32:
2256:
1791:
1821:
1831:
1811:
2268:
1801:
2244:
160:
When students enter an MD–PhD program, they typically complete the pre-clinical curriculum of medical school (2 years), transition into PhD graduate training, and finally complete clinical rotations (2 years). In the U.S., MD–PhD training during medical school is extensive and lengthy, lasting eight
186:
Despite variations in attrition rates among different schools, further investigation is needed to understand the underlying causes. For instance, the average attrition rate for students who entered programs between 1998 and 2007 was 10%, comparable to the 12% reported for MSTP-funded trainees who
173:
Most MD–PhD graduates enter academia, with their primary appointments in clinical departments. Among recent graduates, 95% continued clinical training, while 5% pursued postdoctoral fellowships without clinical training. The most popular residency choice was internal medicine (29%), followed by
164:
Traditional PhD training involves combining course content knowledge and research skills to produce original research, culminating in a doctoral dissertation. Typically, PhD-degree completion takes 4–6 years. The MD–PhD physician-scientist workforce is a relatively small group of well-trained
660:
Brass LF, Akabas MH, Burnley LD, Engman DM, Wiley CA, Andersen OS. Are MD-PhD programs meeting their goals? An analysis of career choices made by graduates of 24 MD-PhD programs. Acad Med. 2010 Apr;85(4):692-701. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181d3ca17. PMID 20186033; PMCID:
792:
Jeffe DB, Andriole DA, Wathington HD, Tai RH. Educational outcomes for students enrolled in MD-PhD programs at medical school matriculation, 1995-2000: a national cohort study. Acad Med. 2014 Jan;89(1):84-93. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000000071. PMID 24280845; PMCID:
177:
Approximately 80% of graduates were employed full-time in academic centers (1,625, or 67%), research institutes such as the NIH (105, or 4%), or in industry (189, or 8%), aligning with the goals of MD–PhD training. The remaining 16% were in private practice.
187:
matriculated in the 1980s. However, this rate is considerably lower than the 29% attrition reported in 2008 by
Andriole and colleagues. Notably, attrition rates varied significantly among different schools, warranting closer scrutiny to establish cause.
213:
Typically, MD–PhD programs, cover medical school tuition and provide a stipend. MD-PhD programs receive funding from various sources, including institutional grants, individual fellowships, and support from the
National Institutes of Health
190:
According to a 2014 study by Jeffe et al., among those MD–PhD program enrollees who either graduated with MD–PhD degrees or withdrew/were dismissed from medical school, certain factors were associated with attrition. Specifically:
544:
670:
Chakraverty D, Jeffe DB, Dabney KP, Tai RH. EXPLORING REASONS THAT U.S. MD-PHD STUDENTS ENTER AND LEAVE THEIR DUAL-DEGREE PROGRAMS. Int J Dr Stud. 2020;15:461-483. doi: 10.28945/4622. PMID 33815015; PMCID:
124:
grants that support the training of students in MD–PhD programs through tuition and stipend allowances. These programs are often competitive, with some admitting as few as two students per academic year.
540:
1867:
774:
Jeffe, D. B., Andriole, D. A., & Wathington, H. D. (2014). Attrition rates of residents entering US MD–PhD programs in the biomedical sciences. JAMA, 312(20), 2086-2088.
802:
2104:
2160:
2129:
783:
Andriole, D. A., Whelan, A. J., & Jeffe, D. B. (2008). Characteristics and career intentions of the emerging MD/PhD workforce. JAMA, 300(10), 1165-1173.
2139:
2114:
1860:
20:
149:
148:, MD–PhD degrees can be obtained through dual-degree programs offered at some medical schools. The idea for an integrated training program began at
2216:
2124:
1853:
204:
Gender and premedical debt were not independently associated with overall attrition, MD-only graduation, or medical-school withdrawal/dismissal.
42:
2155:
2006:
896:
2027:
572:
1320:
596:
1974:
1965:
1661:
520:
352:– Neurosurgeon sentenced to life in prison for intentionally botching 32 surgeries that killed two patients and paralyzed two others
2099:
515:
2288:
2221:
1260:
165:
professionals with the research skills to address clinical and basic science research questions aimed at improving patient care.
2119:
1876:
720:
479:
420:
283:
235:
358:- Pediatrician and Professor of Genetic Medicine and Nobel Prize Winner in Medicine, subsequently retracted numerous papers.
1560:
331:
815:
1895:
384:
2109:
1696:
1038:
219:
121:
76:
2134:
611:"MCAT Scores and GPAs for Matriculants to U.S. MD-Granting Medical Schools by Gender, 2018-2019 through 2023-2024"
2038:
402:
2298:
2022:
1996:
1970:
1814:
1686:
1120:
436:
482:
for respective research on the functioning of signal transduction proteins in learning, memory, and movement.
256:
222:(MSTP) grants, has played a crucial role in standardizing training approaches and ensuring program quality.
117:
374:
and researcher in children's mental health and neuroscience, known for developing the
Neurosequential Model.
2094:
2043:
1944:
1666:
458:
269:
195:
Students who matriculated at non-MSTP-funded medical schools were more likely to withdraw or be dismissed.
1310:
2234:
1912:
1290:
416:
344:
2293:
1719:
310:
2303:
1511:
1433:
1428:
1348:
1108:
631:
239:
58:
803:"Dr. Duntsch defense expert: 'The only way this happens is the entire system fails the patients',"
2195:
1491:
1465:
462:
98:
1083:
1031:
432:
394:
340:
198:
Underrepresented minority (URM) race/ethnicity was also associated with higher attrition rates.
565:
1927:
1917:
1734:
1620:
1593:
1566:
1518:
1472:
1167:
19:
This article is about MD–PhD programs. For doctor of osteopathic medicine–PhD programs, see
1922:
1754:
1714:
1581:
1395:
1390:
1370:
1305:
1157:
995:
852:
505:
318:
260:
106:
8:
2200:
1934:
1845:
1834:
1776:
1759:
1418:
1135:
398:
349:
856:
50:
1991:
1960:
1900:
1724:
1681:
1671:
1460:
1413:
1380:
1375:
1125:
1103:
712:
102:
1820:
1794:
1676:
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1625:
1588:
1571:
1486:
1450:
1440:
1335:
1255:
1199:
1162:
1147:
1088:
1055:
1024:
878:
870:
757:
704:
590:
475:
297:
201:
Students over 28 years of age at matriculation were more likely to leave the program.
921:
2272:
1804:
1496:
1481:
1358:
1233:
1189:
860:
747:
716:
694:
440:
406:
355:
279:
682:
2248:
2176:
1939:
1824:
1769:
1630:
1615:
1598:
1538:
1533:
1477:
1455:
1152:
1098:
1078:
446:
390:
252:
54:
971:
2260:
2182:
1905:
1656:
1610:
1423:
1353:
1172:
736:"The physician-scientist career pipeline in 2005: build it, and they will come"
485:
468:
412:
367:
314:
301:
289:
247:
231:
2282:
2190:
1739:
1528:
1523:
1385:
1325:
1228:
874:
752:
735:
492:, Bridget M. Flaherty Professor of Neurology and of Neuroscience; Director, C
361:
327:
322:
265:
145:
113:
21:
Medical
Scientist Training Program § Non-MSTP MD–PhD and DO–PhD programs
865:
840:
699:
2048:
2033:
1744:
1729:
1555:
1280:
1130:
1115:
1061:
882:
761:
708:
610:
424:
371:
336:
946:
1890:
1603:
1548:
1445:
1300:
1275:
1093:
377:
683:"The physician-scientist: career issues and challenges at the year 2000"
2076:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2055:
1576:
1543:
1315:
1265:
1250:
1245:
1238:
1223:
1213:
428:
2255:
1764:
1506:
1501:
1365:
1343:
1218:
1182:
680:
489:
454:
293:
286:
along with Martin
Rodbell for their discoveries regarding G-proteins
1270:
1047:
450:
168:
136:
of MD–PhD matriculants are often higher than MD only matriculants.
493:
1749:
1209:
1177:
1070:
510:
364:- Surgeon General of Florida, known for spreading misinformation.
305:
2267:
472:
152:
in 1956 and quickly spread to other research medical schools.
897:"US agencies debunk Florida surgeon general's vaccine claims"
243:
1016:
129:
1875:
816:"Nobel Prize winner Gregg Semenza retracts another study"
541:"Merge Interests in Science, Medicine With an M.D.–Ph.D."
273:
215:
133:
2105:
American
Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine
635:
304:
who became the first orthopedic surgeon in space during
393:- Neuroscientist, Psychiatrist, D.H. Chen Professor of
2130:
Accreditation
Council for Continuing Medical Education
225:
2232:
805:
WFAA, February 13, 2017, retrieved
February 21, 2017.
380:- Global health physician and medical anthropologist.
208:
2140:
Educational
Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates
2115:
Accreditation
Council for Graduate Medical Education
681:
Zemlo TR; Garrison HH; Partridge NC; Ley TJ (2000).
922:"In Memoriam: Paul Farmer | Harvard Medical School"
733:
150:Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine
2280:
632:"CWRU Medical Scientist Training Program (MSTP)"
494:enter for Neuroscience and Regeneration Research
169:Post-doctoral Opportunities for MD–PhD Graduates
2125:Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation
972:"Karl Deisseroth's Profile | Stanford Profiles"
1861:
1032:
397:and of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at
101:, combining the professional training of the
39:The examples and perspective in this article
16:Dual doctoral degree for physician–scientists
120:currently provides 50 medical schools with
2217:Issues in higher education inside the U.S.
1868:
1854:
1321:Reproductive endocrinology and infertility
1039:
1025:
1000:Harvard-MIT Health Sciences and Technology
664:
439:, member of the advisory committee on the
405:, member of the advisory committee on the
383:Joshua A. Gordon - Former Director of the
276:Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences
1662:Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery
864:
786:
751:
698:
674:
521:American Physician Scientists Association
77:Learn how and when to remove this message
2100:Association of American Medical Colleges
516:Association of American Medical Colleges
105:degree with the research program of the
727:
656:
654:
652:
419:and Health Sciences and Technology, at
91:Doctor of Medicine–Doctor of Philosophy
2281:
2120:Liaison Committee on Medical Education
1877:Medical education in the United States
595:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1849:
1020:
838:
480:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
421:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
284:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
236:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
155:
1800:
1561:Physical medicine and rehabilitation
649:
332:Surgeon General of the United States
317:known for his work in the fields of
139:
25:
1810:
385:National Institute of Mental Health
226:Notable MD–PhD physician–scientists
13:
2222:Physician shortage inside the U.S.
2110:National Resident Matching Program
1697:Medical Scientist Training Program
220:Medical Scientist Training Program
209:Funding and financial compensation
122:Medical Scientist Training Program
14:
2315:
181:
97:) is a dual doctoral program for
2266:
2254:
2242:
2135:American Osteopathic Association
1829:
1819:
1809:
1799:
1790:
1789:
947:"NIMH » About the Director"
723:from the original on 2009-06-26.
30:
1830:
988:
964:
939:
914:
889:
839:Thorp, H. Holden (2022-10-21).
832:
820:Chemical & Engineering News
808:
796:
777:
578:from the original on 2018-01-04
547:from the original on 2015-09-06
403:Howard Hughes Medical Institute
2289:Academic degrees in healthcare
1997:Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine
1971:International medical graduate
1687:Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine
1121:Oral and maxillofacial surgery
768:
624:
603:
558:
533:
488:- American Neuroscientist and
437:Massachusetts General Hospital
1:
734:Ley TJ; Rosenberg LE (2005).
526:
257:National Institutes of Health
118:National Institutes of Health
2095:American Medical Association
1945:Continuing medical education
1667:Bachelor of Medical Sciences
1434:Neurosurgical anesthesiology
1046:
459:Center for American Progress
270:computational neuroscientist
242:for their work on the human
7:
499:
461:. Formerly a member of the
457:, and senior fellow at the
53:, discuss the issue on the
10:
2320:
1913:Graduate medical education
634:. cwru.edu. Archived from
417:Computational Neuroscience
401:, and Investigator of the
345:University of Pennsylvania
218:). NIH funding, including
18:
2209:
2169:
2148:
2087:
2015:
1984:
1966:Osteopathic Medicine (DO)
1953:
1883:
1785:
1707:
1645:
1406:
1334:
1289:
1198:
1069:
1054:
311:Vilayanur S. Ramachandran
259:and former leader of the
255:– Former Director of the
1621:Transplantation medicine
1512:Clinical neurophysiology
1429:Obstetric anesthesiology
1349:Interventional radiology
1109:Digestive system surgery
753:10.1001/jama.294.11.1343
282:– Recipient of the 1994
234:– Recipient of the 1976
2196:William Stewart Halsted
1492:Intensive care medicine
1466:Mass gathering medicine
1311:Maternal–fetal medicine
866:10.1126/science.adf3072
841:"Remember, do no harm?"
700:10.1096/fasebj.14.2.221
463:COVID-19 Advisory Board
1084:Cardiothoracic surgery
433:Harvard Medical School
341:Abramson Cancer Center
2299:Dual academic degrees
1735:Personalized medicine
1594:Reproductive medicine
1519:Occupational medicine
1473:Evolutionary medicine
976:profiles.stanford.edu
1755:Traditional medicine
1715:Alternative medicine
1582:Addiction psychiatry
1396:Transfusion medicine
1391:Medical microbiology
1306:Gynecologic oncology
1158:Reproductive surgery
506:Biomedical scientist
478:, received the 2000
319:behavioral neurology
261:Human Genome Project
107:Doctor of Philosophy
99:physician–scientists
59:create a new article
51:improve this article
41:may not represent a
2201:Andrew Taylor Still
1935:Board certification
1777:History of medicine
1760:Veterinary medicine
1567:Preventive medicine
1419:Adolescent medicine
1261:Infectious diseases
857:2022Sci...378..231T
476:neuropharmacologist
399:Stanford University
350:Christopher Duntsch
2161:Specialty colleges
1992:Doctor of Medicine
1725:Molecular oncology
1682:Doctor of Medicine
1672:Master of Medicine
1589:Radiation oncology
1461:Emergency medicine
1414:Addiction medicine
1381:Clinical chemistry
1376:Clinical pathology
1168:Transplant surgery
1126:Orthopedic surgery
1104:Colorectal surgery
339:– Director of the
156:Training structure
103:Doctor of Medicine
2230:
2229:
2088:Regulatory bodies
1843:
1842:
1677:Master of Surgery
1641:
1640:
1626:Tropical medicine
1572:Prison healthcare
1487:Hospital medicine
1451:Disaster medicine
1441:Aviation medicine
1256:Hospital medicine
1163:Surgical oncology
1148:Pediatric surgery
1142:
1089:Endocrine surgery
298:chemical engineer
140:Training programs
87:
86:
79:
61:, as appropriate.
2311:
2294:Doctoral degrees
2271:
2270:
2259:
2258:
2247:
2246:
2245:
2238:
1870:
1863:
1856:
1847:
1846:
1833:
1832:
1823:
1813:
1812:
1803:
1802:
1793:
1792:
1497:Medical genetics
1482:General practice
1359:Nuclear medicine
1234:Gastroenterology
1190:Vascular surgery
1140:
1067:
1066:
1041:
1034:
1027:
1018:
1017:
1011:
1010:
1008:
1007:
996:"Emery N. Brown"
992:
986:
985:
983:
982:
968:
962:
961:
959:
958:
951:www.nimh.nih.gov
943:
937:
936:
934:
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772:
766:
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731:
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584:
583:
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570:
562:
556:
555:
553:
552:
537:
441:BRAIN Initiative
407:BRAIN Initiative
356:Gregg L. Semenza
280:Alfred G. Gilman
272:and Head of the
82:
75:
71:
68:
62:
34:
33:
26:
2319:
2318:
2314:
2313:
2312:
2310:
2309:
2308:
2304:Medical degrees
2279:
2278:
2277:
2265:
2253:
2243:
2241:
2233:
2231:
2226:
2205:
2177:Abraham Flexner
2165:
2156:Medical schools
2144:
2083:
2011:
1980:
1949:
1879:
1874:
1844:
1839:
1781:
1770:Chief physician
1703:
1648:
1637:
1631:Travel medicine
1616:Sports medicine
1599:Sexual medicine
1539:Palliative care
1534:Pain management
1478:Family medicine
1456:Diving medicine
1402:
1330:
1292:
1285:
1201:
1194:
1153:Plastic surgery
1099:General surgery
1079:Cardiac surgery
1060:
1058:
1050:
1045:
1015:
1014:
1005:
1003:
994:
993:
989:
980:
978:
970:
969:
965:
956:
954:
945:
944:
940:
931:
929:
926:hms.harvard.edu
920:
919:
915:
906:
904:
895:
894:
890:
837:
833:
824:
822:
814:
813:
809:
801:
797:
791:
787:
782:
778:
773:
769:
746:(11): 1343–51.
732:
728:
679:
675:
669:
665:
659:
650:
641:
639:
630:
629:
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615:
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587:
581:
579:
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568:
566:"Archived copy"
564:
563:
559:
550:
548:
539:
538:
534:
529:
502:
447:Ezekiel Emanuel
425:Warren M. Zapol
415:- Professor of
391:Karl Deisseroth
253:Francis Collins
240:Daniel Gajdusek
228:
211:
184:
174:surgery (11%).
171:
158:
142:
83:
72:
66:
63:
48:
35:
31:
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17:
12:
11:
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2186:
2183:Flexner Report
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2102:
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2046:
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2036:
2025:
2019:
2017:
2013:
2012:
2010:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1988:
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1982:
1981:
1979:
1978:
1968:
1963:
1957:
1955:
1951:
1950:
1948:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1931:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1906:Sub-internship
1903:
1896:Medical school
1893:
1887:
1885:
1881:
1880:
1873:
1872:
1865:
1858:
1850:
1841:
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1838:
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1827:
1817:
1807:
1797:
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1757:
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1711:
1709:
1708:Related topics
1705:
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1702:
1701:
1700:
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1684:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1657:Medical school
1653:
1651:
1643:
1642:
1639:
1638:
1636:
1635:
1634:
1633:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1611:Sleep medicine
1608:
1607:
1606:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1585:
1584:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1558:
1553:
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1526:
1521:
1516:
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1504:
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1475:
1470:
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1468:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1443:
1438:
1437:
1436:
1431:
1424:Anesthesiology
1421:
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1403:
1401:
1400:
1399:
1398:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1378:
1373:
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1361:
1356:
1354:Neuroradiology
1351:
1340:
1338:
1332:
1331:
1329:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1308:
1303:
1297:
1295:
1291:Obstetrics and
1287:
1286:
1284:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1242:
1241:
1231:
1226:
1221:
1216:
1206:
1204:
1196:
1195:
1193:
1192:
1187:
1186:
1185:
1175:
1173:Trauma surgery
1170:
1165:
1160:
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1136:Otolaryngology
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1964:
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1961:Medicine (MD)
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1276:Pulmonology
1094:Eye surgery
1056:Specialties
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661:PMC4441397.
490:Neurologist
455:bioethicist
449:- American
429:Anaesthesia
378:Paul Farmer
321:and visual
238:along with
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2007:Comparison
1928:Fellowship
1918:Internship
1577:Psychiatry
1563:(PM&R)
1556:Phlebology
1544:Pediatrics
1371:Anatomical
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1239:Hepatology
1224:Cardiology
1214:Immunology
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981:2023-11-08
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932:2023-11-07
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825:2023-11-07
642:2012-06-20
582:2018-01-03
551:2015-08-29
527:References
451:oncologist
423:, and the
132:score and
2273:Education
2170:Reformers
1940:Licensure
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1901:Clerkship
1765:Physician
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1502:Narcology
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875:0036-8075
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109:degree.
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2249:Medicine
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1200:Internal
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591:cite web
573:Archived
545:Archived
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2261:Science
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2060:Level:
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1835:Outline
1805:Commons
1750:Therapy
1647:Medical
1210:Allergy
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901:AP News
853:Bibcode
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576:(PDF)
569:(PDF)
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