ocean basin to form as the continent splits, spreads, the central rift collapses, and ocean fills the basin, e.g., the 2487: 2215:. The important step Hess made was that convection currents would be the driving force in this process, arriving at the same conclusions as Holmes had decades before with the only difference that the thinning of the ocean crust was performed using Heezen's mechanism of spreading along the ridges. Hess therefore concluded that the Atlantic Ocean was expanding while the 2011:, the prevailing concept during the first half of the twentieth century was that there were two types of crust, named "sial" (continental type crust) and "sima" (oceanic type crust). Furthermore, it was supposed that a static shell of strata was present under the continents. It therefore looked apparent that a layer of basalt (sial) underlies the continental rocks. 1014:

formed at mid-ocean ridges and spreads outwards, its thickness is therefore a function of its distance from the mid-ocean ridge where it was formed. For a typical distance that oceanic lithosphere must travel before being subducted, the thickness varies from about 6 km (4 mi) thick at mid-ocean ridges to greater than 100 km (62 mi) at

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caused by Earth's rotation and the forces acting upon it by the Moon are a driving force for plate tectonics. As Earth spins eastward beneath the Moon, the Moon's gravity ever so slightly pulls Earth's surface layer back westward, just as proposed by Alfred Wegener (see above). Since 1990 this theory is mainly advocated by Doglioni and co-workers (

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degree is controversial. Modern plate tectonics are suggested to have emerged by at least 2.2 billion years ago with the formation of the first recognised supercontinent Columbia, though some authors have suggested that modern-style plate tectonics did not appear until 800 million years ago based on the late appearance of rock types like

2207:. His paper, though little noted (and sometimes even ridiculed) at the time, has since been called "seminal" and "prescient". In reality, it shows that the work by the European scientists on island arcs and mountain belts performed and published during the 1930s up until the 1950s was applied and appreciated also in the United States. 2334:

appreciated as a natural "tape recording" of the history of the geomagnetic field reversals (GMFR) of Earth's magnetic field. Extensive studies were dedicated to the calibration of the normal-reversal patterns in the oceanic crust on one hand and known timescales derived from the dating of basalt layers in sedimentary sequences (

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thus adds distance from the ridge). Cool oceanic lithosphere is significantly denser than the hot mantle material from which it is derived and so with increasing thickness it gradually subsides into the mantle to compensate the greater load. The result is a slight lateral incline with increased distance from the ridge axis.

1388:, which were initially opposed to plate tectonics and placed the mechanism in a fixed frame of vertical movements. Van Bemmelen later modified the concept in his "Undation Models" and used "Mantle Blisters" as the driving force for horizontal movements, invoking gravitational forces away from the regional crustal doming. 2060:

paleomagnetic data had shown that the magnetic pole had also shifted during time. Reasoning in an opposite way, the continents might have shifted and rotated, while the pole remained relatively fixed. The first time the evidence of magnetic polar wander was used to support the movements of continents was in a paper by

1501:; however, these forces were considered far too small to cause continental motion as the concept was of continents plowing through oceanic crust. Therefore, Wegener later changed his position and asserted that convection currents are the main driving force of plate tectonics in the last edition of his book in 1929. 1355:) shows a varying lateral density distribution throughout the mantle. Such density variations can be material (from rock chemistry), mineral (from variations in mineral structures), or thermal (through thermal expansion and contraction from heat energy). The manifestation of this varying lateral density is 2752:

have been calculated. This research has led to the fairly well accepted hypothesis that Venus has undergone an essentially complete volcanic resurfacing at least once in its distant past, with the last event taking place approximately within the range of estimated surface ages. While the mechanism of

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and an array of instruments, confirmed the existence of a rise in the central Atlantic Ocean, and found that the floor of the seabed beneath the layer of sediments consisted of basalt, not the granite which is the main constituent of continents. They also found that the oceanic crust was much thinner

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However, his ideas were not taken seriously by many geologists, who pointed out that there was no apparent mechanism for continental drift. Specifically, they did not see how continental rock could plow through the much denser rock that makes up oceanic crust. Wegener could not explain the force that

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All this evidence, both from the ocean floor and from the continental margins, made it clear around 1965 that continental drift was feasible. The theory of plate tectonics was defined in a series of papers between 1965 and 1967. The theory revolutionized the Earth sciences, explaining a diverse range

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Soderblom, Laurence A.; Tomasko, Martin G.; Archinal, Brent A.; Becker, Tammy L.; Bushroe, Michael W.; Cook, Debbie A.; Doose, Lyn R.; Galuszka, Donna M.; Hare, Trent M.; Howington-Kraus, Elpitha; Karkoschka, Erich; Kirk, Randolph L.; Lunine, Jonathan I.; McFarlane, Elisabeth A.; Redding, Bonnie L.;

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nature of preserved rocks between 3 and 2.5 billion years ago implies that subduction zones had emerged by this time, with preserved zircons suggesting that subduction may have begun as early at 3.8 million years ago. Early subduction zones appear to have been temporary and localized, though to what

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from deep within Earth rises easily through these weak zones and eventually erupts along the crest of the ridges to create new oceanic crust. This process, at first denominated the "conveyer belt hypothesis" and later called seafloor spreading, operating over many millions of years continues to form

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Wegener's work was initially not widely accepted, in part due to a lack of detailed evidence but mostly because of the lack of a reasonable physically supported mechanism. Earth might have a solid crust and mantle and a liquid core, but there seemed to be no way that portions of the crust could move

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One of the most significant correlations discovered to date is that lithospheric plates attached to downgoing (subducting) plates move much faster than other types of plates. The Pacific plate, for instance, is essentially surrounded by zones of subduction (the so-called Ring of Fire) and moves much

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Gravitational sliding away from mantle doming: According to older theories, one of the driving mechanisms of the plates is the existence of large scale asthenosphere/mantle domes which cause the gravitational sliding of lithosphere plates away from them (see the paragraph on Mantle Mechanisms). This

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Subduction zones are of two types: ocean-to-continent subduction, where the dense oceanic lithosphere plunges beneath the less dense continent, or ocean-to-ocean subduction where older, cooler, denser oceanic crust slips beneath less dense oceanic crust. Deep marine trenches are typically associated

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Various types of quantitative and semi-quantitative information are available to constrain past plate motions. The geometric fit between continents, such as between west Africa and South America is still an important part of plate reconstruction. Magnetic stripe patterns provide a reliable guide to

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The diversity of geodynamic settings and the properties of each plate result from the impact of the various processes actively driving each individual plate. One method of dealing with this problem is to consider the relative rate at which each plate is moving as well as the evidence related to the

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Gravitational sliding away from a spreading ridge is one of the proposed driving forces, it proposes plate motion is driven by the higher elevation of plates at ocean ridges. As oceanic lithosphere is formed at spreading ridges from hot mantle material, it gradually cools and thickens with age (and

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must be transferred to the lithosphere for tectonic plates to move. There are essentially two main types of mechanisms that are thought to exist related to the dynamics of the mantle that influence plate motion which are primary (through the large scale convection cells) or secondary. The secondary

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During the 2020s, new proposals have come forward that divide the Earth's crust into many smaller plates, called terranes, which reflects the fact that Plate reconstructions show that the larger plates have been internally deformed and oceanic and continental plates have been fragmented over time.

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From that moment onwards, discussions have been focusing on the relative role of the forces driving plate tectonics, in order to evolve from a kinematic concept into a dynamic theory. Initially these concepts were focused on mantle convection, in the footsteps of A. Holmes, and also introduced the

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and spreading ridges. By the late 1920s, seismologists were beginning to identify several prominent earthquake zones parallel to the trenches that typically were inclined 40–60° from the horizontal and extended several hundred kilometers into Earth. These zones later became known as Wadati–Benioff

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have no plate tectonics, as Venus has no moon and Mars' moons are too small to have significant tidal effects on the planet. In a paper by it was suggested that, on the other hand, it can easily be observed that many plates are moving north and eastward, and that the dominantly westward motion of

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Of the many forces discussed above, tidal force is still highly debated and defended as a possible principal driving force of plate tectonics. The other forces are only used in global geodynamic models not using plate tectonics concepts (therefore beyond the discussions treated in this section) or

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By explaining both the zebra-like magnetic striping and the construction of the mid-ocean ridge system, the seafloor spreading hypothesis (SFS) quickly gained converts and represented another major advance in the development of the plate-tectonics theory. Furthermore, the oceanic crust came to be

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Another theory is that the mantle flows neither in cells nor large plumes but rather as a series of channels just below Earth's crust, which then provide basal friction to the lithosphere. This theory, called "surge tectonics", was popularized during the 1980s and 1990s. Recent research, based on

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Average oceanic lithosphere is typically 100 km (62 mi) thick. Its thickness is a function of its age. As time passes, it cools by conducting heat from below, and releasing it raditively into space. The adjacent mantle below is cooled by this process and added to its base. Because it is

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was shrinking. As old oceanic crust is "consumed" in the trenches (like Holmes and others, he thought this was done by thickening of the continental lithosphere, not, as later understood, by underthrusting at a larger scale of the oceanic crust itself into the mantle), new magma rises and erupts

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The new data that had been collected on the ocean basins also showed particular characteristics regarding the bathymetry. One of the major outcomes of these datasets was that all along the globe, a system of mid-oceanic ridges was detected. An important conclusion was that along this system, new

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along the trenches bounding many continental margins, together with many other geophysical (e.g., gravimetric) and geological observations, showed how the oceanic crust could disappear into the mantle, providing the mechanism to balance the extension of the ocean basins with shortening along its

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and R. C. Bostrom presented evidence for a general westward drift of Earth's lithosphere with respect to the mantle, based on the steepness of the subduction zones (shallow dipping towards the east, steeply dipping towards the west). They concluded that tidal forces (the tidal lag or "friction")

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of the United States. The study of global seismicity greatly advanced in the 1960s with the establishment of the Worldwide Standardized Seismograph Network (WWSSN) to monitor the compliance of the 1963 treaty banning above-ground testing of nuclear weapons. The much improved data from the WWSSN

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followed by numerous researchers during the 1990s, a modified concept of mantle convection currents is used. It asserts that super plumes rise from the deeper mantle and are the drivers or substitutes of the major convection cells. These ideas find their roots in the early 1930s in the works of

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direction, evidenced by studies since the mid–nineteenth century. The magnetic north and south poles reverse through time, and, especially important in paleotectonic studies, the relative position of the magnetic north pole varies through time. Initially, during the first half of the twentieth

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data, although these only constrain the latitude and rotation, but not the longitude. Combining poles of different ages in a particular plate to produce apparent polar wander paths provides a method for comparing the motions of different plates through time. Additional evidence comes from the

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If Earth's crust was expanding along the oceanic ridges, Hess and Dietz reasoned like Holmes and others before them, it must be shrinking elsewhere. Hess followed Heezen, suggesting that new oceanic crust continuously spreads away from the ridges in a conveyor belt–like motion. And, using the

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The discovery of magnetic striping called for an explanation. In the early 1960s scientists such as Heezen, Hess and Dietz had begun to theorise that mid-ocean ridges mark structurally weak zones where the ocean floor was being ripped in two lengthwise along the ridge crest (see the previous

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might have driven the plate movements, and that spreading may have occurred below the sea within the oceanic crust. Concepts close to the elements of plate tectonics were proposed by geophysicists and geologists (both fixists and mobilists) like Vening-Meinesz, Holmes, and Umbgrove. In 1941,

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and axis, and that gravitational driving forces were generally acting vertically and caused only local horizontal movements (the so-called pre-plate tectonic, "fixist theories"). Later studies (discussed below on this page), therefore, invoked many of the relationships recognized during this

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is the original source of the energy required to drive plate tectonics through convection or large scale upwelling and doming. As a consequence, a powerful source generating plate motion is the excess density of the oceanic lithosphere sinking in subduction zones. When the new crust forms at

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zones. For shorter or longer distances, the subduction zone, and therefore also the mean, thickness becomes smaller or larger, respectively. Continental lithosphere is typically about 200 km (120 mi) thick, though this varies considerably between basins, mountain ranges, and stable

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spacecraft in 1999 showed patterns of magnetic striping discovered on this planet. Some scientists interpreted these as requiring plate tectonic processes, such as seafloor spreading. However, their data failed a "magnetic reversal test", which is used to see if they were formed by flipping

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Hofmeister, Anne M.; Criss, Robert E.; Criss, Everett M. (2022). "Links of planetary energetics to moon size, orbit, and planet spin: A new mechanism for plate tectonics". In Foulger, Gillian R.; Hamilton, Lawrence C.; Jurdy, Donna M.; Stein, Carol A.; Howard, Keith A.; Stein, Seth (eds.).

2761:. Plate tectonics requires weak surfaces in the crust along which crustal slices can move, and it may well be that such weakening never took place on Venus because of the absence of water. However, some researchers remain convinced that plate tectonics is or was once active on this planet. 2059:

Meanwhile, debates developed around the phenomenon of polar wander. Since the early debates of continental drift, scientists had discussed and used evidence that polar drift had occurred because continents seemed to have moved through different climatic zones during the past. Furthermore,

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Forces related to gravity are invoked as secondary phenomena within the framework of a more general driving mechanism such as the various forms of mantle dynamics described above. In modern views, gravity is invoked as the major driving force, through slab pull along subduction zones.

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subdivision of these same layers into the mantle (comprising both the asthenosphere and the mantle portion of the lithosphere) and the crust: a given piece of mantle may be part of the lithosphere or the asthenosphere at different times depending on its temperature and pressure.

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of old lithosphere relative to the underlying asthenosphere allows it to sink into the deep mantle at subduction zones, providing most of the driving force for plate movement. The weakness of the asthenosphere allows the tectonic plates to move easily towards a subduction zone.

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in his work Thesaurus Geographicus... suggested that the Americas were 'torn away from Europe and Africa... by earthquakes and floods... The vestiges of the rupture reveal themselves, if someone brings forward a map of the world and considers carefully the coasts of the three

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grid of Earth itself. These systematic relations studies in the second half of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century underline exactly the opposite: that the plates had not moved in time, that the deformation grid was fixed with respect to Earth's

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Despite much opposition, the view of continental drift gained support and a lively debate started between "drifters" or "mobilists" (proponents of the theory) and "fixists" (opponents). During the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, the former reached important milestones proposing that

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stripes of rock parallel to the ridge crest alternate in magnetic polarity (normal-reversed-normal, etc.), suggesting that they were formed during different epochs documenting the (already known from independent studies) normal and reversal episodes of Earth's magnetic

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As more and more of the seafloor was mapped during the 1950s, the magnetic variations turned out not to be random or isolated occurrences, but instead revealed recognizable patterns. When these magnetic patterns were mapped over a wide region, the ocean floor showed a

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For much of the first quarter of the 20th century, the leading theory of the driving force behind tectonic plate motions envisaged large scale convection currents in the upper mantle, which can be transmitted through the asthenosphere. This theory was launched by

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In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, geologists assumed that Earth's major features were fixed, and that most geologic features such as basin development and mountain ranges could be explained by vertical crustal movement, described in what is called the

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The timing of the emergence of plate tectonics on Earth has been the subject of considerable controversy, with the estimated time varying wildly between researchers, spanning 85% of Earth's history. Some authors have suggested that during at least part of the

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in the early years of the 20th century. However, despite its acceptance, it was long debated in the scientific community because the leading theory still envisaged a static Earth without moving continents up until the major breakthroughs of the early sixties.

2286:-like pattern: one stripe with normal polarity and the adjoining stripe with reversed polarity. The overall pattern, defined by these alternating bands of normally and reversely polarized rock, became known as magnetic striping, and was published by 2826:

have features that may be related to plate-tectonic style deformation, although the materials and specific mechanisms may be different from plate-tectonic activity on Earth. On 8 September 2014, NASA reported finding evidence of plate tectonics on

1892:, Earth would have dropped to its present temperature in a few tens of millions of years. Armed with the knowledge of a new heat source, scientists realized that Earth would be much older, and that its core was still sufficiently hot to be liquid. 2159:, which would trigger a real revolution in thinking. A profound consequence of seafloor spreading is that new crust was, and still is, being continually created along the oceanic ridges. For this reason, Heezen initially advocated the so-called " 2725:

Venus shows no evidence of active plate tectonics. There is debatable evidence of active tectonics in the planet's distant past; however, events taking place since then (such as the plausible and generally accepted hypothesis that the Venusian

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gravitation, and seismic studies detected corresponding density variations. Therefore, by the mid-1950s, the question remained unresolved as to whether mountain roots were clenched in surrounding basalt or were floating on it like an iceberg.

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which remain fixed and are overridden by oceanic and continental lithosphere plates over time and leave their traces in the geological record (though these phenomena are not invoked as real driving mechanisms, but rather as modulators).

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mobilistic concepts developed before, he correctly concluded that many millions of years later, the oceanic crust eventually descends along the continental margins where oceanic trenches—very deep, narrow canyons—are formed, e.g. along

1727:, all widely distributed over South America, Africa, Antarctica, India, and Australia. The evidence for such an erstwhile joining of these continents was patent to field geologists working in the southern hemisphere. The South African 1223:

At continental collision zones there are two masses of continental lithosphere converging. Since they are of similar density, neither is subducted. The plate edges are compressed, folded, and uplifted forming mountain ranges, e.g.

813:, which is the strongest driver of plate motion. The relative importance and interaction of other proposed factors such as active convection, upwelling inside the mantle, and tidal drag of the Moon is still the subject of debate. 2361:

A symposium on continental drift was held at the Royal Society of London in 1965 which must be regarded as the official start of the acceptance of plate tectonics by the scientific community, and which abstracts are issued as

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One explanation for Venus's lack of plate tectonics is that on Venus temperatures are too high for significant water to be present. Earth's crust is soaked with water, and water plays an important role in the development of

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On Earth-sized planets, plate tectonics is more likely if there are oceans of water. However, in 2007, two independent teams of researchers came to opposing conclusions about the likelihood of plate tectonics on larger

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Three types of plate boundaries exist, characterized by the way the plates move relative to each other. They are associated with different types of surface phenomena. The different types of plate boundaries are:

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of a plate's motion is a function of all the forces acting on the plate; however, therein lies the problem regarding the degree to which each process contributes to the overall motion of each tectonic plate.

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Around the start of the twentieth century, various theorists unsuccessfully attempted to explain the many geographical, geological, and biological continuities between continents. In 1912, the meteorologist

6931: 1191:, into the surrounding mantle. The addition of water lowers the melting point of the mantle material above the subducting slab, causing it to melt. The magma that results typically leads to volcanism. 6552:"Late Neogene fore-arc basin evolution in the Calabrian Arc (Central Mediterranean). Tectonic sequence stratigraphy and dynamic geohistory. With special reference to the geology of Central Calabria" 1281:

occur where the effects of the interactions are unclear, and the boundaries, usually occurring along a broad belt, are not well defined and may show various types of movements in different episodes.

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period (~4-2.5 billion years ago) the mantle was between 100 and 250 °C warmer than at present, which is thought to be incompatible with modern-style plate tectonics, and that Earth may have had a

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At zones of ocean-to-ocean subduction a deep trench to forms in an arc shape. The upper mantle of the subducted plate then heats and magma rises to form curving chains of volcanic islands e.g. the

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the stripes are symmetrical around the crests of the mid-ocean ridges; at or near the crest of the ridge, the rocks are very young, and they become progressively older away from the ridge crest;

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The development of the theory of plate tectonics was the scientific and cultural change which occurred during a period of 50 years of scientific debate. The event of the acceptance itself was a

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Hasterok, Derrick; Halpin, Jacqueline A.; Collins, Alan S.; Hand, Martin; Kreemer, Corné; Gard, Matthew G.; Glorie, Stijn (2022). "New Maps of Global Geological Provinces and Tectonic Plates".

982:). The distinction between oceanic crust and continental crust is based on their modes of formation. Oceanic crust is formed at sea-floor spreading centers. Continental crust is formed through 713:, is fractured into seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates or "platelets". Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of 1440:

of the lithosphere before it dives underneath an adjacent plate, producing a clear topographical feature that can offset, or at least affect, the influence of topographical ocean ridges.

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and co-workers showed with a computer calculation how the continents along both sides of the Atlantic would best fit to close the ocean, which became known as the famous "Bullard's Fit".

1076:, failed to be subducted under continental crust at destructive plate boundaries; instead these oceanic crustal fragments were pushed upward and were preserved within continental crust. 2441:

Reconstruction is used to establish past (and future) plate configurations, helping determine the shape and make-up of ancient supercontinents and providing a basis for paleogeography.

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Earthquakes trace the path of the downward-moving plate as it descends into asthenosphere, a trench forms, and as the subducted plate is heated it releases volatiles, mostly water from

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to approximately date the Venusian surface (since there are thus far no known samples of Venusian rock to be dated by more reliable methods). Dates derived are dominantly in the range

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After all these considerations, plate tectonics (or, as it was initially called "New Global Tectonics") became quickly accepted and numerous papers followed that defined the concepts:

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mid-ocean ridges, this oceanic lithosphere is initially less dense than the underlying asthenosphere, but it becomes denser with age as it conductively cools and thickens. The greater

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being the most active and widely known. Some volcanoes occur in the interiors of plates, and these have been variously attributed to internal plate deformation and to mantle plumes.

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Many were published by European scientists and at first not mentioned or given little credit in the papers on sea floor spreading published by the American researchers in the 1960s.

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Only four years after the maps with the "zebra pattern" of magnetic stripes were published, the link between sea floor spreading and these patterns was recognized independently by

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of the margins of separate continents are very similar it suggests that these rocks were formed in the same way, implying that they were joined initially. For instance, parts of

1116:). These are where two plates slide apart from each other. At zones of ocean-to-ocean rifting, divergent boundaries form by seafloor spreading, allowing for the formation of new 2861:

with one team saying that plate tectonics would be episodic or stagnant and the other team saying that plate tectonics is very likely on super-earths even if the planet is dry.

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has thickened greatly over the course of several hundred million years) has made constraining the course of its geologic record difficult. However, the numerous well-preserved

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who had been one of the supporters and promotors of Continental Drift since the thirties During this symposium, some of the participants used the evidence in the theory of an

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Meyerhoff, Arthur Augustus; Taner, I.; Morris, A.E.L.; Agocs, W.B.; Kamen-Kaye, M.; Bhat, Mohammad I.; Smoot, N. Christian; Choi, Dong R. (1996). Donna Meyerhoff Hull (ed.).

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For these mechanisms to be overall valid, systematic relationships should exist all over the globe between the orientation and kinematics of deformation and the geographical

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Since that time many theories were proposed to explain this apparent complementarity, but the assumption of a solid Earth made these various proposals difficult to accept.

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Active plate boundaries are defined by their seismicity. Past plate boundaries within existing plates are identified from a variety of evidence, such as the presence of

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had drawn on his maps, and from the matching of the rock formations along these edges. Confirmation of their previous contiguous nature also came from the fossil plants

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This has resulted in the definition of roughly 1200 terranes inside the oceanic plates, continental blocks and the mobile zones (mountainous belts) that separate them.

2587:, the world's tallest mountain range, are assumed to have been formed by the collision of two major plates. Before uplift, the area where they stand was covered by the 6519:

van Dijk, J.P.; Okkes, F.W.M. (1991). "Neogene tectonostratigraphy and kinematics of Calabrian Basins: implications for the geodynamics of the Central Mediterranean".

1403:

The mechanism is still advocated to explain the break-up of supercontinents during specific geological epochs. It has followers amongst the scientists involved in the

10204: 1416:

three-dimensional computer modelling, suggests that plate geometry is governed by a feedback between mantle convection patterns and the strength of the lithosphere.

2753:

such an impressive thermal event remains a debated issue in Venusian geosciences, some scientists are advocates of processes involving plate motion to some extent.

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published a complete model based on six major plates with their relative motions, which marked the final acceptance by the scientific community of plate tectonics.

2290:

and co-workers in 1961, who did not find, though, an explanation for these data in terms of sea floor spreading, like Vine, Matthews and Morley a few years later.

1570:

pre-plate tectonics period to support their theories (see reviews of these various mechanisms related to Earth rotation the work of van Dijk and collaborators).

2026:

had deduced that less-dense mountains must have a downward projection into the denser layer underneath. The concept that mountains had "roots" was confirmed by

7266: 5263: 1895:

By 1915, after having published a first article in 1912, Alfred Wegener was making serious arguments for the idea of continental drift in the first edition of

8327: 899:. The lithosphere is cooler and more rigid, while the asthenosphere is hotter and flows more easily. In terms of heat transfer, the lithosphere loses heat by 6145: 2266:, began recognizing odd magnetic variations across the ocean floor. This finding, though unexpected, was not entirely surprising because it was known that 1343:

and some forerunners in the 1930s and was immediately recognized as the solution for the acceptance of the theory as originally discussed in the papers of

3997:... on January 6, 1912, Wegener... proposed instead a grand vision of drifting continents and widening seas to explain the evolution of Earth's geography. 8006:

Zhao, Guochun; Cawood, Peter A.; Wilde, Simon A.; Sun, M. (2002). "Review of global 2.1–1.8 Ga orogens: implications for a pre-Rodinia supercontinent".

6504:

van Dijk, Janpieter; Okkes, F.W. Mark (1990). "The analysis of shear zones in Calabria; implications for the geodynamics of the Central Mediterranean".

6411: 6263: 1470:

gravitational sliding represents a secondary phenomenon of this basically vertically oriented mechanism. It finds its roots in the Undation Model of

6822: 6551: 2094:, and numerous others outlined concepts that were close or nearly identical to modern plate tectonics theory. In particular, the English geologist 504: 7584: 6043: 2373:

In 1966 Wilson published the paper that referred to previous plate tectonic reconstructions, introducing the concept of what became known as the "

7513: 6357: 3670: 2707:

expected to exhibit plate tectonics. Earth may be a borderline case, owing its tectonic activity to abundant water (silica and water form a deep

2109:

Some of these ideas were discussed in the context of abandoned fixist ideas of a deforming globe without continental drift or an expanding Earth.

1508:

proposals of Heezen, Hess, Dietz, Morley, Vine, and Matthews (see below) during the early 1960s), the oceanic crust is suggested to be in motion

4770: 1847:. Generally, this was placed in the context of a contracting planet Earth due to heat loss in the course of a relatively short geological time. 1362:

How mantle convection directly and indirectly relates to plate motion is a matter of ongoing study and discussion in geodynamics. Somehow, this

659: 6575: 6102: 4093:"The theory of undercurrent from the Austrian alpine geologist Otto Ampferer (1875–1947): first conceptual ideas on the way to plate tectonics" 3443: 3867:

Rowley, David B.; Forte, Alessandro M.; Rowan, Christopher J.; Glišović, Petar; Moucha, Robert; Grand, Stephen P.; Simmons, Nathan A. (2016).

1788:

The second piece of evidence in support of continental drift came during the late 1950s and early 60s from data on the bathymetry of the deep

8971: 7181: 7179:

Raff, Arthur D.; Mason, Roland G. (1961). "Magnetic survey off the west coast of the United States between 40°N latitude and 52°N latitude".

6956: 6954:

Mason, Ronald G.; Raff, Arthur D. (1961). "Magnetic survey off the west coast of the United States between 32°N latitude and 42°N latitude".

6308:

Connerney, J.E.P.; Acuña, M.H.; Wasilewski, P.J.; Ness, N.F.; Rème H.; Mazelle C.; Vignes D.; Lin R.P.; Mitchell D.L.; Cloutier P.A. (1999).

5869: 3397: 1512:

the continents which caused the proposals related to Earth rotation to be reconsidered. In more recent literature, these driving forces are:

758:

Tectonic plates are composed of the oceanic lithosphere and the thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its own kind of crust. Along

739:. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 10 cm annually. Faults tend to be geologically active, experiencing 6211:

Andrews-Hanna, Jeffrey C.; Zuber, Maria T.; Banerdt, W. Bruce (2008). "The Borealis basin and the origin of the martian crustal dichotomy".

5898: 4048:

million years ago all the continents had been joined in a supercontinent stretching from pole to pole. He called it Pangaea (all lands),...

7289:

Scoppola, B.; Boccaletti, D.; Bevis, M.; Carminati, E.; Doglioni, C. (2006). "The westward drift of the lithosphere: A rotational drag?".

4978: 1258:) occur where plates are neither created nor destroyed. Instead two plates slide, or perhaps more accurately grind past each other, along 8905: 1931:

and paleo-topographical and climatological evidence to support this simple observation (and was supported in this by researchers such as

4525:

Tharp M (1982) Mapping the ocean floor—1947 to 1977. In: The ocean floor: Bruce Heezen commemorative volume, pp. 19–31. New York: Wiley.

10901: 8266: 8230: 7892: 5048: 2102:, and in 1928 that convection currents within the mantle might be the driving force. Often, these contributions are forgotten because: 7322:"Flood basalts, continental breakup and the dispersal of Gondwana: evidence for periodic migration of upwelling mantle flows (plumes)" 4605:

Crameri, Fabio; Conrad, Clinton P.; Montési, Laurent; Lithgow-Bertelloni, Carolina R. (2019). "The dynamic life of an oceanic plate".

1686:. Starting from the idea (also expressed by his forerunners) that the present continents once formed a single land mass (later called 10127: 7772: 5107: 3501: 2782:

was created by plate tectonic processes. Scientists have since determined that it was created either by upwelling within the Martian

994:

through plate tectonic processes. Oceanic crust is denser than continental crust because it has less silicon and more of the heavier

623: 6910: 2978:

Dhuime, B; Hawkesworth, CJ; Cawood, PA; Storey, CD (2012). "A change in the geodynamics of continental growth 3 billion years ago".

2691:

The motion of the tectonic plates is determined by remote sensing satellite data sets, calibrated with ground station measurements.

1270:(right side toward the observer). Transform faults occur across a spreading center. Strong earthquakes can occur along a fault. The 9012: 2927: 2865: 293: 7359: 3370: 7643:

Valencia, Diana; O'Connell, Richard J.; Sasselov, Dimitar D (November 2007). "Inevitability of Plate Tectonics on Super-Earths".

5311: 2354:

who had been a promoter of the sea floor spreading hypothesis and continental drift from the very beginning added the concept of

2315: 2245: 2179: 7291: 3666: 1679:

described what he called continental drift, an idea that culminated fifty years later in the modern theory of plate tectonics.

7141: 5795: 4271: 8136: 7821:

White, R.; McKenzie, D. (1989). "Magmatism at rift zones: The generation of volcanic continental margins and flood basalts".

6192: 6159: 6131: 6112: 6091: 6003: 5965: 5946: 5923: 5879: 5850: 5825: 5789: 5763: 5742: 5715: 5686: 5665: 5634: 5594: 5530: 5506: 5460: 5435: 5408: 5379: 5330: 3775: 3741: 3273: 2406:

independently presented a model similar to Morgan's using translations and rotations on a sphere to define the plate motions.

1698:. Supporting evidence for the idea came from the dove-tailing outlines of South America's east coast and Africa's west coast 9516: 7990: 8910: 3696: 3337: 2135: 2112:

They were published during an episode of extreme political and economic instability that hampered scientific communication.

1534:

Other smaller deformation effects of the crust due to wobbles and spin movements of Earth's rotation on a smaller timescale

509: 2531:

The movement of plates has caused the formation and break-up of continents over time, including occasional formation of a

1474:. This can act on various scales, from the small scale of one island arc up to the larger scale of an entire ocean basin. 1236: 10949: 10574: 8997: 8079: 7592: 5179: 5142: 1772:. One of the first pieces of geophysical evidence that was used to support the movement of lithospheric plates came from 1085: 770:. This process reduces the total surface area (crust) of the Earth. The lost surface is balanced by the formation of new 278: 2479:

which require cold subducted material. Other authors have suggested that plate tectonics were already functional in the

2068:(who was actually the first to be convinced of the fact that paleomagnetism supported continental drift) and Ken Creer. 11044: 10752: 4097: 3700: 2358:

to the model, completing the classes of fault types necessary to make the mobility of the plates on the globe work out.

1655: 1991:, 1963–1998. Most earthquakes occur in narrow belts that correspond to the locations of lithospheric plate boundaries. 1594:), such as in a more recent 2006 study, where scientists reviewed and advocated these ideas. It has been suggested in 9223: 8964: 8200: 2561:

billion years ago and to have embodied most or all of Earth's continents, and broken up into eight continents around

2091: 866: 17: 6014: 4535:

Coltice, Nicolas; Gérault, Mélanie; Ulvrová, Martina (2017). "A mantle convection perspective on global tectonics".

10867: 9702: 2888: 1899:. In that book (re-issued in four successive editions up to the final one in 1936), he noted how the east coast of 1884:. This had previously been estimated by its cooling rate under the assumption that Earth's surface radiated like a 844: 2775:

Mars is considerably smaller than Earth and Venus, and there is evidence for ice on its surface and in its crust.

2318:). This hypothesis linked these patterns to geomagnetic reversals and was supported by several lines of evidence: 1764:

described, in his publication "Thoughts on the motion picture of the Atlantic region", processes that anticipated

11086: 10989: 9007: 8640: 8358: 7823: 7367: 7111: 7080: 6672:

Heirtzler, James R.; Le Pichon, Xavier; Baron, J. Gregory (1966). "Magnetic anomalies over the Reykjanes Ridge".

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with subduction zones, and the basins that develop along the active boundary are often called "foreland basins".

10894: 9017: 8469: 7202: 6977: 5177:

van Heck, H.J.; Tackley, P.J. (2011). "Plate tectonics on super-Earths: Equally or more likely than on Earth".

2042:

enabled scientists to learn that earthquakes tend to be concentrated in specific areas, most notably along the

848: 809:

the relatively cold, dense oceanic crust sinks down into the mantle, forming the downward convecting limb of a

298: 10213: 10144: 5140:

Valencia, Diana; O'Connell, Richard J. (2009). "Convection scaling and subduction on Earth and super-Earths".

10301: 10120: 8247: 7645: 7149: 5482: 1792:

and the nature of the oceanic crust such as magnetic properties and, more generally, with the development of

950:

Tectonic lithosphere plates consist of lithospheric mantle overlain by one or two types of crustal material:

616: 7055: 10964: 8957: 6457: 5220: 4141: 2087: 1050:. The vast majority of the world's active volcanoes occur along plate boundaries, with the Pacific Plate's 427: 48: 10657: 5424:

Scientific Controversies: Case Studies in the Resolution and Closure of Disputes in Science and Technology

3763:

Introduction to Modeling Convection in Planets and Stars: Magnetic Field, Density Stratification, Rotation

1458:

is nowhere being subducted, although it is in motion, presents a problem. The same holds for the African,

9793: 9787: 9294: 8811: 8733: 7773:"Die Herausbildung der Grossformen der Erdrinde (Kontinente und Ozeane), auf geophysikalischer Grundlage" 7413: 6407: 6351:

Connerney, J.E.P.; Acuña, M.H.; Ness, N.F.; Kletetschka, G.; Mitchell, D.L.; Lin, R.P.; Rème, H. (2005).

5995: 2897: 2399: 1471: 1385: 694:, an idea developed during the first decades of the 20th century. Plate tectonics came to be accepted by 408: 11012: 6832: 6565: 1690:), Wegener suggested that these separated and drifted apart, likening them to "icebergs" of low density 1585:

proposed as minor modulations within the overall plate tectonics model. In 1973, George W. Moore of the

108:

Diagram of the internal layering of Earth showing the lithosphere above the asthenosphere (not to scale)

10474: 9478: 8738: 8291: 7625: 6842: 6079: 6058: 5915: 5427: 3767: 2921: 2506:

period. The tracks of hotspots give absolute reconstructions, but these are only available back to the

2381: 1668: 1645: 1094: 11153: 11121: 11070: 11054: 10994: 10984: 10969: 10931: 10887: 10514: 9261: 9022: 8743: 5626: 4766: 2536: 2275: 1948: 1912: 1699: 1295: 1148: 303: 150: 8101: 7389: 3439: 2240:

A demonstration of magnetic striping. (The darker the color is, the closer it is to normal polarity)

2056:

instruments allowed seismologists to map precisely the zones of earthquake concentration worldwide.

11143: 10855: 10113: 8545: 8459: 7800: 7694: 6827: 6803: 6521: 6465:

Dietz, Robert S. (June 1961). "Continent and Ocean Basin Evolution by Spreading of the Sea Floor".

5522:

Radioactivity and Geology: An Account of the Influence of Radioactive Energy on Terrestrial History

609: 10705: 5885: 4025: 3978: 2831:, a satellite of Jupiter—the first sign of subduction activity on another world other than Earth. 2605: 1804:, published between 1959 and 1963 by Heezen, Dietz, Hess, Mason, Vine & Matthews, and Morley. 10843: 10747: 9979: 8257: 5452: 4727: 2882: 2600: 1812: 920: 837: 10409: 10369: 7443: 5902: 5775:"Biogeographic implications from the Tertiary palaeogeographic evolution of Sulawesi and Borneo" 1781:

century, the latter phenomenon was explained by introducing what was called "polar wander" (see

688:, which have been slowly moving since 3–4 billion years ago. The model builds on the concept of 11049: 10979: 10974: 10959: 10800: 10762: 10757: 10740: 10494: 8096: 7384: 5842: 5836: 5359: 4970: 4276: 2403: 652: 31: 6855:

Mallard, Claire; Coltice, Nicolas; Seton, Maria; Müller, R. Dietmar; Tackley, Paul J. (2016).

5676: 5419: 2270:—the iron-rich, volcanic rock making up the ocean floor—contains a strongly magnetic mineral ( 11028: 10167: 9557: 9216: 8512: 8227: 8008: 7451: 6993:

McKenzie, D.; Parker, R.L. (1967). "The North Pacific: an example of tectonics on a sphere".

5520: 3125: 2869: 2638: 2015: 1960: 1782: 1267: 1263: 1175: 919:

The key principle of plate tectonics is that the lithosphere exists as separate and distinct

892: 782: 8263: 8092: 7933: 7605: 7426: 6071: 5618: 5369: 5192: 5155: 4583: 4092: 3869:"Kinematics and dynamics of the East Pacific Rise linked to a stable, deep-mantle upwelling" 3761: 561: 11163: 11148: 10954: 10926: 10675: 10597: 10587: 10534: 10529: 10469: 10334: 10271: 10194: 10184: 9695: 9134: 9091: 9002: 8673: 8625: 8406: 8330: 8180: 8155: 8088: 8050: 8017: 7959: 7909: 7863: 7832: 7743: 7703: 7664: 7601: 7522: 7460: 7422: 7376: 7333: 7300: 7232: 7190: 7120: 7089: 7043: 7004: 6965: 6870: 6747: 6683: 6652: 6530: 6476: 6425: 6366: 6323: 6280: 6222: 5554: 5272: 5229: 5188: 5151: 4916: 4881: 4739: 4692: 4614: 4579: 4544: 4106: 3882: 3406: 3183: 3134: 3073: 3038: 2987: 2933: 2842: 2805: 2673: 2630: 2626: 2436: 2388:

proposed that Earth's surface consists of 12 rigid plates that move relative to each other.

2228: 2212: 2171: 1956: 1924: 1801: 1455: 1437: 1051: 283: 10374: 7787: 7072: 6169:

Yuen, David A.; Maruyama, Shigenori; Karato, Shun-Ichiro; Windley, Brian F., eds. (2007).

3468: 2338:) on the other, to arrive at estimates of past spreading rates and plate reconstructions. 2143:

than continental crust. All these new findings raised important and intriguing questions.

1057:

Tectonic plates may include continental crust or oceanic crust, or both. For example, the

931:. Plate motions range from 10 to 40 millimetres per year (0.4 to 1.6 in/year) at the 8: 11158: 10790: 10559: 10324: 9906: 9841: 9618: 9582: 9552: 9299: 9251: 8816: 8773: 8607: 8550: 8401: 8393: 8351: 6856: 6643: 6083: 5097: 2819: 2335: 2076: 2047:

zones, or simply Benioff zones, in honor of the seismologists who first recognized them,

1975:

drove continental drift, and his vindication did not come until after his death in 1930.

1863: 1719: 1307: 1158: 1137: 987: 759: 723: 536: 468: 247: 174: 165: 8184: 8159: 8054: 8021: 7963: 7913: 7867: 7836: 7747: 7707: 7668: 7526: 7464: 7380: 7337: 7304: 7236: 7194: 7124: 7093: 7047: 7008: 6969: 6874: 6751: 6687: 6656: 6534: 6480: 6429: 6370: 6327: 6284: 6226: 5558: 5471: 5354:

Carey, S.W. (1958). "The tectonic approach to continental drift". In Carey, S.W. (ed.).

5276: 5233: 4920: 4885: 4743: 4696: 4618: 4548: 4110: 3886: 3418: 3410: 3187: 3138: 3077: 3050: 3042: 2991: 2038:

During the 20th century, improvements in and greater use of seismic instruments such as

10805: 10795: 10720: 10715: 10612: 10459: 10404: 10261: 9572: 9511: 9463: 9389: 9350: 9281: 9256: 9246: 9149: 8685: 7977: 7925: 7879: 7759: 7680: 7654: 7248: 7153: 7032:

Moore, George W. (1973). "Westward Tidal Lag as the Driving Force of Plate Tectonics".

7020: 6902: 6722: 6600: 6592: 6492: 6449: 6389: 6352: 6296: 6246: 5989: 5545: 4122: 3954: 3927: 3903: 3868: 3493: 3362: 3196: 3171: 3152: 3089: 3011: 2918: – Open-source application software for interactive plate-tectonic reconstructions 2700: 2661: 2511: 2167: 2125: 1964: 1765: 1756: 1505: 1352: 1302:. Each red dot is a measuring point and vectors show direction and magnitude of motion. 1121: 1104: 932: 880: 729: 699: 526: 436: 385: 357: 170: 155: 8317: 8110: 8029: 6664: 5336: 4591: 646: 10725: 10690: 10524: 10464: 10454: 10414: 10349: 9668: 9562: 9162: 9139: 9071: 8915: 8897: 8801: 8768: 8196: 8167: 8132: 7813: 7715: 7550: 7545: 7508: 7252: 7206: 7059: 7034: 6981: 6894: 6886: 6763: 6759: 6726: 6695: 6674: 6618: 6604: 6542: 6441: 6416: 6394: 6339: 6314: 6238: 6188: 6155: 6127: 6108: 6087: 5999: 5961: 5942: 5919: 5875: 5856: 5846: 5821: 5785: 5759: 5738: 5711: 5682: 5661: 5651: 5630: 5590: 5526: 5502: 5498: 5456: 5446: 5431: 5404: 5375: 5326: 4907:

Van Dijk, Janpieter (2023). "The new global tectonic map—Analyses and implications".

4708: 4680: 4570:

Bercovici, David (2003). "The generation of plate tectonics from mantle convection".

4142:

Otto Ampferer (1875-1947): pioneer in geology, mountaineer, collector and draughtsman

4126: 4076: 3959: 3908: 3771: 3737: 3697:"Caltech Researchers Use GPS Data to Model Effects of Tidal Loads on Earth's Surface" 3497: 3392: 3269: 3156: 3093: 3064:

Windley, BF; Kusky, T; Polat, A (2021). "Onset of plate tectonics by the Eoarchean".

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Schmidt, Victor A.; Harbert, William (1998). "The Living Machine: Plate Tectonics".

5576: 4893: 4751: 4556: 3674: 3085: 2613:

Depending on how they are defined, there are usually seven or eight "major" plates:

10730: 10429: 10314: 10172: 9894: 9783: 9753: 9656: 9577: 9547: 9473: 9458: 9368: 9209: 9027: 8828: 8695: 8680: 8557: 8537: 8479: 8383: 8378: 8188: 8163: 8124: 8106: 8058: 8025: 7981: 7967: 7950: 7929: 7917: 7900: 7871: 7854: 7840: 7809: 7763: 7751: 7734: 7711: 7692:

Van Bemmelen, R.W. (1976). "Plate Tectonics and the Undation Model: a comparison".

7684: 7672: 7617: 7609: 7571: 7540: 7530: 7493: 7468: 7430: 7394: 7341: 7308: 7275: 7240: 7198: 7128: 7097: 7051: 7024: 7012: 6995: 6973: 6940: 6906: 6878: 6861: 6857:"Subduction controls the distribution and fragmentation of Earth's tectonic plates" 6788: 6755: 6714: 6691: 6660: 6627: 6584: 6538: 6496: 6484: 6467: 6433: 6384: 6374: 6331: 6300: 6288: 6250: 6230: 6213: 6141: 5607: 5562: 5280: 5237: 5196: 5159: 4924: 4889: 4747: 4700: 4622: 4587: 4552: 4114: 3949: 3941: 3898: 3890: 3873: 3485: 3414: 3191: 3142: 3081: 3046: 2995: 2797: 2783: 2720: 2646: 2516: 2392: 2204: 2188: 2043: 1908: 1616: 1433: 1195: 1133: 767: 571: 551: 531: 483: 478: 308: 212: 207: 160: 116: 8175:

Coates, Robert R. (1962). "Magma type and crustal structure in the Aleutian arc".

6632: 6613: 1444:

and hot spots are also postulated to impinge on the underside of tectonic plates.

10910: 10735: 10670: 10554: 10389: 10384: 10339: 10329: 10319: 10236: 10157: 10094: 9969: 9924: 9818: 9813: 9688: 9597: 9373: 9320: 9124: 8823: 8806: 8753: 8645: 8270: 8251: 8234: 8217: 7998: 7583:

Torsvik, Trond H.; Steinberger, Bernhard; Gurnis, Michael; Gaina, Carmen (2010).

6335: 6184: 6170: 5753: 5734: 5657: 5580: 5400: 5322: 4081:

Sber. österr. Akad. Wiss., math.-naturwiss. KL, 150, 19–35, 6 figs., Vienna 1941.

4044:

By his third edition (1922), Wegener was citing geological evidence that some 300

3729: 2770: 2657: 2618: 2497:

Animation of a full-plate tectonic model extended one billion years into the past

2385: 2355: 2303: 2251: 2196: 2175: 2160: 2152: 2080: 1927:

preceded him just to mention a few), but he was the first to marshal significant

1744: 1667:

and can therefore be classified as a scientific revolution, now described as the

1463: 1404: 1376: 1290: 1259: 1246: 1199: 1141: 1043: 900: 806: 794: 735: 718: 706: 541: 6072: 5758:. Solid Earth Sciences Library. Vol. 9. Springer Netherlands. p. 348. 4626: 3704: 3341: 11102: 10831: 10695: 10647: 10602: 10564: 10519: 10419: 10359: 10309: 10241: 10162: 9644: 9592: 9526: 9488: 9483: 9435: 9315: 9191: 9119: 9081: 9061: 9056: 8938: 8856: 8846: 8710: 8705: 8464: 8454: 8344: 8254:. Example of calculations to show that Earth Rotation could be a driving force. 8038: 7723:

Van Bemmelen, R.W. (1972), "Geodynamic Models, an evaluation and a synthesis",

7613: 7109:

Le Pichon, Xavier (15 June 1968). "Sea-floor spreading and continental drift".

6736:"Runaway and moist greenhouse atmospheres and the evolution of Earth and Venus" 6718: 5200: 5163: 4704: 3489: 2735: 2622: 2532: 2519:

types, faunal provinces shown by particular fossil groups, and the position of

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new ocean floor all across the 50,000 km-long system of mid-ocean ridges.

2027: 2023: 1821: 1793: 1777: 1773: 1695: 1676: 1664: 1633: 1543: 1531:

due to small displacements of the rotational pole with respect to Earth's crust

1482: 1459: 1451: 1344: 1299: 1062: 1047: 956: 752: 640: 597: 556: 473: 198: 8312: 8128: 7575: 7434: 6588: 6271:

Bostrom, R.C. (31 December 1971). "Westward displacement of the lithosphere".

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looked as if they were once attached. Wegener was not the first to note this (

1850: 1274:

in California is an example of a transform boundary exhibiting dextral motion.

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Vine, F.J.; Matthews, D.H. (1963). "Magnetic anomalies over oceanic ridges".

7346: 7321: 7218: 7210: 7063: 6985: 6890: 6180: 6151: 5980: 5860: 5813: 5730: 5490: 4681:"Geology's biggest mystery: when did plate tectonics start to reshape Earth?" 4071: 3464: 3391:

Grove, Timothy L.; Till, Christy B.; Krawczynski, Michael J. (8 March 2012).

2828: 2731: 2653: 2634: 2614: 2568:. The eight continents later re-assembled into another supercontinent called 2420: 2216: 2131: 2095: 2061: 1995: 1952: 1900: 1873: 1761: 1710: 1486: 1396: 1340: 1311: 1217: 1117: 1058: 1002:. As a result of this density difference, oceanic crust generally lies below 951: 928: 924: 896: 888: 786: 771: 695: 375: 347: 104: 8287: 7844: 7498: 7481: 7472: 7132: 7101: 6793: 6776: 6437: 6379: 4940: 4938: 3824: 2999: 1978: 1735:, and went further than Wegener in recognising the strong links between the 10700: 10582: 10504: 10499: 10484: 10364: 10354: 10281: 10276: 10251: 10177: 10002: 9988: 9506: 9430: 9363: 9358: 9325: 9172: 9096: 8989: 8920: 8871: 8861: 8851: 8791: 8572: 8426: 8416: 8309: 8282: 7554: 7535: 7355: 7244: 6898: 6767: 6445: 6398: 6343: 6242: 5938: 5121: 4712: 4118: 3963: 3912: 3894: 3007: 2891: – Conserved physical quantity; rotational analogue of linear momentum 2834: 2681: 2677: 2642: 2588: 2548: 2541: 2467: 2374: 2325:

the youngest rocks at the ridge crest always have modern (normal) polarity;

2287: 2259: 2255: 2052: 2048: 1983: 1932: 1916: 1881: 1825: 1728: 1723: 1704: 1441: 1188: 1066: 983: 710: 337: 268: 202: 9037: 8071: 6945: 6926: 5259:"Is plate tectonics needed to evolve technological species on exoplanets?" 3945: 2885: – Process which distributes thermal energy about the Earth's surface 2423:

distribution of present-day life found on different continents but having

793:

currents, the slow creeping motion of Earth's solid mantle. At a seafloor

10785: 10780: 10710: 10685: 10680: 10549: 10544: 10539: 10489: 10444: 10439: 10379: 10344: 10286: 10256: 10246: 10231: 9961: 9836: 9587: 9453: 9409: 9394: 8668: 8474: 8411: 6026: 5242: 5215: 4935: 3836: 3147: 3120: 3029:

Harrison, TM (2009). "The Hadean crust: evidence from> 4 Ga zircons".

2909: 2903: 2858: 2740: 2727: 2704: 2669: 2665: 2351: 2186:. Dietz and Hess (the former published the same idea one year earlier in 2156: 2039: 1844: 1789: 1776:. This is based on the fact that rocks of different ages show a variable 1490: 1432:

This force is regarded as a secondary force and is often referred to as "

1232:. Closure of ocean basins can occur at continent-to-continent boundaries. 1212:

At zones of ocean-to-continent subduction mountain ranges form, e.g. the

940: 884: 681: 546: 390: 56: 6882: 6234: 2924: – Hierarchical outline list of articles related to plate tectonics 1820:

of geological phenomena and their implications in other studies such as

1796:

which gave evidence for the association of seafloor spreading along the

1624:

significance of each process to the overall driving force on the plate.

1610: 801:

high, and the newly formed crust cools as it moves away, increasing its

10665: 10622: 10053: 9934: 9567: 9542: 9521: 9498: 9425: 9330: 9129: 9086: 9076: 8758: 8725: 8700: 8582: 8502: 8421: 8192: 7621: 6596: 5818:

Plate Tectonics: An Insider's History of the Modern Theory of the Earth

5621:. In William Theodore De Bary; Jerry Kisslinger; Tom Mathewson (eds.). 2758: 2747: 2652:

There are dozens of smaller plates, the eight largest of which are the

2507: 2476: 2450: 2200: 2065: 1885: 1877: 1769: 1629: 1206: 1171: 1031: 1015: 936: 904: 851: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 798: 763: 740: 705:

Earth's lithosphere, the rigid outer shell of the planet including the

380: 342: 237: 10826: 9639: 9271: 9186: 8039:"A Paleo-Mesoproterozoic supercontinent: assembly, growth and breakup" 7398: 7221:(1956). "Paleomagnetic comparisons between Europe and North America". 7016: 5016: 4928: 4604: 3211: 3209: 3207: 2456: 2419:

Continental drift theory helps biogeographers to explain the disjunct

766:

carries the edge of one plate down under the other plate and into the

592: 134: 10637: 10012: 9974: 9929: 9919: 9859: 9680: 9613: 9468: 9335: 9048: 8690: 8635: 8620: 8592: 8562: 8489: 8431: 7972: 7945: 7921: 7875: 7755: 7407:

Rizk, Bashar; Rosiek, Mark R.; See, Charles; Smith, Peter H. (2007).

7312: 6488: 6292: 6176: 5516: 5096:

Dyches, Preston; Brown, Dwayne; Buckley, Michael (8 September 2014).

4819: 3617: 3605: 3581: 2939: 2584: 2563: 2307: 2271: 2263: 2071:

This was immediately followed by a symposium on continental drift in

1988: 1968: 1715: 1659:

Detailed map showing the tectonic plates with their movement vectors.

1561: 1447: 1225: 1073: 1003: 979: 965: 908: 665: 432: 352: 41: 7408: 7280: 7261: 6735: 6309: 6107:(4th ed.). Braunschweig: Friedrich Vieweg & Sohn Akt. Ges. 1306:

Tectonic plates are able to move because of the relative density of

939:

grow), to about 160 millimetres per year (6.3 in/year) for the

911:

temperature gradient. This division should not be confused with the

826: 10879: 10063: 10007: 9939: 9874: 9760: 9748: 9720: 7852:

Wilson, J.T. (8 June 1963). "Hypothesis on the Earth's behaviour".

7676: 7585:"Plate tectonics and net lithosphere rotation over the past 150 My" 7409:"Topography and geomorphology of the Huygens landing site on Titan" 6573:

Frankel, Henry (July 1978). "Arthur Holmes and continental drift".

5566: 3440:"Myths and Legends on Natural Disasters: Making Sense of Our World" 3204: 2708: 2577: 2573: 2503: 2072: 2031: 1940: 1736: 1557: 1035: 1007: 218: 10105: 8244: 8121:

In the Footsteps of Warren B. Ahmilton: New Ideas in Earth Science

7659: 6614:"Questions About Magnetic Lineations in the Ancient Crust of Mars" 3172:"On the Relative Importance of the Driving Forces of Plate Motion" 1391:

The theories find resonance in the modern theories which envisage

1170:) occur where two plates slide toward each other to form either a 10058: 10046: 9984: 9914: 9889: 9849: 9828: 9798: 9445: 9232: 9167: 9157: 8980: 8783: 8660: 8630: 8446: 8436: 6777:"A voice from the past: John Lyman and the plate tectonics story" 5650:

Little, W.; Fowler, H.W.; Coulson, J. (1990). Onions C.T. (ed.).

4789: 4787: 4026:"Alfred Wegener (1880–1930): The origin of continents and oceans" 3233: 2915: 2823: 2787: 2569: 2554: 2520: 2463: 2004: 1944: 1936: 1808: 1687: 1566: 1320: 1039: 991: 961: 802: 774:

along divergent margins by seafloor spreading, keeping the total

744: 242: 193: 125: 7288: 5098:"Scientists Find Evidence of 'Diving' Tectonic Plates on Europa" 3848: 3830: 2841:, was reported to show tectonic activity in images taken by the 2535:

that contains most or all of the continents. The supercontinent

2236: 2147:

ocean floor was being created, which led to the concept of the "

2007:

existed on continents, seafloor seemed to be composed of denser

1731:

put together a mass of such information in his 1937 publication

10041: 10034: 9743: 9738: 9712: 8650: 8517: 8497: 5958:

An Introduction to Seismology, Earthquakes, and Earth Structure

5653:

The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary: on historical principles

5445:

Hancock, Paul L.; Skinner, Brian J.; Dineley, David L. (2000).

2900: – The sequence of major geological events in Earth's past 2838: 2480: 2471: 2267: 2008: 1928: 1904: 1859: 1363: 1020: 999: 232: 8179:. Geophysical Monograph Series. Vol. 6. pp. 92–109. 8072:"Degree-1 mantle convection and the crustal dichotomy on Mars" 7893:"A new class of faults and their bearing on continental drift" 7405: 5874:(3rd ed.). Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. p. 442. 5127: 4841: 4784: 4728:"Hadean geodynamics and the nature of early continental crust" 2959: 2786:

that thickened the crust of the Southern Highlands and formed

1030:. Plate boundaries are where geological events occur, such as 10071: 10029: 10022: 10017: 9854: 9808: 9770: 9728: 8838: 8615: 8597: 8367: 8258:

Bird, P. (2003); An updated digital model of plate boundaries

7642: 7582: 7444:"Slab pull and the seismotectonics of subducting lithosphere" 6350: 6013:

Torsvik, Trond Helge; Steinberger, Bernhard (December 2006).

5072: 4944: 3842: 3282: 2977: 2936: – Repeated joining and separation of Earth's continents 2295: 2283: 2199:

of the U.S. Geological Survey described the main features of

2119: 2019: 1888:. Those calculations had implied that, even if it started at 1880:

properties in 1895 prompted a re-examination of the apparent

1599: 1528: 1213: 1203: 995: 775: 677: 47:

For plate tectonic theories on icy moons such as Europa, see

6840:

Lyman, J.; Fleming, R.H. (1940). "Composition of Seawater".

6703:

Holmes, Arthur (1928). "Radioactivity and Earth movements".

6307: 6051:

Geology for Society for 150 years – The Legacy after Kjerulf

5910:

Schubert, Gerald; Turcotte, Donald L.; Olson, Peter (2001).

5068: 4295: 3649: 3647: 3294: 3264:

McGuire, Thomas (2005). "Earthquakes and Earth's Interior".

2098:

proposed in 1920 that plate junctions might lie beneath the

1866:—have similar shapes and seem to have once fitted together. 1504:

However, in the plate tectonics context (accepted since the

1454:

plays an important role as well. However, the fact that the

1327: 789:

beneath. Lateral density variations in the mantle result in

9949: 9884: 9879: 9869: 9864: 9733: 8887: 8507: 8238: 8221: 7562:

Thomson, W. (1863). "On the secular cooling of the earth".

7262:"Frontiers in earth sciences: new ideas and interpretation" 6258:

Blackett, P.M.S.; Bullard, E.; Runcorn, S.K., eds. (1965).

5586: 5102: 5044: 4033: 3986: 3932: 1862:

of the Atlantic Ocean—or, more precisely, the edges of the

1743:

around. Many distinguished scientists of the time, such as

1691: 1603: 1573: 1517: 1477: 1229: 974: 944: 9201: 8037:

Zhao, Guochun; Sun, M.; Wilde, Simon A.; Li, S.Z. (2004).

7203:

10.1130/0016-7606(1961)72[1267:MSOTWC]2.0.CO;2

6978:

10.1130/0016-7606(1961)72[1259:MSOTWC]2.0.CO;2

6266:. Vol. 258. The Royal Society of London. p. 323. 5575:

Kious, W. Jacquelyne; Tilling, Robert I. (February 1996).

4853: 4507: 3245: 8297: 7798:

Wezel, F.-C. (1988). "The origin and evolution of arcs".

6854: 6260:

A Symposium on Continental Drift, held in 28 October 1965

6210: 6168: 5751: 5525:. London: Archibald Constable & Company. p. 36. 5477:. In A.E.J. Engel; Harold L. James; B.F. Leonard (eds.). 5022: 4871: 4091:

Dullo, Wolf-Christian; Pfaffl, Fritz A. (28 March 2019).

3644: 3623: 3611: 3587: 2099: 1979:

Floating continents, paleomagnetism, and seismicity zones

1521: 8336: 6804:"Maurice Ewing and the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory" 6405: 6126:. Translated by Biram John. Courier Dover. p. 246. 6070:

Turcotte, D.L.; Schubert, G. (2002). "Plate Tectonics".

5977:

The Oceans: Their physics, chemistry and general biology

5704:

Geographica: The complete illustrated Atlas of the world

5619:"Maurice Ewing and the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory" 5479:

Petrologic studies: a volume to honor of A.F. Buddington

4423: 4204: 3979:"Alfred Wegener (1880–1930): A Geographic Jigsaw Puzzle" 3866: 3542: 3530: 3215: 2341: 1351:

Two- and three-dimensional imaging of Earth's interior (

7056:

10.1130/0091-7613(1973)1<99:WTLATD>2.0.CO;2

6671: 5755:

Surge tectonics: a new hypothesis of global geodynamics

5004: 4442: 3518: 3318: 2893:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

2803:

Observations made of the magnetic field of Mars by the

2526: 2064:

in 1956, and successive papers by him and his students

6257: 5974: 5784:. Leiden, The Netherlands: Backhuys. pp. 133–63. 4633: 4153: 4151: 4007: 4005: 3355: 2912: – Obsolete geological concept to explain orogens 2363: 1552:, which is treated as a slight modification of gravity 8979: 6147:

Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883

6017:[From Continental Drift to Mantle Dynamics]. 5975:

Sverdrup, H.U.; Johnson, M.W.; Fleming, R.H. (1942).

5909: 5444: 5319:

Paleomagnetism: Magnetic domains to geologic terranes

5139: 5077: 4657: 4534: 4495: 4077:

Thoughts on the motion picture of the Atlantic region

3634: 3632: 3239: 3100: 1854:

Alfred Wegener in Greenland in the winter of 1912–13.

1611:

Relative significance of each driving force mechanism

1061:

includes the continent and parts of the floor of the

8146:

Doglioni, C. (1990). "The global tectonic pattern".

8117: 6042:

Torsvik, Trond Helge; Steinberger, Bernhard (2008).

5374:(4th ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 282. 3926:

Casadevall, Arturo; Fang, Ferric C. (1 March 2016).

3854: 3569: 3559: 3557: 3390: 3221: 1538:

Forces that are small and generally negligible are:

1419: 30:"Tectonic plates" redirects here. For the film, see 7073:"Rises, Trenches, Great Faults, and Crustal Blocks" 5649: 5356:

Continental Drift – A symposium, held in March 1956

5213: 4950: 4252: 4240: 4216: 4148: 4053: 4002: 3812: 3306: 3268:. AMSCO School Publications Inc. pp. 182–184. 2965: 2930: – Oceanic landforms and topographic elements. 2457:

Emergence of plate tectonics and past plate motions

1858:It was observed as early as 1596 that the opposite 1262:. The relative motion of the two plates is either 903:, whereas the asthenosphere also transfers heat by 8005: 7507:Tanimoto, Toshiro; Lay, Thorne (7 November 2000). 6823:"Moon Is Dragging Continents West, Scientist Says" 6641:Heezen, B. (1960). "The rift in the ocean floor". 6310:"Magnetic Lineations in the Ancient Crust of Mars" 6049:. In Trond Slagstad; Rolv Dahl Gråsteinen (eds.). 6041: 6012: 5095: 5037:"UCLA scientist discovers plate tectonics on Mars" 4865: 4847: 4799: 4793: 4645: 4483: 4471: 4459: 4447: 4395: 4359: 3629: 3330: 2864:Consideration of plate tectonics is a part of the 1174:zone (one plate moving underneath the other) or a 6706:Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow 6353:"Tectonic implications of Mars crustal magnetism" 6264:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 5988:Thompson, Graham R. & Turk, Jonathan (1991). 4992: 4971:"Was Venus alive? 'The Signs are Probably There'" 4371: 4163: 3800: 3755: 3753: 3593: 3554: 3477:Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow 3063: 2942: – Process of evolution of the Earth's crust 2258:) adapted from airborne devices developed during 1285: 1034:and the creation of topographic features such as 11135: 8218:This Dynamic Earth: The Story of Plate Tectonics 7259: 6507:Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia 6069: 5782:Biogeography and Geological Evolution of SE Asia 5582:This Dynamic Earth: the Story of Plate Tectonics 4383: 4228: 3860: 3732:. In Bercovici, David; Schubert, Gerald (eds.). 3300: 3288: 2414: 2174:geologist and a Naval Reserve Rear Admiral, and 2106:At the time, continental drift was not accepted. 2086:During the 1930s up to the late 1950s, works by 505:Lists of geological features of the Solar System 8277:MORVEL plate velocity estimates and information 7514:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 6358:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5216:"Geological consequences of super-sized Earths" 5176: 5034: 3671:University of California Museum of Paleontology 1751:, were outspoken critics of continental drift. 1026:The location where two plates meet is called a 8036: 7727:, vol. 2, Amsterdam: Elsevies Publ. Comp. 7479: 7326:EGU Stephan Mueller Special Publication Series 7140:Quilty, Patrick G.; Banks, Maxwell R. (2003). 6992: 6576:The British Journal for the History of Science 5955: 5867: 5089: 4859: 4513: 4301: 4198: 3925: 3750: 3393:"The Role of H2O in Subduction Zone Magmatism" 3251: 2641:. The latter is sometimes subdivided into the 2151:". This was described in the crucial paper of 1516:Tidal drag due to the gravitational force the 797:, plates move away from the ridge, which is a 10895: 10121: 9696: 9217: 8965: 8352: 7820: 7224:Proceedings, Geological Association of Canada 7182:Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 6957:Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 6518: 6503: 5899:"Unit 3: The Living Machine: Plate Tectonics" 5422:. In H.T. Engelhardt Jr; A.L. Caplan (eds.). 4900: 4145:. In: Geo. Alp Sonderband 1, 2007, pp. 94–95. 3794: 3736:. Vol. 7. Elsevier Science. p. 36. 3653: 3398:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 3031:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 2848:, which landed on Titan on January 14, 2005. 2576:(which became North America and Eurasia) and 1947:contain rocks very similar to those found in 1682:Wegener expanded his theory in his 1915 book 617: 7731: 7722: 7691: 6839: 5987: 5835:Read, Herbert Harold; Watson, Janet (1975). 5574: 4429: 4210: 4182: 3694: 3548: 3536: 3169: 2604: 2470:or other kinds of regimes. The increasingly 2444: 2124:Further information on Mid-ocean ridge: 1079: 8328:Multiple videos of plate tectonic movements 7506: 7482:"The Marine Physical Laboratory at Scripps" 7139: 6044:"From Continental Drift to Mantle Dynamics" 4317: 4090: 3524: 3022: 2502:relative plate motions going back into the 1598:that this observation may also explain why 60:Map of Earth's 16 principal tectonic plates 10902: 10888: 10838: 10128: 10114: 9703: 9689: 9224: 9210: 8972: 8958: 8359: 8345: 8069: 7946:"Did the Atlantic close and then re-open?" 6932:Journal of the Geological Society of Japan 6140: 5912:Mantle Convection in the Earth and Planets 5834: 5772: 5397:Plates vs Plumes: A Geological Controversy 5010: 4639: 3759: 3106: 3057: 2120:Mid-oceanic ridge spreading and convection 891:. The division is based on differences in 624: 610: 8322:million years of global tectonic activity 8100: 7988: 7971: 7658: 7544: 7534: 7497: 7388: 7345: 7279: 7178: 7108: 6953: 6944: 6792: 6631: 6388: 6378: 6015:"Fra kontinentaldrift til manteldynamikk" 5674: 5284: 5241: 5028: 4663: 4569: 4501: 4417: 4413: 3953: 3902: 3723: 3721: 3227: 3195: 3146: 2971: 2694: 2580:(which became the remaining continents). 1328:Driving forces related to mantle dynamics 867:Learn how and when to remove this message 9013:Principle of cross-cutting relationships 8145: 7786:: 185–95, 253–56, 305–09. Archived from 7509:"Mantle dynamics and seismic tomography" 7480:Spiess, Fred; Kuperman, William (2003). 7260:Scalera, G. & Lavecchia, G. (2006). 7167:Historical Records of Australian Science 7165:This memoir was originally published in 6924: 6801: 6611: 6549: 6412:"How Mantle Slabs Drive Plate Tectonics" 6104:Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane 5956:Stein, Seth; Wysession, Michael (2009). 5724: 5701: 5616: 5083: 4906: 4725: 4678: 4353: 4349: 3790: 3575: 3437: 3324: 3028: 2928:List of submarine topographical features 2866:search for extraterrestrial intelligence 2790:or by a giant impact that excavated the 2485: 2453:that are indicative of vanished oceans. 2250:Beginning in the 1950s, scientists like 2235: 2227: 1994: 1982: 1849: 1654: 1639: 1591: 1574:Possible tidal effect on plate tectonics 1478:Driving forces related to Earth rotation 1289: 1235: 1147: 1093: 778:constant in a tectonic "conveyor belt". 702:was validated in the mid-to-late 1960s. 294:Principle of cross-cutting relationships 103: 55: 8283:Plate Model of Bird 2003 in Google Maps 8279:. C. DeMets, D. Argus, & R. Gordon. 8070:Zhong, Shijie; Zuber, Maria T. (2001). 7770: 7561: 7217: 6733: 6572: 6270: 6121: 6100: 5932: 5812: 5417: 5394: 5023:Andrews-Hanna, Zuber & Banerdt 2008 4968: 4956: 4945:Valencia, O'Connell & Sasselov 2007 4817: 4337: 4258: 4246: 4222: 4181:see for example the milestone paper of 4157: 4059: 4011: 3818: 3734:Treatise on Geophysics: Mantle Dynamics 3312: 3263: 2810:polarities of a global magnetic field. 2510:. Older reconstructions rely mainly on 2430: 2180:United States Coast and Geodetic Survey 2030:a hundred years later, during study of 2003:As it was observed early that although 1072:Some pieces of oceanic crust, known as 672: 'pertaining to building') is the 14: 11136: 9710: 9023:Principle of inclusions and components 8174: 7943: 7890: 7851: 7441: 7292:Geological Society of America Bulletin 7070: 6821:Lovett, Richard A. (24 January 2006). 6820: 6774: 6702: 6640: 5780:. In Hall, R.; Holloway, J.D. (eds.). 5489: 5367: 5309: 4805: 4651: 4489: 4477: 4465: 4453: 4401: 4365: 4333: 4329: 4194: 4023: 3976: 3727: 3718: 3638: 3463: 2906: – Study of dynamics of the Earth 2364:Blackett, Bullard & Runcorn (1965) 1595: 1497:as the main driving mechanisms behind 304:Principle of inclusions and components 10883: 10109: 9684: 9205: 8953: 8340: 7797: 7780:Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen 7354: 7319: 7031: 6464: 5960:. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. 5371:Plate tectonics and crustal evolution 5364:Expanding Earth from pp. 311–49. 5353: 5256: 4998: 4674: 4672: 4443:Heirtzler, Le Pichon & Baron 1966 4377: 4313: 4169: 3806: 3599: 3563: 3118: 2699:The appearance of plate tectonics on 2342:Definition and refining of the theory 2130:In 1947, a team of scientists led by 1963:of North America are very similar in 805:and contributing to the motion. At a 10909: 10862: 8911:Geology of solar terrestrial planets 5871:Planet Earth and the New Geosciences 5538: 5515: 5469: 4679:Marshall, Michael (14 August 2024). 4389: 4234: 3340:. platetectonics.com. Archived from 3216:Conrad & Lithgow-Bertelloni 2002 2527:Formation and break-up of continents 2223: 2166:The question particularly intrigued 2136:Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 1831: 849:adding citations to reliable sources 820: 510:Geology of solar terrestrial planets 10135: 9663: 8998:Principle of original horizontality 8080:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 7593:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 6172:Superplumes: Beyond Plate Tectonics 6124:The origin of continents and oceans 5773:Moss, S.J.; Wilson, M.E.J. (1998). 5678:Quantitative Geophysics and Geology 5180:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 5143:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 4764: 4572:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 4024:Hughes, Patrick (8 February 2001). 3977:Hughes, Patrick (8 February 2001). 3469:"Radioactivity and Earth Movements" 3419:10.1146/annurev-earth-042711-105310 3384: 3338:"Plate Tectonics: Plate Boundaries" 3266:Earth Science: The Physical Setting 3240:Hancock, Skinner & Dineley 2000 3051:10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.100151 2778:In the 1990s, it was proposed that 2703:is related to planetary mass, with 2014:However, based on abnormalities in 1897:The Origin of Continents and Oceans 1684:The Origin of Continents and Oceans 1316:Dissipation of heat from the mantle 1266:(left side toward the observer) or 1086:List of tectonic plate interactions 279:Principle of original horizontality 24: 9036: 7944:Wilson, J. Tuzo (13 August 1966). 7771:Wegener, Alfred (6 January 1912). 5841:. New York, NY: Halsted. pp. 5214:O'Neill, C.; Lenardic, A. (2007). 4669: 4098:Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 3855:Hofmeister, Criss & Criss 2022 3197:10.1111/j.1365-246x.1975.tb00631.x 2539:or Nuna formed during a period of 2213:the rim of the Pacific Ocean basin 1410: 1370: 25: 11175: 8245:An explanation of tectonic forces 8211: 7991:"Speed of the Continental Plates" 6665:10.1038/scientificamerican1060-98 5448:The Oxford Companion to The Earth 5035:Wolpert, Stuart (9 August 2012). 4969:Bortman, Henry (26 August 2004). 3730:"2. Physics of Mantle Convection" 3176:Geophysical Journal International 2966:Little, Fowler & Coulson 1990 2813: 2557:is thought to have formed about 1 1811:imaging techniques in and around 1420:Driving forces related to gravity 1310:and the relative weakness of the 816: 11116: 11115: 10861: 10850: 10849: 10837: 10825: 10203: 10090: 10089: 9662: 9651: 9650: 9638: 9270: 9185: 8934: 8933: 7142:"Samuel Warren Carey, 1911–2002" 6057:. pp. 24–38. Archived from 5312:"Applications to paleogeography" 5250: 5207: 5170: 5133: 5062: 4139:Karl Krainer, Christoph Hauser: 2889:Conservation of angular momentum 2594: 825: 591: 133: 9008:Principle of lateral continuity 8641:Human impact on the environment 8063:10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.02.003 7824:Journal of Geophysical Research 7368:Journal of Geophysical Research 7112:Journal of Geophysical Research 7081:Journal of Geophysical Research 6913:from the original on 2016-09-24 5727:The Little Book of Planet Earth 5656:. Vol. II (3rd ed.). 5110:from the original on 2019-04-04 4981:from the original on 2010-12-24 4962: 4894:10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104069 4830:from the original on 2010-06-15 4818:Scotese, C.R. (20 April 2002). 4811: 4773:from the original on 2011-07-23 4758: 4752:10.1016/j.precamres.2021.106178 4719: 4598: 4563: 4557:10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.11.006 4528: 4519: 4435: 4407: 4343: 4323: 4307: 4284:from the original on 2018-03-23 4264: 4188: 4175: 4133: 4084: 4065: 4017: 3970: 3919: 3784: 3688: 3659: 3507:from the original on 2019-10-09 3457: 3446:from the original on 2016-07-21 3431: 3373:from the original on 2019-05-16 3367:United States Geological Survey 3257: 3170:Forsyth, D.; Uyeda, S. (1975). 3086:10.1016/j.precamres.2020.105980 2705:more massive planets than Earth 2316:Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis 2246:Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis 1807:Simultaneous advances in early 1580:Tidal triggering of earthquakes 1298:(GPS) satellite data from NASA 836:needs additional citations for 781:Tectonic plates are relatively 289:Principle of lateral continuity 27:Movement of Earth's lithosphere 10753:South American–Antarctic Ridge 9018:Principle of faunal succession 8470:Climate variability and change 8177:The Crust of the Pacific Basin 6055:Norges Geologiske Undersokelse 5495:Principles of Physical Geology 5420:"The Continental Drift Debate" 5257:Stern, Robert J. (July 2016). 4794:Torsvik & Steinberger 2008 3695:Neith, Katie (15 April 2011). 3163: 3112: 2254:, using magnetic instruments ( 2155:(1960) based on his work with 1935:). Furthermore, when the rock 1524:) exerts on the crust of Earth 1286:Driving forces of plate motion 299:Principle of faunal succession 40:For Tectonics in general, see 13: 1: 8906:Evolution of the Solar System 8228:Understanding Plate Tectonics 8111:10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00345-4 8030:10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00073-9 7891:Wilson, J. Tuzo (July 1965). 7646:Astrophysical Journal Letters 7150:Australian Academy of Science 6633:10.1126/science.287.5453.547a 5483:Geological Society of America 4592:10.1016/S0012-821X(02)01009-9 4272:"Pioneers of Plate Tectonics" 3363:"Understanding plate motions" 2947: 2851: 2415:Implications for biogeography 2081:expansion of the global crust 785:and float across the ductile 10965:Fifteen-Twenty Fracture Zone 8646:Evolutionary history of life 8168:10.1016/0264-3707(90)90022-M 7814:10.1016/0040-1951(88)90079-0 7725:Developments in Geotectonics 7716:10.1016/0040-1951(76)90061-5 6925:Maruyama, Shigenori (1994). 6760:10.1016/0019-1035(88)90116-9 6696:10.1016/0011-7471(66)91078-3 6550:van Dijk, Janpieter (1992). 6543:10.1016/0040-1951(91)90288-4 6408:Lithgow-Bertelloni, Carolina 6336:10.1126/science.284.5415.794 5539:Joly, J. (1910). "Review of 5470:Hess, H.H. (November 1962). 5395:Foulger, Gillian R. (2010). 5221:Geophysical Research Letters 3760:Glatzmaier, Gary A. (2013). 3667:"Alfred Wegener (1880–1930)" 3301:Turcotte & Schubert 2002 3289:Turcotte & Schubert 2002 2952: 2800:may be a tectonic boundary. 1694:floating on a sea of denser 684:comprises a number of large 49:Plate tectonics on icy moons 7: 9295:Geological history of Earth 9231: 7414:Planetary and Space Science 6802:Lippsett, Laurence (2001). 6203: 6053:. Vol. 12. Trondheim: 5996:Saunders College Publishing 5933:Stanley, Steven M. (1999). 5623:Living Legacies at Columbia 5617:Lippsett, Laurence (2006). 4726:Korenaga, Jun (July 2021). 4627:10.1016/j.tecto.2018.03.016 2898:Geological history of Earth 2875: 2483:, over 4 billion years ago. 2232:Seafloor magnetic striping. 2075:in March 1956 organised by 1959:of Europe and parts of the 760:convergent plate boundaries 409:Geological history of Earth 10: 11180: 10706:Galápagos Spreading Center 9268: 7614:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.12.055 6843:Journal of Marine Research 6734:Kasting, James F. (1988). 6719:10.1144/transglas.18.3.559 6080:Cambridge University Press 5916:Cambridge University Press 5428:Cambridge University Press 5310:Butler, Robert F. (1992). 5297: 5201:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.07.029 5164:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.07.015 4705:10.1038/d41586-024-02602-3 4514:McKenzie & Parker 1967 4302:Stein & Wysession 2009 4199:Spiess & Kuperman 2003 4030:On the Shoulders of Giants 3983:On the Shoulders of Giants 3768:Princeton University Press 3490:10.1144/transglas.18.3.559 3252:Schmidt & Harbert 1998 2922:Outline of plate tectonics 2768: 2718: 2598: 2434: 2382:American Geophysical Union 2243: 2123: 1999:Map of earthquakes in 2016 1835: 1669:Plate Tectonics Revolution 1650: 1646:Plate Tectonics Revolution 1643: 1577: 1527:Global deformation of the 1331: 1083: 1006:, while continental crust 658: 261:Laws, principles, theories 140:Science of the solid Earth 46: 39: 29: 11111: 11095: 11079: 11063: 11037: 11021: 11003: 10940: 10917: 10819: 10771: 10656: 10573: 10300: 10212: 10201: 10143: 10085: 9998: 9957: 9948: 9905: 9827: 9769: 9719: 9632: 9606: 9535: 9497: 9444: 9418: 9382: 9349: 9309:Composition and structure 9308: 9280: 9262:Index of geology articles 9239: 9181: 9148: 9105: 9047: 9034: 8988: 8929: 8896: 8880: 8837: 8782: 8724: 8659: 8606: 8536: 8488: 8445: 8392: 8374: 8366: 7989:Zhen Shao, Huang (1997). 7576:10.1080/14786446308643410 7435:10.1016/j.pss.2007.04.015 7360:"Martian plate tectonics" 7071:Morgan, W. Jason (1968). 6612:Harrison, C.G.A. (2000). 6589:10.1017/S0007087400016551 5627:Columbia University Press 5541:Radioactivity and Geology 5472:"History of Ocean Basins" 5286:10.1016/j.gsf.2015.12.002 3795:van Dijk & Okkes 1990 3654:White & McKenzie 1989 3119:Stern, Robert J. (2002). 2780:Martian Crustal Dichotomy 2745:, although ages of up to 2445:Defining plate boundaries 1913:Antonio Snider-Pellegrini 1700:Antonio Snider-Pellegrini 1405:theory of Earth expansion 1296:Global Positioning System 1080:Types of plate boundaries 1023:interiors of continents. 99: Sinistral transform 9107:Geomorphologic processes 8990:Stratigraphic principles 8983:principles and processes 8916:Location in the Universe 8847:Antarctic/Southern Ocean 8546:List of sovereign states 8045:(Submitted manuscript). 7442:Spence, William (1987). 7347:10.5194/smsps-2-171-2002 6828:National Geographic News 6122:Wegener, Alfred (1966). 6101:Wegener, Alfred (1929). 5577:"Historical perspective" 5302: 4767:"Reconstruction Methods" 4430:Vine & Matthews 1963 4211:Kious & Tilling 1996 4183:Lyman & Fleming 1940 2714: 2572:; Pangaea broke up into 2549:1,500 to 1,300 2542:2,000 to 1,800 2515:distribution of certain 1802:magnetic field reversals 1733:Our Wandering Continents 269:Stratigraphic principles 10748:Pacific-Antarctic Ridge 8313:Explanation of evidence 8093:2001E&PSL.189...75Z 7845:10.1029/JB094iB06p07685 7606:2010E&PSL.291..106T 7499:10.5670/oceanog.2003.30 7473:10.1029/RG025i001p00055 7427:2007P&SS...55.2015S 7133:10.1029/JB073i012p03661 7102:10.1029/JB073i006p01959 6794:10.5670/oceanog.1995.29 6775:Korgen, Ben J. (1995). 6438:10.1126/science.1074161 6380:10.1073/pnas.0507469102 6025:: 20–30. Archived from 5991:Modern Physical Geology 5838:Introduction to Geology 5725:Meissner, Rolf (2002). 5453:Oxford University Press 5193:2011E&PSL.310..252V 5156:2009E&PSL.286..492V 4584:2003E&PSL.205..107B 4318:Quilty & Banks 2003 3928:"Revolutionary Science" 3525:Tanimoto & Lay 2000 3000:10.1126/science.1216066 2883:Atmospheric circulation 2764: 2750: million years ago 2601:List of tectonic plates 2566: million years ago 2178:, a scientist with the 1252:conservative boundaries 1110:constructive boundaries 954:(in older texts called 93: Dextral transform 10801:Pacific-Farallon Ridge 10773:Ancient oceanic ridges 10763:Southwest Indian Ridge 10758:Southeast Indian Ridge 10495:Philippine Mobile Belt 9173:Mass wasting processes 9041: 8264:Map of tectonic plates 7564:Philosophical Magazine 7536:10.1073/pnas.210382197 7245:10.1098/rsta.1965.0016 6557:Geologica Ultraiectina 5914:. Cambridge, England: 5708:Barnes and Noble Books 5702:McKnight, Tom (2004). 5675:Lliboutry, L. (2000). 5587:U.S. Geological Survey 5360:University of Tasmania 5011:Zhong & Zuber 2001 4765:Torsvik, Trond Helge. 4640:Moss & Wilson 1998 4277:The Geological Society 4119:10.1139/cjes-2018-0157 3895:10.1126/sciadv.1601107 3107:Read & Watson 1975 2837:, the largest moon of 2695:Other celestial bodies 2610: 2498: 2276:Earth's magnetic field 2241: 2233: 2000: 1992: 1903:and the west coast of 1855: 1660: 1359:from buoyancy forces. 1303: 1294:Plate motion based on 1256:strike-slip boundaries 1241: 1164:destructive boundaries 1153: 1114:extensional boundaries 1099: 895:and in the method for 645: 109: 101: 67: Spreading center 9558:Environmental geology 9049:Petrologic principles 9040: 8626:Biogeochemical cycles 8551:dependent territories 8129:10.1130/2021.2553(18) 8043:Earth-Science Reviews 8009:Earth-Science Reviews 7452:Reviews of Geophysics 6946:10.5575/geosoc.100.24 6564:: 288. Archived from 5368:Condie, K.C. (1997). 5128:Soderblom et al. 2007 5073:Connerney et al. 2005 5069:Connerney et al. 1999 4874:Earth-Science Reviews 4537:Earth-Science Reviews 4418:Raff & Mason 1961 4414:Mason & Raff 1961 4032:. Earth Observatory, 3985:. Earth Observatory, 3946:10.1128/mBio.00158-16 3612:Meyerhoff et al. 1996 3438:Mendia-Landa, Pedro. 3126:Reviews of Geophysics 2870:extraterrestrial life 2608: 2553:. The supercontinent 2496: 2366:. In this symposium, 2244:Further information: 2239: 2231: 2016:plumb line deflection 1998: 1986: 1961:Appalachian Mountains 1853: 1836:Further information: 1783:apparent polar wander 1658: 1644:Further information: 1640:History of the theory 1293: 1239: 1176:continental collision 1159:Convergent boundaries 1151: 1097: 893:mechanical properties 883:are divided into the 881:outer layers of Earth 107: 80: Subduction zone 59: 10676:Central Indian Ridge 9970:Evolutionary history 9517:Planetary geophysics 9135:Marine transgression 9003:Law of superposition 8674:Computer cartography 8407:Prebiotic atmosphere 8123:. pp. 213–222. 7995:The Physics Factbook 7267:Annals of Geophysics 7146:Biographical memoirs 6406:Conrad, Clinton P.; 5979:. Englewood Cliffs: 5935:Earth System History 5418:Frankel, H. (1987). 5358:. Hobart, Tasmania: 5264:Geoscience Frontiers 5243:10.1029/2007GL030598 4732:Precambrian Research 3831:Scoppola et al. 2006 3148:10.1029/2001RG000108 3066:Precambrian Research 2934:Supercontinent cycle 2806:Mars Global Surveyor 2741:500 to 750 2734:have been used as a 2437:Plate reconstruction 2431:Plate reconstruction 2182:who coined the term 2172:Princeton University 1957:Caledonian Mountains 1925:Frank Bursley Taylor 1813:Wadati–Benioff zones 1456:North American Plate 1279:plate boundary zones 1247:Transform boundaries 1105:Divergent boundaries 923:, which ride on the 897:the transfer of heat 845:improve this article 284:Law of superposition 86: Collision zone 73: Extension zone 11022:Trench Trench Ridge 10950:Aden-Owen-Carlsberg 10791:Kula-Farallon Ridge 9907:Natural environment 9619:Petroleum geologist 9583:Forensic geophysics 9553:Engineering geology 9300:Timeline of geology 9252:Glossary of geology 8817:Geologic time scale 8538:Culture and society 8402:Atmosphere of Earth 8185:1962GMS.....6...92C 8160:1990JGeo...12...21D 8055:2004ESRv...67...91Z 8022:2002ESRv...59..125Z 7964:1966Natur.211..676W 7914:1965Natur.207..343W 7868:1963Natur.198..925T 7837:1989JGR....94.7685W 7748:1963Natur.199..947V 7708:1976Tectp..32..145V 7669:2007ApJ...670L..45V 7527:2000PNAS...9712409T 7465:1987RvGeo..25...55S 7381:1994JGR....99.5639S 7338:2002SMSPS...2..171S 7305:2006GSAB..118..199S 7237:1965RSPTA.258....1R 7195:1961GSAB...72.1267R 7125:1968JGR....73.3661L 7094:1968JGR....73.1959M 7048:1973Geo.....1...99M 7009:1967Natur.216.1276M 7003:(5122): 1276–1280. 6970:1961GSAB...72.1259M 6883:10.1038/nature17992 6875:2016Natur.535..140M 6752:1988Icar...74..472K 6688:1966DSRA...13..427H 6657:1960SciAm.203d..98H 6644:Scientific American 6535:1991Tectp.196...23V 6481:1961Natur.190..854D 6430:2002Sci...298..207C 6371:2005PNAS..10214970C 6328:1999Sci...284..794C 6285:1971Natur.234..536B 6235:10.1038/nature07011 6227:2008Natur.453.1212A 5941:. pp. 211–28. 5629:. pp. 277–97. 5585:(Online ed.). 5559:1910JG.....18..568J 5501:. pp. 640–41. 5485:. pp. 599–620. 5362:. pp. 177–363. 5277:2016GeoFr...7..573S 5234:2007GeoRL..3419204O 4921:2023TeNov..35..343V 4886:2022ESRv..23104069H 4744:2021PreR..35906178K 4697:2024Natur.632..490M 4619:2019Tectp.760..107C 4549:2017ESRv..165..120C 4111:2019CaJES..56.1095D 3887:2016SciA....2E1107R 3843:Torsvik et al. 2010 3728:Ricard, Y. (2009). 3624:Mallard et al. 2016 3411:2012AREPS..40..413G 3188:1975GeoJ...43..163F 3139:2002RvGeo..40.1012S 3078:2021PreR..35205980W 3043:2009AREPS..37..479H 2992:2012Sci...335.1334D 2986:(6074): 1334–1336. 2701:terrestrial planets 2609:Plate tectonics map 2546:and broke up about 2336:magnetostratigraphy 2138:'s research vessel 1955:. Furthermore, the 1876:and its associated 1864:continental shelves 1845:geosynclinal theory 1757:convection currents 1720:mammal-like reptile 1308:oceanic lithosphere 1152:Convergent boundary 1138:West Antarctic Rift 428:Branches of geology 367:Landform structures 248:Geologic time scale 11080:Ridge Trench Fault 11045:Kamchatka-Aleutian 11038:Fault Fault Trench 10832:Geology portal 10806:Pacific-Kula Ridge 10796:Mid-Labrador Ridge 10721:Mid-Atlantic Ridge 10716:Juan de Fuca Ridge 9645:Geology portal 9573:Geologic modelling 9512:Geophysical survey 9464:Geodetic astronomy 9390:Structural geology 9351:Historical geology 9282:History of geology 9257:History of geology 9247:Outline of geology 9192:Geology portal 9150:Sediment transport 9042: 8812:Geological history 8686:Geodetic astronomy 8269:2017-01-12 at the 8250:2017-09-12 at the 8233:2006-02-07 at the 8193:10.1029/GM006p0092 5546:Journal of Geology 3121:"Subduction zones" 2611: 2512:paleomagnetic pole 2499: 2398:In the same year, 2391:Two months later, 2242: 2234: 2203:subduction in the 2195:In the same year, 2184:seafloor spreading 2168:Harry Hammond Hess 2126:Seafloor spreading 2001: 1993: 1987:Global earthquake 1856: 1798:mid-oceanic ridges 1766:seafloor spreading 1661: 1506:seafloor spreading 1495:centrifugal forces 1353:seismic tomography 1304: 1242: 1240:Transform boundary 1154: 1122:Mid-Atlantic Ridge 1100: 1098:Divergent boundary 1008:buoyantly projects 943:(about as fast as 935:(about as fast as 933:Mid-Atlantic Ridge 700:seafloor spreading 598:Geology portal 518:By planet and body 386:Structural Geology 358:Structure of Earth 110: 102: 11131: 11130: 11064:Ridge Fault Fault 10877: 10876: 10691:East Pacific Rise 10103: 10102: 10081: 10080: 9754:chemical elements 9678: 9677: 9563:Planetary geology 9479:Planetary geodesy 9199: 9198: 9168:Glacial processes 9163:Aeolian processes 9158:Fluvial processes 9140:Marine regression 8947: 8946: 8898:Planetary science 8881:Natural satellite 8802:Extremes on Earth 8769:Signal processing 8333:December 31, 2015 8138:978-0-8137-2553-6 7742:(4897): 947–949. 7521:(23): 12409–110. 7399:10.1029/94JE00216 7320:Segev, A (2002). 7017:10.1038/2161276a0 6927:"Plume tectonics" 6675:Deep-Sea Research 6365:(42): 14970–175. 6221:(7199): 1212–15. 6194:978-1-4020-5749-6 6161:978-0-06-621285-2 6142:Winchester, Simon 6133:978-0-486-61708-4 6114:978-3-443-01056-0 6093:978-0-521-66186-7 6005:978-0-03-025398-0 5967:978-1-4443-1131-0 5948:978-0-7167-2882-5 5925:978-0-521-35367-0 5881:978-0-7872-4296-1 5852:978-0-470-71165-1 5827:978-0-8133-4132-3 5791:978-90-73348-97-4 5765:978-0-7923-4156-7 5744:978-0-387-95258-1 5717:978-0-7607-5974-5 5688:978-1-85233-115-3 5667:978-0-19-861126-4 5636:978-0-231-13884-0 5596:978-0-16-048220-5 5532:978-1-4021-3577-4 5508:978-0-471-07251-5 5462:978-0-19-854039-7 5437:978-0-521-27560-6 5410:978-1-4051-6148-0 5381:978-0-7506-3386-4 5332:978-0-86542-070-0 4929:10.1111/TER.12662 4820:"Climate History" 4691:(8025): 490–492. 4105:(11): 1095–1100. 3777:978-1-4008-4890-4 3743:978-0-444-53580-1 3549:Van Bemmelen 1972 3537:Van Bemmelen 1976 3275:978-0-87720-196-0 2792:Northern Lowlands 2743:million years ago 2551:million years ago 2544:million years ago 2494: 2425:similar ancestors 2312:Drummond Matthews 2224:Magnetic striping 2149:Great Global Rift 1921:Roberto Mantovani 1872:The discovery of 1838:Continental drift 1832:Continental drift 1749:Charles Schuchert 1550:centrifugal force 1499:continental drift 1375:In the theory of 1357:mantle convection 1334:Mantle convection 1272:San Andreas Fault 1130:East African Rift 1126:East Pacific Rise 1010:above sea level. 1000:continental crust 978:from silicon and 970:continental crust 907:and has a nearly 877: 876: 869: 762:, the process of 749:mountain-building 745:volcanic activity 691:continental drift 674:scientific theory 634: 633: 498:Planetary geology 450:Geological survey 18:Magnetic striping 16:(Redirected from 11171: 11154:Geology theories 11119: 11118: 10911:Triple junctions 10904: 10897: 10890: 10881: 10880: 10865: 10864: 10853: 10852: 10841: 10840: 10830: 10829: 10731:Kolbeinsey Ridge 10207: 10130: 10123: 10116: 10107: 10106: 10093: 10092: 9965: 9955: 9954: 9895:tropical cyclone 9845: 9705: 9698: 9691: 9682: 9681: 9666: 9665: 9654: 9653: 9643: 9642: 9578:Forensic geology 9548:Economic geology 9474:Gravity of Earth 9369:Paleoclimatology 9274: 9226: 9219: 9212: 9203: 9202: 9190: 9189: 8974: 8967: 8960: 8951: 8950: 8937: 8936: 8829:History of Earth 8480:Paleoclimatology 8361: 8354: 8347: 8338: 8337: 8321: 8206: 8171: 8142: 8114: 8104: 8076: 8066: 8033: 8002: 7997:. Archived from 7985: 7975: 7973:10.1038/211676a0 7958:(5050): 676–81. 7940: 7938: 7932:. Archived from 7922:10.1038/207343a0 7908:(4995): 343–47. 7897: 7887: 7876:10.1038/198925a0 7862:(4884): 849–65. 7848: 7817: 7794: 7792: 7777: 7767: 7756:10.1038/199947a0 7728: 7719: 7688: 7662: 7639: 7637: 7636: 7630: 7624:. Archived from 7589: 7579: 7558: 7548: 7538: 7503: 7501: 7476: 7448: 7438: 7402: 7392: 7364: 7356:Sleep, Norman H. 7351: 7349: 7316: 7313:10.1130/B25734.1 7299:(1–2): 199–209. 7285: 7283: 7256: 7214: 7175: 7162: 7161: 7152:. Archived from 7136: 7105: 7077: 7067: 7028: 6989: 6950: 6948: 6921: 6919: 6918: 6869:(7610): 140–43. 6851: 6836: 6831:. Archived from 6817: 6815: 6814: 6798: 6796: 6771: 6730: 6699: 6668: 6637: 6635: 6608: 6569: 6546: 6515: 6500: 6489:10.1038/190854a0 6475:(4779): 854–57. 6461: 6456:. Archived from 6424:(5591): 207–09. 6402: 6392: 6382: 6347: 6322:(5415): 794–98. 6304: 6293:10.1038/234536a0 6279:(5331): 536–38. 6267: 6254: 6198: 6165: 6137: 6118: 6097: 6078:(2nd ed.). 6077: 6065: 6063: 6048: 6037: 6035: 6034: 6021:(in Norwegian). 6009: 5984: 5971: 5952: 5929: 5906: 5901:. Archived from 5896: 5894: 5893: 5884:. Archived from 5864: 5831: 5809: 5807: 5806: 5800: 5794:. Archived from 5779: 5769: 5748: 5735:Copernicus Books 5721: 5706:. New York, NY: 5698: 5696: 5695: 5671: 5646: 5644: 5643: 5613: 5608:Abraham Ortelius 5604: 5603: 5570: 5536: 5512: 5497:(3rd ed.). 5486: 5476: 5466: 5441: 5414: 5391: 5389: 5388: 5363: 5350: 5348: 5347: 5341: 5335:. Archived from 5316: 5291: 5290: 5288: 5254: 5248: 5247: 5245: 5211: 5205: 5204: 5174: 5168: 5167: 5150:(3–4): 492–502. 5137: 5131: 5125: 5119: 5118: 5116: 5115: 5093: 5087: 5081: 5075: 5066: 5060: 5059: 5057: 5056: 5047:. Archived from 5032: 5026: 5020: 5014: 5008: 5002: 4996: 4990: 4989: 4987: 4986: 4966: 4960: 4954: 4948: 4942: 4933: 4932: 4904: 4898: 4897: 4869: 4863: 4860:Zhao et al. 2004 4857: 4851: 4848:Zhao et al. 2002 4845: 4839: 4838: 4836: 4835: 4824:Paleomap Project 4815: 4809: 4803: 4797: 4791: 4782: 4781: 4779: 4778: 4762: 4756: 4755: 4723: 4717: 4716: 4676: 4667: 4661: 4655: 4649: 4643: 4637: 4631: 4630: 4602: 4596: 4595: 4578:(3–4): 107–121. 4567: 4561: 4560: 4532: 4526: 4523: 4517: 4511: 4505: 4499: 4493: 4487: 4481: 4475: 4469: 4463: 4457: 4451: 4445: 4439: 4433: 4427: 4421: 4411: 4405: 4399: 4393: 4387: 4381: 4375: 4369: 4363: 4357: 4347: 4341: 4327: 4321: 4311: 4305: 4299: 4293: 4292: 4290: 4289: 4268: 4262: 4256: 4250: 4244: 4238: 4232: 4226: 4220: 4214: 4208: 4202: 4192: 4186: 4179: 4173: 4167: 4161: 4155: 4146: 4137: 4131: 4130: 4088: 4082: 4069: 4063: 4057: 4051: 4050: 4047: 4041: 4040: 4021: 4015: 4009: 4000: 3999: 3994: 3993: 3974: 3968: 3967: 3957: 3940:(2): e00158–16. 3923: 3917: 3916: 3906: 3881:(12): e1601107. 3874:Science Advances 3864: 3858: 3852: 3846: 3840: 3834: 3828: 3822: 3816: 3810: 3804: 3798: 3788: 3782: 3781: 3757: 3748: 3747: 3725: 3716: 3715: 3713: 3712: 3703:. Archived from 3692: 3686: 3685: 3683: 3682: 3673:. Archived from 3663: 3657: 3651: 3642: 3636: 3627: 3621: 3615: 3609: 3603: 3597: 3591: 3588:Yuen et al. 2007 3585: 3579: 3573: 3567: 3561: 3552: 3546: 3540: 3534: 3528: 3522: 3516: 3515: 3513: 3512: 3506: 3473: 3461: 3455: 3454: 3452: 3451: 3435: 3429: 3428: 3426: 3425: 3388: 3382: 3381: 3379: 3378: 3359: 3353: 3352: 3350: 3349: 3334: 3328: 3322: 3316: 3310: 3304: 3298: 3292: 3286: 3280: 3279: 3261: 3255: 3249: 3243: 3237: 3231: 3225: 3219: 3213: 3202: 3201: 3199: 3167: 3161: 3160: 3150: 3116: 3110: 3104: 3098: 3097: 3061: 3055: 3054: 3026: 3020: 3019: 2975: 2969: 2963: 2894: 2798:Valles Marineris 2751: 2744: 2721:Geology of Venus 2567: 2560: 2552: 2545: 2517:sedimentary rock 2495: 2393:Xavier Le Pichon 2380:In 1967, at the 2356:transform faults 2314:, in 1963, (the 2294:paragraph). New 2205:Aleutian Islands 2044:oceanic trenches 1909:Abraham Ortelius 1438:flexural bulging 1260:transform faults 1196:Aleutian Islands 1189:hydrous minerals 1048:oceanic trenches 1044:mid-ocean ridges 925:fluid-like solid 872: 865: 861: 858: 852: 829: 821: 669: 662: 626: 619: 612: 596: 595: 400:Geologic history 137: 112: 111: 98: 92: 85: 79: 72: 66: 21: 11179: 11178: 11174: 11173: 11172: 11170: 11169: 11168: 11144:Plate tectonics 11134: 11133: 11132: 11127: 11107: 11091: 11087:Queen Charlotte 11075: 11059: 11033: 11017: 10999: 10990:South Greenland 10936: 10913: 10908: 10878: 10873: 10824: 10815: 10767: 10741:Reykjanes Ridge 10726:Knipovich Ridge 10671:Carlsberg Ridge 10652: 10569: 10475:North Galápagos 10296: 10208: 10199: 10168:Indo-Australian 10139: 10137:Tectonic plates 10134: 10104: 10099: 10077: 9994: 9963: 9944: 9901: 9843: 9823: 9814:Gaia hypothesis 9804:Plate tectonics 9765: 9715: 9709: 9679: 9674: 9637: 9628: 9602: 9598:Mineral physics 9531: 9493: 9440: 9414: 9400:Plate tectonics 9378: 9374:Palaeogeography 9345: 9321:Crystallography 9304: 9276: 9275: 9266: 9235: 9230: 9200: 9195: 9184: 9177: 9144: 9125:Tectonic uplift 9115:Plate tectonics 9101: 9043: 9032: 8984: 8978: 8948: 8943: 8925: 8892: 8876: 8833: 8824:Geologic record 8778: 8764:Plate tectonics 8754:Mineral physics 8734:Earth structure 8720: 8655: 8602: 8532: 8484: 8441: 8388: 8370: 8365: 8319: 8288:Plate Tectonics 8271:Wayback Machine 8252:Wayback Machine 8235:Wayback Machine 8214: 8209: 8203: 8139: 8102:10.1.1.535.8224 8074: 7936: 7895: 7790: 7775: 7634: 7632: 7628: 7600:(1–4): 106–12. 7587: 7446: 7421:(13): 2015–24. 7390:10.1.1.452.2751 7362: 7281:10.4401/ag-4406 7159: 7157: 7119:(12): 3661–97. 7088:(6): 1959–182. 7075: 6916: 6914: 6812: 6810: 6808:Living Legacies 6206: 6201: 6195: 6162: 6134: 6115: 6094: 6061: 6046: 6039: 6032: 6030: 6006: 5983:. p. 1087. 5968: 5949: 5926: 5897: 5891: 5889: 5882: 5853: 5828: 5804: 5802: 5798: 5792: 5777: 5766: 5745: 5737:. p. 202. 5718: 5693: 5691: 5689: 5668: 5658:Clarendon Press 5641: 5639: 5637: 5601: 5599: 5597: 5533: 5509: 5481:. Boulder, CO: 5474: 5463: 5438: 5411: 5401:Wiley-Blackwell 5386: 5384: 5382: 5345: 5343: 5339: 5333: 5314: 5305: 5300: 5295: 5294: 5255: 5251: 5212: 5208: 5187:(3–4): 252–61. 5175: 5171: 5138: 5134: 5126: 5122: 5113: 5111: 5094: 5090: 5082: 5078: 5067: 5063: 5054: 5052: 5033: 5029: 5021: 5017: 5009: 5005: 4997: 4993: 4984: 4982: 4967: 4963: 4955: 4951: 4943: 4936: 4905: 4901: 4870: 4866: 4858: 4854: 4846: 4842: 4833: 4831: 4816: 4812: 4804: 4800: 4792: 4785: 4776: 4774: 4763: 4759: 4724: 4720: 4677: 4670: 4662: 4658: 4650: 4646: 4638: 4634: 4603: 4599: 4568: 4564: 4533: 4529: 4524: 4520: 4512: 4508: 4500: 4496: 4488: 4484: 4476: 4472: 4464: 4460: 4452: 4448: 4441:See summary in 4440: 4436: 4428: 4424: 4412: 4408: 4400: 4396: 4388: 4384: 4376: 4372: 4364: 4360: 4348: 4344: 4328: 4324: 4312: 4308: 4300: 4296: 4287: 4285: 4270: 4269: 4265: 4257: 4253: 4245: 4241: 4233: 4229: 4221: 4217: 4209: 4205: 4193: 4189: 4180: 4176: 4168: 4164: 4156: 4149: 4138: 4134: 4089: 4085: 4070: 4066: 4058: 4054: 4045: 4038: 4036: 4022: 4018: 4010: 4003: 3991: 3989: 3975: 3971: 3924: 3920: 3865: 3861: 3853: 3849: 3841: 3837: 3829: 3825: 3817: 3813: 3805: 3801: 3789: 3785: 3778: 3770:. p. 149. 3758: 3751: 3744: 3726: 3719: 3710: 3708: 3693: 3689: 3680: 3678: 3665: 3664: 3660: 3652: 3645: 3637: 3630: 3622: 3618: 3610: 3606: 3598: 3594: 3586: 3582: 3574: 3570: 3562: 3555: 3547: 3543: 3535: 3531: 3523: 3519: 3510: 3508: 3504: 3471: 3462: 3458: 3449: 3447: 3436: 3432: 3423: 3421: 3389: 3385: 3376: 3374: 3361: 3360: 3356: 3347: 3345: 3336: 3335: 3331: 3323: 3319: 3311: 3307: 3299: 3295: 3287: 3283: 3276: 3262: 3258: 3250: 3246: 3238: 3234: 3226: 3222: 3214: 3205: 3168: 3164: 3117: 3113: 3105: 3101: 3062: 3058: 3027: 3023: 2976: 2972: 2964: 2960: 2955: 2950: 2945: 2892: 2878: 2854: 2816: 2773: 2771:Geology of Mars 2767: 2746: 2739: 2723: 2717: 2697: 2639:Indo-Australian 2603: 2597: 2562: 2558: 2547: 2540: 2529: 2486: 2459: 2447: 2439: 2433: 2417: 2386:W. Jason Morgan 2344: 2304:Lawrence Morley 2252:Victor Vacquier 2248: 2226: 2197:Robert R. Coats 2176:Robert S. Dietz 2161:expanding Earth 2128: 2122: 2077:S. Warren Carey 1981: 1840: 1834: 1745:Harold Jeffreys 1653: 1648: 1642: 1613: 1582: 1576: 1489:, had proposed 1480: 1422: 1413: 1411:Surge tectonics 1377:plume tectonics 1373: 1371:Plume tectonics 1336: 1330: 1288: 1200:Mariana Islands 1142:Rio Grande Rift 1088: 1082: 921:tectonic plates 873: 862: 856: 853: 842: 830: 819: 807:subduction zone 795:spreading ridge 686:tectonic plates 637:Plate tectonics 630: 590: 583: 582: 581: 522: 514: 500: 490: 489: 488: 463: 455: 454: 441: 423: 415: 414: 413: 404: 396: 395: 371: 363: 362: 333: 325: 323: 315: 314: 313: 274: 264: 262: 254: 253: 252: 228:Plate tectonics 223: 188: 180: 142: 100: 96: 94: 90: 87: 83: 81: 77: 74: 70: 68: 64: 61: 52: 45: 38: 33:Tectonic Plates 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 11177: 11167: 11166: 11161: 11156: 11151: 11146: 11129: 11128: 11126: 11125: 11112: 11109: 11108: 11106: 11105: 11099: 11097: 11093: 11092: 11090: 11089: 11083: 11081: 11077: 11076: 11074: 11073: 11067: 11065: 11061: 11060: 11058: 11057: 11052: 11047: 11041: 11039: 11035: 11034: 11032: 11031: 11025: 11023: 11019: 11018: 11016: 11015: 11009: 11007: 11001: 11000: 10998: 10997: 10992: 10987: 10982: 10977: 10972: 10967: 10962: 10957: 10952: 10946: 10944: 10938: 10937: 10935: 10934: 10929: 10923: 10921: 10915: 10914: 10907: 10906: 10899: 10892: 10884: 10875: 10874: 10872: 10871: 10859: 10847: 10835: 10820: 10817: 10816: 10814: 10813: 10808: 10803: 10798: 10793: 10788: 10783: 10777: 10775: 10769: 10768: 10766: 10765: 10760: 10755: 10750: 10745: 10744: 10743: 10738: 10733: 10728: 10718: 10713: 10708: 10703: 10698: 10696:Explorer Ridge 10693: 10688: 10683: 10678: 10673: 10668: 10662: 10660: 10658:Oceanic ridges 10654: 10653: 10651: 10650: 10645: 10640: 10635: 10630: 10625: 10620: 10615: 10610: 10605: 10600: 10595: 10590: 10588:Bellingshausen 10585: 10579: 10577: 10575:Ancient plates 10571: 10570: 10568: 10567: 10562: 10557: 10552: 10547: 10542: 10537: 10535:South Sandwich 10532: 10530:South Bismarck 10527: 10522: 10517: 10512: 10507: 10502: 10497: 10492: 10487: 10482: 10477: 10472: 10470:North Bismarck 10467: 10462: 10457: 10452: 10447: 10442: 10437: 10432: 10427: 10422: 10417: 10412: 10410:Juan Fernández 10407: 10402: 10397: 10392: 10387: 10382: 10377: 10372: 10367: 10362: 10357: 10352: 10347: 10342: 10337: 10332: 10327: 10322: 10317: 10312: 10306: 10304: 10298: 10297: 10295: 10294: 10289: 10284: 10279: 10274: 10269: 10264: 10259: 10254: 10249: 10244: 10239: 10234: 10229: 10224: 10218: 10216: 10210: 10209: 10202: 10200: 10198: 10197: 10195:South American 10192: 10187: 10185:North American 10182: 10181: 10180: 10175: 10165: 10160: 10155: 10149: 10147: 10141: 10140: 10133: 10132: 10125: 10118: 10110: 10101: 10100: 10098: 10097: 10086: 10083: 10082: 10079: 10078: 10076: 10075: 10068: 10067: 10066: 10061: 10051: 10050: 10049: 10044: 10039: 10038: 10037: 10027: 10026: 10025: 10010: 10005: 9999: 9996: 9995: 9993: 9992: 9982: 9977: 9972: 9967: 9958: 9952: 9946: 9945: 9943: 9942: 9937: 9932: 9927: 9922: 9917: 9911: 9909: 9903: 9902: 9900: 9899: 9898: 9897: 9892: 9882: 9877: 9872: 9867: 9862: 9857: 9852: 9847: 9839: 9833: 9831: 9825: 9824: 9822: 9821: 9816: 9811: 9806: 9801: 9796: 9791: 9781: 9775: 9773: 9767: 9766: 9764: 9763: 9758: 9757: 9756: 9751: 9741: 9736: 9731: 9725: 9723: 9717: 9716: 9708: 9707: 9700: 9693: 9685: 9676: 9675: 9673: 9672: 9660: 9648: 9633: 9630: 9629: 9627: 9626: 9621: 9616: 9610: 9608: 9604: 9603: 9601: 9600: 9595: 9593:Mining geology 9590: 9585: 9580: 9575: 9570: 9565: 9560: 9555: 9550: 9545: 9539: 9537: 9533: 9532: 9530: 9529: 9527:Tectonophysics 9524: 9519: 9514: 9509: 9503: 9501: 9495: 9494: 9492: 9491: 9489:Geopositioning 9486: 9484:Remote sensing 9481: 9476: 9471: 9466: 9461: 9456: 9450: 9448: 9442: 9441: 9439: 9438: 9436:Marine geology 9433: 9428: 9422: 9420: 9416: 9415: 9413: 9412: 9407: 9402: 9397: 9392: 9386: 9384: 9380: 9379: 9377: 9376: 9371: 9366: 9361: 9355: 9353: 9347: 9346: 9344: 9343: 9338: 9333: 9328: 9323: 9318: 9316:Cosmochemistry 9312: 9310: 9306: 9305: 9303: 9302: 9297: 9292: 9286: 9284: 9278: 9277: 9269: 9267: 9265: 9264: 9259: 9254: 9249: 9243: 9241: 9237: 9236: 9229: 9228: 9221: 9214: 9206: 9197: 9196: 9182: 9179: 9178: 9176: 9175: 9170: 9165: 9160: 9154: 9152: 9146: 9145: 9143: 9142: 9137: 9132: 9127: 9122: 9120:Salt tectonics 9117: 9111: 9109: 9103: 9102: 9100: 9099: 9094: 9089: 9084: 9082:Soil formation 9079: 9074: 9069: 9064: 9059: 9053: 9051: 9045: 9044: 9035: 9033: 9031: 9030: 9025: 9020: 9015: 9010: 9005: 9000: 8994: 8992: 8986: 8985: 8977: 8976: 8969: 8962: 8954: 8945: 8944: 8942: 8941: 8930: 8927: 8926: 8924: 8923: 8918: 8913: 8908: 8902: 8900: 8894: 8893: 8891: 8890: 8884: 8882: 8878: 8877: 8875: 8874: 8869: 8864: 8859: 8857:Atlantic Ocean 8854: 8849: 8843: 8841: 8835: 8834: 8832: 8831: 8826: 8821: 8820: 8819: 8809: 8804: 8799: 8794: 8788: 8786: 8780: 8779: 8777: 8776: 8771: 8766: 8761: 8756: 8751: 8746: 8741: 8739:Fluid dynamics 8736: 8730: 8728: 8722: 8721: 8719: 8718: 8713: 8711:Geopositioning 8708: 8706:Remote Sensing 8703: 8698: 8693: 8688: 8683: 8678: 8677: 8676: 8665: 8663: 8657: 8656: 8654: 8653: 8648: 8643: 8638: 8633: 8628: 8623: 8618: 8612: 8610: 8604: 8603: 8601: 8600: 8595: 8590: 8585: 8580: 8575: 8570: 8565: 8560: 8555: 8554: 8553: 8542: 8540: 8534: 8533: 8531: 8530: 8525: 8520: 8515: 8510: 8505: 8500: 8494: 8492: 8486: 8485: 8483: 8482: 8477: 8472: 8467: 8465:Climate change 8462: 8460:Energy balance 8457: 8455:Climate system 8451: 8449: 8443: 8442: 8440: 8439: 8434: 8429: 8424: 8419: 8414: 8409: 8404: 8398: 8396: 8390: 8389: 8387: 8386: 8381: 8375: 8372: 8371: 8364: 8363: 8356: 8349: 8341: 8335: 8334: 8325: 8315: 8301: 8300: 8285: 8280: 8274: 8261: 8255: 8242: 8225: 8213: 8212:External links 8210: 8208: 8207: 8201: 8172: 8143: 8137: 8115: 8087:(1–2): 75–84. 8067: 8034: 8003: 8001:on 2012-02-11. 7986: 7941: 7939:on 2010-08-06. 7888: 7849: 7818: 7801:Tectonophysics 7795: 7793:on 2010-07-05. 7768: 7729: 7720: 7702:(3): 145–182. 7695:Tectonophysics 7689: 7677:10.1086/524012 7653:(1): L45–L48. 7640: 7580: 7559: 7504: 7477: 7439: 7403: 7352: 7317: 7286: 7257: 7231:(1088): 7785. 7215: 7189:(8): 1267–70. 7176: 7137: 7106: 7068: 7029: 6990: 6964:(8): 1259–66. 6951: 6922: 6852: 6837: 6835:on 2006-02-07. 6818: 6799: 6772: 6731: 6713:(3): 559–606. 6700: 6669: 6638: 6626:(5453): 547a. 6609: 6570: 6568:on 2013-04-20. 6547: 6522:Tectonophysics 6516: 6514:(2–3): 241–70. 6501: 6462: 6460:on 2009-09-20. 6403: 6348: 6305: 6268: 6255: 6207: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6199: 6193: 6166: 6160: 6138: 6132: 6119: 6113: 6098: 6092: 6067: 6064:on 2011-07-23. 6010: 6004: 5985: 5972: 5966: 5953: 5947: 5930: 5924: 5907: 5905:on 2010-03-28. 5880: 5865: 5851: 5832: 5826: 5816:, ed. (2003). 5814:Oreskes, Naomi 5810: 5790: 5770: 5764: 5749: 5743: 5722: 5716: 5699: 5687: 5672: 5666: 5647: 5635: 5614: 5595: 5572: 5567:10.1086/621777 5553:(6): 568–570. 5531: 5513: 5507: 5491:Holmes, Arthur 5487: 5467: 5461: 5442: 5436: 5415: 5409: 5392: 5380: 5365: 5351: 5331: 5306: 5304: 5301: 5299: 5296: 5293: 5292: 5271:(4): 573–580. 5249: 5228:(19): L19204. 5206: 5169: 5132: 5120: 5088: 5076: 5061: 5027: 5015: 5003: 4991: 4961: 4949: 4934: 4915:(5): 343–369. 4899: 4864: 4852: 4840: 4810: 4798: 4783: 4757: 4718: 4668: 4664:Lliboutry 2000 4656: 4644: 4632: 4607:Tectonophysics 4597: 4562: 4527: 4518: 4506: 4502:Le Pichon 1968 4494: 4482: 4470: 4458: 4446: 4434: 4422: 4406: 4394: 4382: 4370: 4358: 4342: 4322: 4306: 4294: 4263: 4251: 4239: 4227: 4215: 4203: 4187: 4174: 4162: 4147: 4132: 4083: 4064: 4052: 4016: 4001: 3969: 3918: 3859: 3847: 3835: 3823: 3811: 3799: 3783: 3776: 3749: 3742: 3717: 3687: 3658: 3643: 3628: 3616: 3604: 3592: 3580: 3568: 3553: 3541: 3529: 3517: 3484:(3): 559–606. 3465:Holmes, Arthur 3456: 3430: 3383: 3354: 3329: 3327:, p. 100. 3317: 3305: 3293: 3281: 3274: 3256: 3244: 3232: 3228:Zhen Shao 1997 3220: 3203: 3182:(1): 163–200. 3162: 3111: 3099: 3056: 3037:(1): 479–505. 3021: 2970: 2957: 2956: 2954: 2951: 2949: 2946: 2944: 2943: 2937: 2931: 2925: 2919: 2913: 2907: 2901: 2895: 2886: 2879: 2877: 2874: 2853: 2850: 2815: 2814:Icy satellites 2812: 2766: 2763: 2732:impact craters 2716: 2713: 2696: 2693: 2674:Philippine Sea 2631:South American 2627:North American 2599:Main article: 2596: 2593: 2533:supercontinent 2528: 2525: 2521:orogenic belts 2458: 2455: 2446: 2443: 2435:Main article: 2432: 2429: 2416: 2413: 2412: 2411: 2407: 2396: 2389: 2378: 2371: 2368:Edward Bullard 2359: 2343: 2340: 2331: 2330: 2326: 2323: 2225: 2222: 2134:utilizing the 2121: 2118: 2117: 2116: 2113: 2110: 2107: 2088:Vening-Meinesz 2028:George B. Airy 2024:Pierre Bouguer 1980: 1977: 1833: 1830: 1822:paleogeography 1794:marine geology 1778:magnetic field 1774:paleomagnetism 1677:Alfred Wegener 1665:paradigm shift 1652: 1649: 1641: 1638: 1634:tectonophysics 1612: 1609: 1575: 1572: 1554: 1553: 1546: 1544:Coriolis force 1536: 1535: 1532: 1525: 1483:Alfred Wegener 1479: 1476: 1452:trench suction 1421: 1418: 1412: 1409: 1372: 1369: 1345:Alfred Wegener 1332:Main article: 1329: 1326: 1287: 1284: 1283: 1282: 1275: 1234: 1233: 1221: 1210: 1192: 1185: 1180: 1179: 1168:active margins 1146: 1145: 1084:Main article: 1081: 1078: 1028:plate boundary 875: 874: 833: 831: 824: 818: 817:Key principles 815: 753:oceanic trench 738: 732: 726: 715:plate boundary 693: 632: 631: 629: 628: 621: 614: 606: 603: 602: 601: 600: 585: 584: 580: 579: 574: 569: 564: 559: 554: 549: 544: 539: 534: 529: 523: 521: 520: 513: 512: 507: 501: 496: 495: 492: 491: 487: 486: 481: 476: 471: 465: 464: 461: 460: 457: 456: 453: 452: 447: 440: 439: 430: 424: 421: 420: 417: 416: 412: 411: 405: 403: 402: 394: 393: 388: 383: 378: 372: 370: 369: 361: 360: 355: 350: 345: 340: 334: 332: 331: 324: 321: 320: 317: 316: 312: 311: 306: 301: 296: 291: 286: 281: 275: 273: 272: 263: 260: 259: 256: 255: 251: 250: 245: 240: 235: 230: 224: 222: 221: 216: 210: 205: 196: 190: 189: 187:Key components 186: 185: 182: 181: 179: 178: 168: 163: 158: 153: 147: 144: 143: 138: 130: 129: 121: 120: 95: 89: 82: 76: 69: 63: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11176: 11165: 11162: 11160: 11157: 11155: 11152: 11150: 11147: 11145: 11142: 11141: 11139: 11124: 11123: 11114: 11113: 11110: 11104: 11101: 11100: 11098: 11094: 11088: 11085: 11084: 11082: 11078: 11072: 11069: 11068: 11066: 11062: 11056: 11053: 11051: 11048: 11046: 11043: 11042: 11040: 11036: 11030: 11027: 11026: 11024: 11020: 11014: 11011: 11010: 11008: 11006: 11002: 10996: 10993: 10991: 10988: 10986: 10983: 10981: 10978: 10976: 10973: 10971: 10968: 10966: 10963: 10961: 10958: 10956: 10953: 10951: 10948: 10947: 10945: 10943: 10939: 10933: 10930: 10928: 10925: 10924: 10922: 10920: 10919:Triple Trench 10916: 10912: 10905: 10900: 10898: 10893: 10891: 10886: 10885: 10882: 10870: 10869: 10860: 10858: 10857: 10848: 10846: 10845: 10836: 10834: 10833: 10828: 10822: 10821: 10818: 10812: 10811:Phoenix Ridge 10809: 10807: 10804: 10802: 10799: 10797: 10794: 10792: 10789: 10787: 10784: 10782: 10779: 10778: 10776: 10774: 10770: 10764: 10761: 10759: 10756: 10754: 10751: 10749: 10746: 10742: 10739: 10737: 10734: 10732: 10729: 10727: 10724: 10723: 10722: 10719: 10717: 10714: 10712: 10709: 10707: 10704: 10702: 10699: 10697: 10694: 10692: 10689: 10687: 10684: 10682: 10679: 10677: 10674: 10672: 10669: 10667: 10664: 10663: 10661: 10659: 10655: 10649: 10646: 10644: 10641: 10639: 10636: 10634: 10631: 10629: 10626: 10624: 10621: 10619: 10616: 10614: 10611: 10609: 10606: 10604: 10601: 10599: 10596: 10594: 10591: 10589: 10586: 10584: 10581: 10580: 10578: 10576: 10572: 10566: 10563: 10561: 10558: 10556: 10553: 10551: 10548: 10546: 10543: 10541: 10538: 10536: 10533: 10531: 10528: 10526: 10523: 10521: 10518: 10516: 10513: 10511: 10508: 10506: 10503: 10501: 10498: 10496: 10493: 10491: 10488: 10486: 10483: 10481: 10478: 10476: 10473: 10471: 10468: 10466: 10463: 10461: 10458: 10456: 10453: 10451: 10448: 10446: 10443: 10441: 10438: 10436: 10433: 10431: 10428: 10426: 10423: 10421: 10418: 10416: 10413: 10411: 10408: 10406: 10403: 10401: 10398: 10396: 10393: 10391: 10388: 10386: 10383: 10381: 10378: 10376: 10373: 10371: 10368: 10366: 10363: 10361: 10358: 10356: 10353: 10351: 10348: 10346: 10343: 10341: 10338: 10336: 10333: 10331: 10328: 10326: 10325:Balmoral Reef 10323: 10321: 10318: 10316: 10313: 10311: 10308: 10307: 10305: 10303: 10299: 10293: 10290: 10288: 10285: 10283: 10280: 10278: 10275: 10273: 10270: 10268: 10265: 10263: 10260: 10258: 10255: 10253: 10250: 10248: 10245: 10243: 10240: 10238: 10235: 10233: 10230: 10228: 10225: 10223: 10220: 10219: 10217: 10215: 10211: 10206: 10196: 10193: 10191: 10188: 10186: 10183: 10179: 10176: 10174: 10171: 10170: 10169: 10166: 10164: 10161: 10159: 10156: 10154: 10151: 10150: 10148: 10146: 10142: 10138: 10131: 10126: 10124: 10119: 10117: 10112: 10111: 10108: 10096: 10088: 10087: 10084: 10074: 10073: 10069: 10065: 10062: 10060: 10057: 10056: 10055: 10052: 10048: 10045: 10043: 10040: 10036: 10033: 10032: 10031: 10028: 10024: 10021: 10020: 10019: 10016: 10015: 10014: 10011: 10009: 10006: 10004: 10001: 10000: 9997: 9990: 9986: 9983: 9981: 9978: 9976: 9973: 9971: 9968: 9966: 9964:(abiogenesis) 9960: 9959: 9956: 9953: 9951: 9947: 9941: 9938: 9936: 9933: 9931: 9928: 9926: 9923: 9921: 9918: 9916: 9913: 9912: 9910: 9908: 9904: 9896: 9893: 9891: 9888: 9887: 9886: 9883: 9881: 9878: 9876: 9873: 9871: 9868: 9866: 9863: 9861: 9858: 9856: 9853: 9851: 9848: 9846: 9840: 9838: 9835: 9834: 9832: 9830: 9826: 9820: 9817: 9815: 9812: 9810: 9807: 9805: 9802: 9800: 9797: 9795: 9792: 9789: 9785: 9782: 9780: 9779:Earth science 9777: 9776: 9774: 9772: 9768: 9762: 9759: 9755: 9752: 9750: 9747: 9746: 9745: 9742: 9740: 9737: 9735: 9732: 9730: 9727: 9726: 9724: 9722: 9718: 9714: 9706: 9701: 9699: 9694: 9692: 9687: 9686: 9683: 9671: 9670: 9661: 9659: 9658: 9649: 9647: 9646: 9641: 9635: 9634: 9631: 9625: 9624:Volcanologist 9622: 9620: 9617: 9615: 9612: 9611: 9609: 9605: 9599: 9596: 9594: 9591: 9589: 9586: 9584: 9581: 9579: 9576: 9574: 9571: 9569: 9566: 9564: 9561: 9559: 9556: 9554: 9551: 9549: 9546: 9544: 9541: 9540: 9538: 9534: 9528: 9525: 9523: 9520: 9518: 9515: 9513: 9510: 9508: 9505: 9504: 9502: 9500: 9496: 9490: 9487: 9485: 9482: 9480: 9477: 9475: 9472: 9470: 9467: 9465: 9462: 9460: 9459:Earth's orbit 9457: 9455: 9452: 9451: 9449: 9447: 9443: 9437: 9434: 9432: 9429: 9427: 9424: 9423: 9421: 9417: 9411: 9408: 9406: 9405:Geomorphology 9403: 9401: 9398: 9396: 9393: 9391: 9388: 9387: 9385: 9383:Dynamic Earth 9381: 9375: 9372: 9370: 9367: 9365: 9362: 9360: 9357: 9356: 9354: 9352: 9348: 9342: 9341:Sedimentology 9339: 9337: 9334: 9332: 9329: 9327: 9324: 9322: 9319: 9317: 9314: 9313: 9311: 9307: 9301: 9298: 9296: 9293: 9291: 9290:Geochronology 9288: 9287: 9285: 9283: 9279: 9273: 9263: 9260: 9258: 9255: 9253: 9250: 9248: 9245: 9244: 9242: 9238: 9234: 9227: 9222: 9220: 9215: 9213: 9208: 9207: 9204: 9194: 9193: 9188: 9180: 9174: 9171: 9169: 9166: 9164: 9161: 9159: 9156: 9155: 9153: 9151: 9147: 9141: 9138: 9136: 9133: 9131: 9128: 9126: 9123: 9121: 9118: 9116: 9113: 9112: 9110: 9108: 9104: 9098: 9095: 9093: 9090: 9088: 9085: 9083: 9080: 9078: 9075: 9073: 9070: 9068: 9065: 9063: 9060: 9058: 9055: 9054: 9052: 9050: 9046: 9039: 9029: 9028:Walther's law 9026: 9024: 9021: 9019: 9016: 9014: 9011: 9009: 9006: 9004: 9001: 8999: 8996: 8995: 8993: 8991: 8987: 8982: 8975: 8970: 8968: 8963: 8961: 8956: 8955: 8952: 8940: 8932: 8931: 8928: 8922: 8919: 8917: 8914: 8912: 8909: 8907: 8904: 8903: 8901: 8899: 8895: 8889: 8886: 8885: 8883: 8879: 8873: 8870: 8868: 8867:Pacific Ocean 8865: 8863: 8860: 8858: 8855: 8853: 8850: 8848: 8845: 8844: 8842: 8840: 8836: 8830: 8827: 8825: 8822: 8818: 8815: 8814: 8813: 8810: 8808: 8805: 8803: 8800: 8798: 8797:Earth science 8795: 8793: 8790: 8789: 8787: 8785: 8781: 8775: 8772: 8770: 8767: 8765: 8762: 8760: 8757: 8755: 8752: 8750: 8749:Magnetosphere 8747: 8745: 8742: 8740: 8737: 8735: 8732: 8731: 8729: 8727: 8723: 8717: 8716:Virtual globe 8714: 8712: 8709: 8707: 8704: 8702: 8699: 8697: 8694: 8692: 8689: 8687: 8684: 8682: 8681:Earth's orbit 8679: 8675: 8672: 8671: 8670: 8667: 8666: 8664: 8662: 8658: 8652: 8649: 8647: 8644: 8642: 8639: 8637: 8634: 8632: 8629: 8627: 8624: 8622: 8619: 8617: 8614: 8613: 8611: 8609: 8605: 8599: 8596: 8594: 8591: 8589: 8588:World history 8586: 8584: 8581: 8579: 8578:World economy 8576: 8574: 8571: 8569: 8566: 8564: 8561: 8559: 8556: 8552: 8549: 8548: 8547: 8544: 8543: 8541: 8539: 8535: 8529: 8528:South America 8526: 8524: 8523:North America 8521: 8519: 8516: 8514: 8511: 8509: 8506: 8504: 8501: 8499: 8496: 8495: 8493: 8491: 8487: 8481: 8478: 8476: 8473: 8471: 8468: 8466: 8463: 8461: 8458: 8456: 8453: 8452: 8450: 8448: 8444: 8438: 8435: 8433: 8430: 8428: 8425: 8423: 8420: 8418: 8415: 8413: 8410: 8408: 8405: 8403: 8400: 8399: 8397: 8395: 8391: 8385: 8382: 8380: 8377: 8376: 8373: 8369: 8362: 8357: 8355: 8350: 8348: 8343: 8342: 8339: 8332: 8329: 8326: 8323: 8316: 8314: 8311: 8308: 8307: 8306: 8305: 8299: 8295: 8294: 8289: 8286: 8284: 8281: 8278: 8275: 8272: 8268: 8265: 8262: 8259: 8256: 8253: 8249: 8246: 8243: 8240: 8236: 8232: 8229: 8226: 8223: 8219: 8216: 8215: 8204: 8202:9781118669310 8198: 8194: 8190: 8186: 8182: 8178: 8173: 8169: 8165: 8161: 8157: 8153: 8149: 8144: 8140: 8134: 8130: 8126: 8122: 8116: 8112: 8108: 8103: 8098: 8094: 8090: 8086: 8082: 8081: 8073: 8068: 8064: 8060: 8056: 8052: 8049:(1): 91–123. 8048: 8044: 8040: 8035: 8031: 8027: 8023: 8019: 8016:(1): 125–62. 8015: 8011: 8010: 8004: 8000: 7996: 7992: 7987: 7983: 7979: 7974: 7969: 7965: 7961: 7957: 7953: 7952: 7947: 7942: 7935: 7931: 7927: 7923: 7919: 7915: 7911: 7907: 7903: 7902: 7894: 7889: 7885: 7881: 7877: 7873: 7869: 7865: 7861: 7857: 7856: 7850: 7846: 7842: 7838: 7834: 7830: 7826: 7825: 7819: 7815: 7811: 7807: 7803: 7802: 7796: 7789: 7785: 7781: 7774: 7769: 7765: 7761: 7757: 7753: 7749: 7745: 7741: 7737: 7736: 7730: 7726: 7721: 7717: 7713: 7709: 7705: 7701: 7697: 7696: 7690: 7686: 7682: 7678: 7674: 7670: 7666: 7661: 7656: 7652: 7648: 7647: 7641: 7631:on 2011-05-16 7627: 7623: 7619: 7615: 7611: 7607: 7603: 7599: 7595: 7594: 7586: 7581: 7577: 7573: 7569: 7565: 7560: 7556: 7552: 7547: 7542: 7537: 7532: 7528: 7524: 7520: 7516: 7515: 7510: 7505: 7500: 7495: 7491: 7487: 7483: 7478: 7474: 7470: 7466: 7462: 7458: 7454: 7453: 7445: 7440: 7436: 7432: 7428: 7424: 7420: 7416: 7415: 7410: 7404: 7400: 7396: 7391: 7386: 7382: 7378: 7374: 7370: 7369: 7361: 7357: 7353: 7348: 7343: 7339: 7335: 7331: 7327: 7323: 7318: 7314: 7310: 7306: 7302: 7298: 7294: 7293: 7287: 7282: 7277: 7273: 7269: 7268: 7263: 7258: 7254: 7250: 7246: 7242: 7238: 7234: 7230: 7226: 7225: 7220: 7219:Runcorn, S.K. 7216: 7212: 7208: 7204: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7188: 7184: 7183: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7168: 7156:on 2010-12-21 7155: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7138: 7134: 7130: 7126: 7122: 7118: 7114: 7113: 7107: 7103: 7099: 7095: 7091: 7087: 7083: 7082: 7074: 7069: 7065: 7061: 7057: 7053: 7049: 7045: 7042:(3): 99–100. 7041: 7037: 7036: 7030: 7026: 7022: 7018: 7014: 7010: 7006: 7002: 6998: 6997: 6991: 6987: 6983: 6979: 6975: 6971: 6967: 6963: 6959: 6958: 6952: 6947: 6942: 6938: 6934: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6912: 6908: 6904: 6900: 6896: 6892: 6888: 6884: 6880: 6876: 6872: 6868: 6864: 6863: 6858: 6853: 6849: 6845: 6844: 6838: 6834: 6830: 6829: 6824: 6819: 6809: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6786: 6782: 6778: 6773: 6769: 6765: 6761: 6757: 6753: 6749: 6746:(3): 472–94. 6745: 6741: 6737: 6732: 6728: 6724: 6720: 6716: 6712: 6708: 6707: 6701: 6697: 6693: 6689: 6685: 6682:(3): 427–32. 6681: 6677: 6676: 6670: 6666: 6662: 6658: 6654: 6651:(4): 98–110. 6650: 6646: 6645: 6639: 6634: 6629: 6625: 6621: 6620: 6615: 6610: 6606: 6602: 6598: 6594: 6590: 6586: 6583:(2): 130–50. 6582: 6578: 6577: 6571: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6558: 6553: 6548: 6544: 6540: 6536: 6532: 6528: 6524: 6523: 6517: 6513: 6509: 6508: 6502: 6498: 6494: 6490: 6486: 6482: 6478: 6474: 6470: 6469: 6463: 6459: 6455: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6439: 6435: 6431: 6427: 6423: 6419: 6418: 6413: 6409: 6404: 6400: 6396: 6391: 6386: 6381: 6376: 6372: 6368: 6364: 6360: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6345: 6341: 6337: 6333: 6329: 6325: 6321: 6317: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6302: 6298: 6294: 6290: 6286: 6282: 6278: 6274: 6269: 6265: 6261: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6244: 6240: 6236: 6232: 6228: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6215: 6209: 6208: 6196: 6190: 6186: 6182: 6181:South Holland 6178: 6174: 6173: 6167: 6163: 6157: 6153: 6152:HarperCollins 6149: 6148: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6129: 6125: 6120: 6116: 6110: 6106: 6105: 6099: 6095: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6076: 6075: 6068: 6060: 6056: 6052: 6045: 6040:translation: 6029:on 2011-07-23 6028: 6024: 6020: 6016: 6011: 6007: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5992: 5986: 5982: 5981:Prentice-Hall 5978: 5973: 5969: 5963: 5959: 5954: 5950: 5944: 5940: 5936: 5931: 5927: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5908: 5904: 5900: 5888:on 2010-01-24 5887: 5883: 5877: 5873: 5872: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5848: 5844: 5840: 5839: 5833: 5829: 5823: 5819: 5815: 5811: 5801:on 2008-02-16 5797: 5793: 5787: 5783: 5776: 5771: 5767: 5761: 5757: 5756: 5750: 5746: 5740: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5723: 5719: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5700: 5690: 5684: 5680: 5679: 5673: 5669: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5654: 5648: 5638: 5632: 5628: 5624: 5620: 5615: 5612: 5609: 5598: 5592: 5588: 5584: 5583: 5578: 5573: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5547: 5542: 5534: 5528: 5524: 5523: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5484: 5480: 5473: 5468: 5464: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5449: 5443: 5439: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5421: 5416: 5412: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5393: 5383: 5377: 5373: 5372: 5366: 5361: 5357: 5352: 5342:on 2010-08-17 5338: 5334: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5313: 5308: 5307: 5287: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5265: 5260: 5253: 5244: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5222: 5217: 5210: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5181: 5173: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5144: 5136: 5129: 5124: 5109: 5105: 5104: 5099: 5092: 5085: 5084:Harrison 2000 5080: 5074: 5070: 5065: 5051:on 2012-08-14 5050: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5031: 5024: 5019: 5012: 5007: 5000: 4995: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4965: 4958: 4953: 4946: 4941: 4939: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4903: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4868: 4861: 4856: 4849: 4844: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4814: 4807: 4802: 4795: 4790: 4788: 4772: 4768: 4761: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4722: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4675: 4673: 4665: 4660: 4653: 4648: 4641: 4636: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4601: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4573: 4566: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4531: 4522: 4515: 4510: 4503: 4498: 4491: 4486: 4479: 4474: 4467: 4462: 4455: 4450: 4444: 4438: 4431: 4426: 4419: 4415: 4410: 4403: 4398: 4391: 4386: 4379: 4374: 4367: 4362: 4355: 4354:Lippsett 2006 4351: 4350:Lippsett 2001 4346: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4326: 4319: 4315: 4310: 4304:, p. 26. 4303: 4298: 4283: 4279: 4278: 4273: 4267: 4260: 4255: 4248: 4243: 4236: 4231: 4224: 4219: 4212: 4207: 4200: 4196: 4191: 4184: 4178: 4171: 4166: 4159: 4154: 4152: 4144: 4143: 4136: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4099: 4094: 4087: 4080: 4078: 4073: 4072:Otto Ampferer 4068: 4061: 4056: 4049: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4020: 4013: 4008: 4006: 3998: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3973: 3965: 3961: 3956: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3934: 3929: 3922: 3914: 3910: 3905: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3875: 3870: 3863: 3856: 3851: 3844: 3839: 3832: 3827: 3820: 3815: 3808: 3803: 3796: 3792: 3791:van Dijk 1992 3787: 3779: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3764: 3756: 3754: 3745: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3724: 3722: 3707:on 2011-10-19 3706: 3702: 3698: 3691: 3677:on 2017-12-08 3676: 3672: 3668: 3662: 3655: 3650: 3648: 3640: 3635: 3633: 3625: 3620: 3613: 3608: 3601: 3596: 3589: 3584: 3577: 3576:Maruyama 1994 3572: 3565: 3560: 3558: 3550: 3545: 3538: 3533: 3526: 3521: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3478: 3470: 3466: 3460: 3445: 3441: 3434: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3405:(1): 413–39. 3404: 3400: 3399: 3394: 3387: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3358: 3344:on 2010-06-16 3343: 3339: 3333: 3326: 3325:Meissner 2002 3321: 3314: 3309: 3302: 3297: 3290: 3285: 3277: 3271: 3267: 3260: 3253: 3248: 3241: 3236: 3229: 3224: 3217: 3212: 3210: 3208: 3198: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3166: 3158: 3154: 3149: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3127: 3122: 3115: 3108: 3103: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3060: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3025: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2974: 2967: 2962: 2958: 2941: 2938: 2935: 2932: 2929: 2926: 2923: 2920: 2917: 2914: 2911: 2908: 2905: 2902: 2899: 2896: 2890: 2887: 2884: 2881: 2880: 2873: 2871: 2867: 2862: 2860: 2849: 2847: 2845: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2830: 2825: 2821: 2811: 2808: 2807: 2801: 2799: 2795: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2776: 2772: 2762: 2760: 2754: 2749: 2742: 2737: 2736:dating method 2733: 2729: 2722: 2712: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2692: 2689: 2685: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2650: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2607: 2602: 2595:Modern plates 2592: 2590: 2586: 2581: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2565: 2556: 2550: 2543: 2538: 2534: 2524: 2522: 2518: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2484: 2482: 2478: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2454: 2452: 2442: 2438: 2428: 2426: 2422: 2421:biogeographic 2408: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2394: 2390: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2376: 2372: 2369: 2365: 2360: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2348: 2347: 2339: 2337: 2327: 2324: 2321: 2320: 2319: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2300: 2297: 2291: 2289: 2285: 2279: 2278:at the time. 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2256:magnetometers 2253: 2247: 2238: 2230: 2221: 2218: 2217:Pacific Ocean 2214: 2208: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2193: 2191: 2190: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2164: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2144: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2132:Maurice Ewing 2127: 2114: 2111: 2108: 2105: 2104: 2103: 2101: 2097: 2096:Arthur Holmes 2093: 2089: 2084: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2069: 2067: 2063: 2062:Keith Runcorn 2057: 2054: 2051:of Japan and 2050: 2045: 2041: 2036: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2012: 2010: 2006: 1997: 1990: 1985: 1976: 1972: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1953:New Brunswick 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1901:South America 1898: 1893: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1874:radioactivity 1870: 1867: 1865: 1861: 1852: 1848: 1846: 1839: 1829: 1827: 1823: 1817: 1814: 1810: 1805: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1786: 1784: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1762:Otto Ampferer 1758: 1752: 1750: 1746: 1740: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1712: 1711:Gangamopteris 1707: 1706: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1680: 1678: 1672: 1670: 1666: 1657: 1647: 1637: 1635: 1631: 1625: 1621: 1618: 1608: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1596:Lovett (2006) 1593: 1592:Doglioni 1990 1588: 1581: 1571: 1568: 1563: 1559: 1551: 1547: 1545: 1541: 1540: 1539: 1533: 1530: 1526: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1514: 1513: 1511: 1507: 1502: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1487:meteorologist 1484: 1475: 1473: 1467: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1443: 1442:Mantle plumes 1439: 1435: 1430: 1426: 1417: 1408: 1406: 1401: 1398: 1397:mantle plumes 1394: 1389: 1387: 1383: 1378: 1368: 1365: 1360: 1358: 1354: 1349: 1346: 1342: 1341:Arthur Holmes 1335: 1325: 1322: 1317: 1313: 1312:asthenosphere 1309: 1301: 1297: 1292: 1280: 1276: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1248: 1244: 1243: 1238: 1231: 1227: 1222: 1219: 1218:Cascade Range 1215: 1211: 1208: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1160: 1156: 1155: 1150: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1106: 1102: 1101: 1096: 1092: 1087: 1077: 1075: 1070: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1059:African Plate 1055: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1024: 1022: 1017: 1011: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 984:arc volcanism 981: 977: 976: 971: 967: 963: 959: 958: 953: 952:oceanic crust 948: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 929:asthenosphere 926: 922: 917: 914: 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 890: 889:asthenosphere 886: 882: 871: 868: 860: 850: 846: 840: 839: 834:This section 832: 828: 823: 822: 814: 812: 808: 804: 800: 796: 792: 788: 787:asthenosphere 784: 779: 777: 773: 772:oceanic crust 769: 765: 761: 756: 754: 750: 746: 742: 737: 734: 731: 728: 725: 722: 720: 716: 712: 708: 703: 701: 697: 696:geoscientists 692: 689: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 668: 661: 657: 654: 653:Ancient Greek 650: 649: 648: 642: 638: 627: 622: 620: 615: 613: 608: 607: 605: 604: 599: 594: 589: 588: 587: 586: 578: 575: 573: 570: 568: 565: 563: 560: 558: 555: 553: 550: 548: 545: 543: 540: 538: 535: 533: 530: 528: 525: 524: 519: 516: 515: 511: 508: 506: 503: 502: 499: 494: 493: 485: 482: 480: 477: 475: 472: 470: 467: 466: 459: 458: 451: 448: 446: 443: 442: 438: 434: 431: 429: 426: 425: 419: 418: 410: 407: 406: 401: 398: 397: 392: 389: 387: 384: 382: 379: 377: 376:Geomorphology 374: 373: 368: 365: 364: 359: 356: 354: 351: 349: 348:Sedimentology 346: 344: 341: 339: 336: 335: 330: 327: 326: 319: 318: 310: 309:Walther's law 307: 305: 302: 300: 297: 295: 292: 290: 287: 285: 282: 280: 277: 276: 271: 270: 266: 265: 258: 257: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 234: 231: 229: 226: 225: 220: 217: 214: 211: 209: 206: 204: 200: 197: 195: 192: 191: 184: 183: 176: 172: 169: 167: 164: 162: 159: 157: 154: 152: 149: 148: 146: 145: 141: 136: 132: 131: 128: 127: 123: 122: 118: 114: 113: 106: 58: 54: 50: 43: 36: 34: 19: 11120: 11005:Triple Fault 11004: 10942:Triple Ridge 10941: 10918: 10866: 10854: 10842: 10823: 10701:Gakkel Ridge 10613:Intermontane 10405:Juan de Fuca 10262:New Hebrides 10214:Minor plates 10145:Major plates 10136: 10070: 10003:Biodiversity 9989:astrobiology 9803: 9711:Elements of 9667: 9655: 9636: 9536:Applications 9507:Geomagnetism 9431:Hydrogeology 9399: 9364:Paleontology 9359:Stratigraphy 9326:Geochemistry 9183: 9114: 9097:Metamorphism 8921:Solar System 8872:Oceanography 8862:Indian Ocean 8852:Arctic Ocean 8792:Age of Earth 8763: 8744:Geomagnetism 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Retrieved 4275: 4266: 4259:Wegener 1912 4254: 4247:Thomson 1863 4242: 4230: 4223:Frankel 1987 4218: 4206: 4190: 4177: 4165: 4158:Runcorn 1956 4140: 4135: 4102: 4096: 4086: 4075: 4067: 4060:Wegener 1966 4055: 4043: 4037:. Retrieved 4029: 4019: 4012:Wegener 1929 3996: 3990:. Retrieved 3982: 3972: 3937: 3931: 3921: 3878: 3872: 3862: 3850: 3838: 3826: 3819:Bostrom 1971 3814: 3802: 3786: 3762: 3733: 3709:. Retrieved 3705:the original 3690: 3679:. Retrieved 3675:the original 3661: 3619: 3607: 3595: 3583: 3571: 3544: 3532: 3520: 3509:. Retrieved 3481: 3475: 3459: 3448:. Retrieved 3433: 3422:. Retrieved 3402: 3396: 3386: 3375:. Retrieved 3357: 3346:. Retrieved 3342:the original 3332: 3320: 3313:Foulger 2010 3308: 3296: 3291:, p. 5. 3284: 3265: 3259: 3247: 3235: 3223: 3179: 3175: 3165: 3130: 3124: 3114: 3102: 3069: 3065: 3059: 3034: 3030: 3024: 2983: 2979: 2973: 2961: 2863: 2859:super-Earths 2855: 2843: 2833: 2818:Some of the 2817: 2804: 2802: 2796: 2777: 2774: 2755: 2724: 2698: 2690: 2686: 2662:Juan de Fuca 2651: 2612: 2589:Tethys Ocean 2582: 2530: 2500: 2468:stagnant lid 2460: 2448: 2440: 2418: 2384:'s meeting, 2375:Wilson Cycle 2345: 2332: 2301: 2292: 2288:Ron G. Mason 2280: 2260:World War II 2249: 2209: 2194: 2187: 2183: 2165: 2153:Bruce Heezen 2145: 2139: 2129: 2085: 2070: 2058: 2053:Hugo Benioff 2049:Kiyoo Wadati 2040:seismographs 2037: 2013: 2002: 1973: 1949:Newfoundland 1933:Alex du Toit 1917:Eduard Suess 1896: 1894: 1882:age of Earth 1871: 1868: 1857: 1841: 1826:paleobiology 1818: 1806: 1790:ocean floors 1787: 1753: 1741: 1732: 1729:Alex du Toit 1724:Lystrosaurus 1722: 1709: 1705:Glossopteris 1703: 1683: 1681: 1673: 1662: 1626: 1622: 1614: 1583: 1562:longitudinal 1555: 1537: 1509: 1503: 1491:tidal forces 1481: 1472:van Bemmelen 1468: 1446: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1414: 1402: 1390: 1386:van Bemmelen 1374: 1361: 1350: 1337: 1305: 1278: 1255: 1251: 1245: 1167: 1163: 1157: 1113: 1109: 1103: 1089: 1071: 1056: 1052:Ring of Fire 1027: 1025: 1012: 973: 955: 949: 918: 912: 878: 863: 854: 843:Please help 838:verification 835: 780: 776:surface area 757: 714: 711:upper mantle 704: 685: 666: 663: 656: 644: 636: 635: 517: 462:Applications 444: 399: 366: 338:Geochemistry 328: 267: 227: 139: 124: 75:Convergent: 53: 32: 11164:Lithosphere 11149:Geodynamics 10786:Alpha Ridge 10781:Aegir Ridge 10736:Mohns Ridge 10711:Gorda Ridge 10686:Cocos Ridge 10681:Chile Ridge 10525:Solomon Sea 10465:North Andes 10455:Molucca Sea 10350:Conway Reef 10335:Bird's Head 10302:Microplates 10054:Prokaryotes 9842:Atmosphere 9837:Meteorology 9607:Occupations 9588:Meteoritics 9454:Cartography 9410:Volcanology 9395:Geodynamics 9072:Exfoliation 8669:Cartography 8608:Environment 8475:Climatology 8412:Troposphere 8293:In Our Time 7622:10852/62004 6082:. pp. 6074:Geodynamics 4806:Butler 1992 4652:Condie 1997 4613:: 107–135. 4543:: 120–150. 4490:Morgan 1968 4478:Wilson 1966 4466:Wilson 1965 4454:Wilson 1963 4402:Coates 1962 4366:Heezen 1960 4334:Holmes 1978 4332:; see also 4330:Holmes 1928 4316:; see also 4195:Korgen 1995 3639:Spence 1987 3133:(4): 1012. 2910:Geosyncline 2904:Geodynamics 2759:shear zones 2728:lithosphere 2352:Tuzo Wilson 2157:Marie Tharp 1739:fragments. 1558:latitudinal 1134:Baikal Rift 1120:, e.g. the 1118:ocean basin 1032:earthquakes 941:Nazca Plate 937:fingernails 885:lithosphere 811:mantle cell 799:topographic 755:formation. 741:earthquakes 682:lithosphere 651:, from 469:Engineering 391:Volcanology 329:Composition 213:Metamorphic 208:Sedimentary 88:Transform: 62:Divergent: 11159:Seismology 11138:Categories 11103:Mount Fuji 10666:Aden Ridge 10515:Seychelles 10430:Madagascar 10315:Aegean Sea 10272:Philippine 10173:Australian 9935:Wilderness 9788:geological 9568:Geobiology 9543:Biogeology 9522:Seismology 9499:Geophysics 9426:Glaciology 9331:Mineralogy 9130:Subsidence 9092:Compaction 9087:Diagenesis 9077:Weathering 8774:Tomography 8759:Seismology 8726:Geophysics 8701:Navigation 8593:Time zones 8558:In culture 8503:Antarctica 8490:Continents 8422:Mesosphere 8394:Atmosphere 7635:2010-06-18 7332:: 171–91. 7160:2010-06-19 6917:2016-09-15 6813:2008-03-04 6033:2010-06-22 5892:2008-01-28 5805:2008-01-29 5694:2010-06-18 5642:2010-06-22 5602:2008-01-29 5517:Joly, John 5387:2010-06-18 5346:2010-06-18 5114:2014-09-08 5055:2012-08-13 4999:Sleep 1994 4985:2008-01-08 4909:Terra Nova 4834:2010-06-18 4777:2010-06-18 4738:: 106178. 4378:Dietz 1961 4314:Carey 1958 4288:2018-03-23 4170:Carey 1958 4039:2007-12-26 3992:2007-12-26 3807:Moore 1973 3711:2012-08-15 3681:2010-06-18 3600:Wezel 1988 3564:Segev 2002 3511:2014-01-15 3450:2008-02-05 3424:2016-01-14 3377:2010-06-12 3348:2010-06-12 3072:: 105980. 2948:References 2852:Exoplanets 2820:satellites 2769:See also: 2719:See also: 2647:Australian 2508:Cretaceous 2477:blueschist 2451:ophiolites 2264:submarines 2262:to detect 2201:island arc 2090:, Holmes, 2066:Ted Irving 1989:epicenters 1886:black body 1770:subduction 1714:, and the 1630:geophysics 1578:See also: 1485:, being a 1434:ridge push 1207:island arc 1172:subduction 1074:ophiolites 1016:subduction 905:convection 901:conduction 791:convection 764:subduction 724:convergent 667:tektonikós 660:τεκτονικός 647:tectonicus 639:(from 381:Glaciology 343:Mineralogy 238:Weathering 11071:Macquarie 11055:Mendocino 10995:Tongareva 10985:Rodrigues 10970:Galapagos 10932:Banda Sea 10555:Trobriand 10460:Niuafo’ou 10415:Kerguelen 10390:Halmahera 10385:Greenland 10370:Galápagos 10340:Capricorn 10330:Banda Sea 10320:Anatolian 10237:Caribbean 10158:Antarctic 10013:Eukaryota 9980:Hierarchy 9975:Biosphere 9940:Wildfires 9930:Radiation 9920:Ecosystem 9860:Moonlight 9794:Structure 9749:particles 9614:Geologist 9469:Geomatics 9336:Petrology 9240:Overviews 9062:Extrusive 9057:Intrusive 8691:Geomatics 8636:Ecosystem 8621:Biosphere 8583:Etymology 8563:Earth Day 8513:Australia 8432:Exosphere 8148:J. Geodyn 8097:CiteSeerX 7660:0710.0699 7385:CiteSeerX 7253:122416040 7211:0016-7606 7064:0091-7613 6986:0016-7606 6939:: 24–49. 6891:0028-0836 6850:: 134–46. 6727:122872384 6605:145405854 6177:Dordrecht 5861:317775677 5323:Blackwell 4975:Space.com 4390:Hess 1962 4235:Joly 1909 4127:135079657 3498:122872384 3157:247695067 3094:228993361 3016:206538532 2953:Citations 2940:Tectonics 2658:Caribbean 2619:Antarctic 2585:Himalayas 2350:In 1965, 2308:Fred Vine 2306:, and by 2272:magnetite 2032:Himalayan 2022:in Peru, 1969:lithology 1965:structure 1816:margins. 1716:therapsid 1520:(and the 1464:Antarctic 1448:Slab pull 1393:hot spots 1382:Beloussov 1264:sinistral 1226:Himalayas 1040:volcanoes 1036:mountains 1004:sea level 988:accretion 980:aluminium 966:magnesium 909:adiabatic 857:July 2021 736:transform 730:divergent 479:Forensics 433:Geologist 353:Petrology 42:Tectonics 11122:Category 11096:See also 11013:Karlıova 10856:Category 10648:Kshiroda 10633:Malvinas 10603:Farallon 10598:Cimmeria 10565:Woodlark 10560:Victoria 10520:Shetland 10420:Kermadec 10360:Explorer 10310:Adriatic 10242:Caroline 10163:Eurasian 10095:Category 10064:bacteria 10047:protista 10008:Organism 9875:Sunlight 9721:Universe 9067:Volcanic 8981:Geologic 8939:Category 8324:. Movie. 8267:Archived 8248:Archived 8231:Archived 7884:28014204 7555:11035784 7358:(1994). 6911:Archived 6899:27309815 6768:11538226 6454:36766442 6446:12364804 6410:(2002). 6399:16217034 6344:10221909 6243:18580944 6204:Articles 6185:Springer 6144:(2003). 5731:New York 5519:(1909). 5493:(1978). 5108:Archived 4979:Archived 4828:Archived 4771:Archived 4713:39143339 4282:Archived 3964:26933052 3913:28028535 3502:Archived 3467:(1931). 3444:Archived 3371:Archived 3008:22422979 2876:See also 2709:eutectic 2649:plates. 2623:Eurasian 2578:Gondwana 2574:Laurasia 2537:Columbia 2504:Jurassic 2400:McKenzie 2140:Atlantis 2092:Umbgrove 2073:Tasmania 1941:Scotland 1890:red heat 1737:Gondwana 1466:plates. 1460:Eurasian 1204:Japanese 1069:Oceans. 1063:Atlantic 1021:cratonic 996:elements 992:terranes 947:grows). 913:chemical 484:Military 422:Research 219:Sediment 194:Minerals 175:Timeline 166:Glossary 161:Category 117:a series 115:Part of 10868:Commons 10643:Phoenix 10618:Izanagi 10608:Insular 10593:Charcot 10510:Sangihe 10480:Okinawa 10450:Mariana 10435:Malpelo 10425:Lwandle 10400:Iranian 10395:Iberian 10292:Yangtze 10267:Okhotsk 10227:Arabian 10222:Amurian 10190:Pacific 10153:African 10072:Viruses 10059:archaea 10035:animals 9987: ( 9985:Biology 9962:Origin 9915:Ecology 9890:tornado 9850:Climate 9844:(Earth) 9829:Weather 9799:Geology 9786: ( 9784:History 9669:Geology 9657:Geology 9446:Geodesy 9233:Geology 8784:Geology 8696:Gravity 8661:Geodesy 8631:Ecology 8447:Climate 8437:Weather 8384:History 8379:Outline 8296:at the 8181:Bibcode 8156:Bibcode 8089:Bibcode 8051:Bibcode 8018:Bibcode 7982:4226266 7960:Bibcode 7930:4294401 7910:Bibcode 7864:Bibcode 7833:Bibcode 7808:(1–4). 7764:4296143 7744:Bibcode 7704:Bibcode 7685:9432267 7665:Bibcode 7602:Bibcode 7523:Bibcode 7461:Bibcode 7423:Bibcode 7377:Bibcode 7334:Bibcode 7301:Bibcode 7233:Bibcode 7191:Bibcode 7169:(2003) 7121:Bibcode 7090:Bibcode 7044:Bibcode 7035:Geology 7025:4193218 7005:Bibcode 6966:Bibcode 6907:4407214 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