536:, etc.). Of these water is the principal, and was formerly believed to have percolated downwards from the Earth's surface to the heated rocks below, but is now generally admitted to be an integral part of the magma. Many peculiarities of the structure of the plutonic rocks as contrasted with the lavas may reasonably be accounted for by the operation of these gases, which were unable to escape as the deep-seated masses slowly cooled, while they were promptly given up by the superficial effusions. The acid plutonic or intrusive rocks have never been reproduced by laboratory experiments, and the only successful attempts to obtain their minerals artificially have been those in which special provision was made for the retention of the "mineralizing" gases in the crucibles or sealed tubes employed. These gases often do not enter into the composition of the rock-forming minerals, for most of these are free from water, carbonic acid, etc. Hence as crystallization goes on the residual melt must contain an ever-increasing proportion of volatile constituents. It is conceivable that in the final stages the still uncrystallized part of the magma has more resemblance to a solution of mineral matter in superheated steam than to a dry igneous fusion.
36:
958:
472:
With reference to the definitions, above, a magma chamber will tend to cool down and crystallize minerals according to the liquid line of descent. When this occurs, especially in conjunction with zonation and crystal accumulation, and the melt portion is removed, this can change the composition of a
311:
Assimilation can be broadly defined as a process where a mass of magma wholly or partially homogenizes with materials derived from the wall rock of the magma body. Assimilation is a popular mechanism to partly explain the felsification of ultramafic and mafic magmas as they rise through the crust: a
150:
Where it is impossible to find the primitive or primary magma composition, it is often useful to attempt to identify a parental melt. A parental melt is a magma composition from which the observed range of magma chemistries has been derived by the processes of igneous differentiation. It need not be
437:
Convection in a large magma chamber is subject to the interplay of forces generated by thermal convection and the resistance offered by friction, viscosity and drag on the magma offered by the walls of the magma chamber. Often near the margins of a magma chamber which is convecting, cooler and more
491:
magmas are generally much more viscous than mafic magmas and are usually more homogeneous in composition. This is generally considered to be caused by the viscosity of the magma, which is orders of magnitude higher than mafic magmas. The higher viscosity means that, when melted, a granitic magma
511:
Mafic magmas are more liable to flow, and are therefore more likely to undergo periodic replenishment of a magma chamber. Because they are more fluid, crystal precipitation occurs much more rapidly, resulting in greater changes by fractional crystallisation. Higher temperatures also allow mafic
342:. However, most magmatic systems are polyphase events, with several pulses of magmatism. In such a case, the liquid line of descent is interrupted by the injection of a fresh batch of hot, undifferentiated magma. This can cause extreme fractional crystallisation because of three main effects:
323:
Effects of assimilation on the chemistry and evolution of magma bodies are to be expected, and have been clearly proven in many places. In the early 20th century there was a lively discussion on the relative importance of the process in igneous differentiation. More recent research has shown,
548:, etc. It is at the same time the most infusible of all the common minerals of rocks. Its late formation shows that in this case it arose at comparatively low temperatures and points clearly to the special importance of the gases of the magma as determining the sequence of crystallization.
551:
When solidification is nearly complete the gases can no longer be retained in the rock and make their escape through fissures towards the surface. They are powerful agents in attacking the minerals of the rocks which they traverse, and instances of their operation are found in the
243:
Fractional crystallization in silicate melts (magmas) is a very complex process compared to chemical systems in the laboratory because it is affected by a wide variety of phenomena. Prime amongst these are the composition, temperature, and pressure of a magma during its cooling.
187:, and those parts are the first which crystallize out of the magma. Identifying whether a rock is a cumulate or not is crucial for understanding if it can be modelled back to a primary melt or a primitive melt, and identifying whether the magma has dropped out cumulate
507:
Granites are cooler and are therefore less able to melt and assimilate country rocks. Wholesale contamination is therefore minor and unusual, although mixing of granitic and basaltic melts is not unknown where basalt is injected into granitic magma chambers.
392:
Magma mixing is a common process in volcanic magma chambers, which are open-system chambers where magmas enter the chamber, undergo some form of assimilation, fractional crystallisation and partial melt extraction (via eruption of lava), and are replenished.
484:
It is worth reiterating that magma chambers are not usually static single entities. The typical magma chamber is formed from a series of injections of melt and magma, and most are also subject to some form of partial melt extraction.
142:. By finding the primitive magma composition of a magma series, it is possible to model the composition of the rock from which a melt was formed, which is important because we have little direct evidence of the Earth's mantle.
610:
In all cases, the primary and most valuable method for identifying magma differentiation processes is mapping the exposed rocks, tracking mineralogical changes within the igneous rocks and describing field relationships and
332:
When a melt undergoes cooling along the liquid line of descent, the results are limited to the production of a homogeneous solid body of intrusive rock, with uniform mineralogy and composition, or a partially differentiated
823:
J. Leuthold, J. C. Lissenberg, B. O'Driscoll, O. Karakas; T. Falloon, D.N. Klimentyeva, P. Ulmer (2018); Partial melting of the lower oceanic crust at spreading ridges. Frontiers in Earth
Sciences: Petrology: 6(15): 20p;
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mass with layers, compositional zones and so on. This behaviour is fairly predictable and easy enough to prove with geochemical investigations. In such cases, a magma chamber will form a close approximation of the ideal
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It should be brought up to date to reflect subsequent history or scholarship (including the references, if any). When you have completed the review, replace this notice with a simple note on this article's talk
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however, that assimilation has a fundamental role in altering the trace element and isotopic composition of magmas, in formation of some economically important ore deposits, and in causing volcanic eruptions.
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is the removal and segregation from a melt of mineral precipitates, which changes the composition of the melt. This is one of the most important geochemical and physical processes operating within the Earth's
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Two magmas of similar composition and temperature at different pressure may crystallize different minerals. An example is high-pressure and high-temperature fractional crystallization of granites to produce
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magma chamber. In fact, this is basically fractional crystallization, except in this case we are observing a magma chamber which is the remnant left behind from which a daughter melt has been extracted.
703:
Heinonen, Jussi S.; Iles, Kieran A.; Heinonen, Aku; Fred, Riikka; Virtanen, Ville J.; Bohrson, Wendy A.; Spera, Frank J. (2021-05-31), Masotta, Matteo; Beier, Christoph; Mollo, Silvio (eds.),
210:
Cooling causes the magma to begin to crystallize minerals from the melt or liquid portion of the magma. Most magmas are a mixture of liquid rock (melt) and crystalline minerals (phenocrysts).
1090:"Timescales of magma ascent and degassing and the role of crustal assimilation at Merapi volcano (2006–2010), Indonesia: Constraints from uranium-series and radiogenic isotopic compositions"
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is the result of a process of fractional crystallization which occurs by convection, if the crystals which are caught in the flow-banded margins are removed from the melt. The friction and
220:
The whole gamut of mechanisms for differentiation has been referred to as the FARM process, which stands for fractional crystallization, assimilation, replenishment and magma mixing.
207:, which is an inevitable consequence of the magma being formed and migrating from the site of partial melting into an area of lower stress - generally a cooler volume of the crust.
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and mix with the resulting melt. This then alters the composition of the primitive magma. Also, pre-existing mafic host rocks can be assimilated by very hot primitive magmas.
1043:"The role of black shales as a source of sulfur and semimetals in magmatic nickel-copper deposits: Example from the Partridge River Intrusion, Duluth Complex, Minnesota, USA"
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If such a magma chamber continues to cool, the minerals it forms and its overall composition will not match a sample liquid line of descent or a parental magma composition.
1135:
Troll, Valentin R.; Donaldson, Colin H.; Emeleus, C. Henry. (2004-08-01). "Pre-eruptive magma mixing in ash-flow deposits of the
Tertiary Rum Igneous Centre, Scotland".
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will tend to move in a larger concerted mass and be emplaced as a larger mass because it is less fluid and able to move. This is why granites tend to occur as large
564:, deposition of quartz veins, and the group of changes known as propylitization. These "pneumatolytic" processes are of the first importance in the genesis of many
380:; a change in composition and temperature can cause extremely rapid crystallisation of certain mineral phases which are undergoing a eutectic crystallisation phase.
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of existing mineral phases back into the melt, and can cause a higher-temperature form of a mineral or other higher-temperature minerals to begin precipitating
122:. Primary melts have not undergone any differentiation and represent the starting composition of a magma. In nature, primary melts are rarely seen. Some
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Magma mixing also tends to occur at deeper levels in the crust and is considered one of the primary mechanisms for forming intermediate rocks such as
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within the magma or lava to slow down near the interface and become trapped in a viscous layer. This can change the composition of the melt in large
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Magma mixing is the process by which two magmas meet, comingle, and form a magma of a composition somewhere between the two end-member magmas.
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primary melts formed in the mantle beneath the crust rise and mingle with the underplate magmas, the result being part-way between basalt and
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540:, for example, is the last mineral to form in a granite. It bears much of the stamp of the quartz which we know has been deposited from
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169:. To prove this, fractional crystallization models would be produced to test the hypothesis that they share a common parental melt.
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Fractional crystallization and accumulation of crystals formed during the differentiation process of a magmatic event are known as
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Fresh magma changes the composition of the melt, changing the chemistry of the phases which are being precipitated. For instance,
369:. Replenishment of the magma can see this trend reversed, so that more anorthite is precipitated atop cumulate layers of albite.
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568:. They are a real part of the history of the magma itself and constitute the terminal phases of the volcanic sequence.
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Handley, H. K.; Reagan, M.; Gertisser, R.; Preece, K.; Berlo, K.; McGee, L. E.; Barclay, J.; Herd, R. (2018-02-01).
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viscous layers form concentrically from the outside in, defined by breaks in viscosity and temperature. This forms
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The composition of a magma is the primary control on which mineral is crystallized as the melt cools down past the
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of wall rocks, mixing of two or more magmas or even by replenishment of the magma chamber with fresh, hot magma.
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magmas to assimilate wall rocks more readily and therefore contamination is more common and better developed.
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Meade, F. C.; Troll, V. R.; Ellam, R. M.; Freda, C.; Font, L.; Donaldson, C. H.; Klonowska, I. (2014-06-20).
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flows is assumed to be related to one another. A composition from which they could reasonably be produced by
101:. The sequence of (usually increasingly silicic) magmas produced by igneous differentiation is known as a
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705:"From Binary Mixing to Magma Chamber Simulator: Geochemical Modeling of Assimilation in Magmatic Systems"
652: – Igneous rocks formed by the accumulation of crystals from a magma either by settling or floating.
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Software package designed to facilitate thermodynamic modeling of phase equilibria in magmatic systems.
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Whole rock geochemistry of representative samples, to track changes and evolution of the magma systems
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631: – Branch of geology that studies the formation, composition, distribution and structure of rocks
442:, which separates several domains of the magma chamber which can begin to differentiate separately.
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There are several methods of directly measuring and quantifying igneous differentiation processes;
996:"Cooling and contamination of mafic and ultramafic magmas during ascent through continental crust"
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682:
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408:, the silicic crust melts to form a felsic magma (essentially granitic in composition). These
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One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
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granite, and low-pressure low-temperature conditions which produce two-feldspar granites.
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Software package designed to facilitate thermodynamic modeling of igneous differentiation
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Contamination is another cause of magma differentiation. Contamination can be caused by
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Additional heat provides additional energy to allow more vigorous convection, allows
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of volatile phases in silicate melts is also of prime importance, especially in near-
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can be used to determine pressures and temperatures of magma differentiation.
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843:"Thermodynamic limits for assimilation of silicate crust in primitive magmas"
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983:. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 329.
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Heinonen, Jussi S.; Spera, Frank J.; Bohrson, Wendy A. (2021-09-30).
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which, if removed, changes the equilibrium mineral composition to
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404:. Here, due to heat transfer and increased volatile flux from
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are examples of primary melts. Primary melts derived from the
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Fresh magma destabilises minerals which are precipitating as
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The primary cause of change in the composition of a magma is
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When a rock melts to form a liquid, the liquid is known as a
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Huppert, Herbert E.; Stephen, R.; Sparks, J. (1985-08-01).
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conforms to the liquid line of descent by forming initial
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85:, is an umbrella term for the various processes by which
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Samalens, N.; Barnes, S-J.; Sawyer, E. W. (2017-03-01).
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is largely based on an article in the out-of-copyright
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Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
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Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
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Investigating the contamination of magma systems by
679: – Subdivision of the subalkaline magma series
191:is equally important even for rocks which carry no
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Geologic process in formation of some igneous rocks
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667: – Calculation of the composition of a rock
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643: – large sill-like body of igneous rock
520:All igneous magmas contain dissolved gases (
312:hot primitive melt intruding into a cooler,
754:. Open access version available from here:
424:; literally an 'intermediate' composition.
224:Fractional crystallization of igneous rocks
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900:"The secondary origin of certain granites"
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134:are especially important and are known as
1137:Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology
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756:https://doi.org/10.1002/essoar.10504606.2
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89:undergo bulk chemical change during the
711:(1 ed.), Wiley, pp. 151–176,
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898:Daly, Reginald Aldworth (1905-09-01).
604:assimilation using radiogenic isotopes
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685: – Series of sub-alkaline magmas
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615:evidence for magma differentiation.
480:Typical behaviours of magma chambers
199:Underlying causes of differentiation
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1000:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
572:Quantifying igneous differentiation
428:Other mechanisms of differentiation
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617:Clinopyroxene thermobarometry
583:Using the above, calculating
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52:, which was produced in 1911.
709:Geophysical Monograph Series
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969:Flett, John Smith (1911). "
904:American Journal of Science
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277:is precipitated or whether
270:contents determine whether
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1274:Fractional crystallization
677:Calc-alkaline magma series
592:Trace element geochemistry
229:Fractional crystallization
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163:fractional crystallization
154:For instance, a series of
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920:10.2475/ajs.s4-20.117.185
717:10.1002/9781119564485.ch7
906:. s4-20 (117): 185–216.
830:10.3389/feart.2018.00015
587:and investigating trends
83:magmatic differentiation
1012:1985E&PSL..74..371H
980:Encyclopædia Britannica
929:2027/hvd.32044072250335
683:Tholeiitic magma series
468:Partial melt extraction
340:Bowen's reaction series
79:igneous differentiation
48:Encyclopædia Britannica
1324:Surface manifestations
1256:Dissolved and exolved
532:, chlorine, fluorine,
412:melts are known as an
773:Nature Communications
671:Alkaline magma series
496:, and mafic rocks as
18:Magma differentiation
1383:Geological processes
1310:Anorogenic magmatism
665:Normative mineralogy
596:Isotope geochemistry
585:normative mineralogy
452:of the magma causes
433:Interface entrapment
316:crust will melt the
1341:Geothermal gradient
1240:Components of magma
1149:2004CoMP..147..722T
1106:2018GeCoA.222...34H
1059:2017OGRv...81..173S
1047:Ore Geology Reviews
912:1905AmJS...20..185D
785:2014NatCo...5.4199M
656:Rock microstructure
1336:Geothermal systems
1233:Magmatic processes
794:10.1038/ncomms5199
251:. For instance in
151:a primitive melt.
93:process, cooling,
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641:Layered intrusion
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669:
666:
663:
657:
654:
651:
650:Cumulate rock
648:
642:
639:
636:
633:
630:
627:
626:
620:
618:
614:
603:
599:
598:
597:
594:
591:
586:
582:
581:
579:
578:
577:
569:
567:
563:
559:
556:of granites,
555:
554:kaolinization
549:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
526:carbonic acid
523:
513:
509:
505:
503:
499:
495:
490:
486:
477:
474:
465:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
441:
425:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
394:
390:
379:
375:
371:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
349:
345:
344:
343:
341:
336:
328:Replenishment
325:
321:
319:
315:
304:
302:
298:
293:
291:
285:
283:
280:
276:
273:
269:
262:
258:
254:
250:
245:
241:
239:
235:
230:
221:
218:
216:
211:
208:
206:
196:
194:
190:
186:
180:
170:
168:
167:parental melt
164:
160:
157:
152:
143:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
114:Primary melts
106:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
65:
53:
51:
49:
43:This article
41:
32:
31:
19:
1388:Geochemistry
1331:Igneous rock
1315:Flux melting
1284:Magma mixing
1279:Assimilation
1247:Liquid phase
1140:
1136:
1130:
1097:
1093:
1083:
1050:
1046:
1036:
1003:
999:
989:
978:
903:
893:
868:10138/338579
853:(1): 81–85.
850:
846:
836:
819:
776:
772:
762:
748:, retrieved
726:10138/333362
708:
698:
635:Flow banding
609:
575:
566:ore deposits
550:
519:
510:
506:
487:
483:
475:
471:
446:Flow banding
444:
440:laminar flow
436:
413:
395:
391:
388:
385:Magma mixing
331:
322:
310:
307:Assimilation
294:
286:
246:
242:
227:
219:
215:assimilation
214:
212:
209:
204:
202:
184:
182:
166:
165:is termed a
153:
149:
139:
135:
120:primary melt
119:
117:
103:magma series
102:
82:
78:
72:
62:January 2011
59:
47:
44:
1053:: 173–187.
779:(1): 4199.
454:phenocrysts
355:plagioclase
259:melts, the
193:phenocrysts
109:Definitions
95:emplacement
1362:Categories
1300:Outgassing
1294:Exsolution
750:2023-03-24
690:References
534:boric acid
462:intrusions
414:underplate
406:subduction
363:oligoclase
348:resorption
272:forsterite
257:ultramafic
128:migmatites
124:leucosomes
1347:Volcanism
1343:anomalies
1267:Processes
1173:128532728
1165:1432-0967
1122:0016-7037
1100:: 34–52.
1075:0169-1368
1028:0012-821X
971:Petrology
938:0002-9599
885:239139208
877:0091-7613
803:2041-1723
745:239751052
629:Petrology
602:wall rock
458:xenoliths
450:viscosity
398:monzonite
359:anorthite
279:enstatite
1296:of gases
1190:COMAGMAT
811:24947142
623:See also
613:textural
422:rhyolite
418:Basaltic
410:granitic
402:andesite
378:eutectic
335:cumulate
290:feldspar
282:pyroxene
249:liquidus
189:minerals
99:eruption
1145:Bibcode
1102:Bibcode
1055:Bibcode
1008:Bibcode
977:(ed.).
967::
908:Bibcode
847:Geology
781:Bibcode
562:greisen
494:plutons
489:Granite
301:solidus
288:single-
275:olivine
205:cooling
75:geology
1171:
1163:
1120:
1073:
1026:
973:". In
961:
936:
883:
875:
809:
801:
743:
733:
538:Quartz
367:albite
314:felsic
238:mantle
156:basalt
132:mantle
87:magmas
1258:gases
1196:MELTS
1169:S2CID
881:S2CID
741:S2CID
546:veins
522:water
502:sills
498:dikes
318:crust
253:mafic
234:crust
97:, or
81:, or
56:page.
1161:ISSN
1118:ISSN
1071:ISSN
1024:ISSN
934:ISSN
873:ISSN
807:PMID
799:ISSN
731:ISBN
500:and
456:and
400:and
295:The
263:and
255:and
236:and
159:lava
1153:doi
1141:147
1110:doi
1098:222
1063:doi
1016:doi
924:hdl
916:doi
863:hdl
855:doi
826:doi
789:doi
721:hdl
713:doi
544:in
365:or
265:SiO
261:MgO
138:or
126:of
73:In
1364::
1167:.
1159:.
1151:.
1139:.
1116:.
1108:.
1096:.
1092:.
1069:.
1061:.
1051:81
1049:.
1045:.
1022:.
1014:.
1004:74
1002:.
998:.
946:^
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922:.
914:.
902:.
879:.
871:.
861:.
851:50
849:.
845:.
805:.
797:.
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1018::
1010::
940:.
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918::
910::
887:.
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857::
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813:.
791::
783::
777:5
723::
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60:(
20:)
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