1055:
20:
214:
1677:
1701:
179:– To the east, the boundary may be more of a diffuse boundary. There are current studies trying to pinpoint the exact location of this boundary; it is believed to cut across Madagascar, making it Lwandle's only boundary that is not purely oceanic. Earthquake slip vectors are the primary constraint that predict the actual plate boundaries. Velocity predicted at this boundary is 1.3–1.4 mm/yr. This boundary separates Lwandle from the Somali Plate.
1689:
1713:
210:
this area wouldn't have much seismic activity. The data supports this expectation. Though
Lwandle is moving faster relative to the Antarctic plate than to Nubian and Somali, this spreading ridge is one of the slowest on planet Earth, spreading at less than half the rate of human fingernail growth. It appears that Lwandle will be in its current position for quite some time.
147:
137:
67:
209:
GPS data paired with earthquake slip data is used to estimate the velocity of the
Lwandle Plate and its neighbors. The velocity of the Lwandlean Plate, relative to the Nubian and Somali plates, is estimated to be a very slow rate (1–2 mm/yr). With these low rates of motion, it is expected that
193:
strongly suggests that motion exists. Some models suggest it is a right-lateral strike slip boundary with a rate of about 1 mm/yr, with some extension. Still, others even suggest that motion ceased at this boundary approximately 11 million years ago. This boundary separates
Lwandle from the
111:
There have been very few studies that directly study the
Lwandlean Plate. Previous studies about Lwandle have primarily been focused on attempting to quantify the mechanics of the African Rift System. For this reason, the presumed evolution and formation of the microplates are not well known.
90:
occur most often at plate boundaries and have been used as a guide to predict the locations of multiple plate boundaries. “Lwandle’s” existence was postulated after studying earthquake data in areas that were once assumed to be the interiors of the Nubian and Somali plates. By including the
83:
system, 22–25 million years ago, resulted in the splitting of the
African Plate into 2 smaller plates – the Somali Plate and the Nubian Plate. However, most recently, through the application of GPS technology and integration of earthquake data, it was discovered that the rift created three
70:
The East
African Rift, where three plates are pulling away from one another: the Arabian Plate and two parts of the African Plate—the Nubian and Somali—which eventually led to the formation of the Lwandle plate as well as other microplates. The Afar Triangle, shaded at the center, is a
47:. Its discovery is very recent, so the velocity of the plate is neither well known nor well understood. Many experiments are ongoing to quantify this. The Lwandle Plate lies between 30°E and 50°E, sharing a boundary with the Nubian, Somali, and
97:
technology and data was also introduced in an effort to show with certainty the difference between the Somali Plate and the Nubian Plate. Using the GPS data, researchers could measure the velocity of tectonic plates from their interiors.
105:. Mathematical plate circuit closure is attained while including the existence of Lwandle; using plate circuit closure, plate velocities can be calculated from the velocities of other plates.
108:
In 2008, the entire East
African Rift System was successfully "quantified" through the integration of the GPS and earthquake data with the spreading rate and transform azimuth constraints.
564:
Kelleher, John; Sykes, Lynn; Oliver, Jack (1973). "Possible criteria for predicting earthquake locations and their application to major plate boundaries of the
Pacific and the Caribbean".
101:
The existence of the
Lwandle Plate was first quantified using the Lwandle-Antarctica-Nubia plate circuit closure constrained by spreading rates and transform azimuths along the
301:
Stamps, Sarah; Rambolamanana, Gerard; Calais, Eric; Rajaonarison, Tahiry. "Geodetic
Constraints of Rift Initiation Across the Somalia-Lwandle Plate Boundary in Madagascar".
91:
Lwandlean Plate in their calculation, researchers were able to more accurately solve for the intersection between the East African Rift and the Southwest Indian Ridge.
907:
Patriat, Philippe; Sloan, Heather; Sauter, Daniel (October 2014). "From slow to ultraslow: A previously undetected event at the Southwest Indian Ridge at ca. 24 Ma".
1054:
173:
with a slow spreading rate of about 12–18 mm/yr, acts as the southern boundary. This spreading ridge separates Lwandle from the Antarctic plate.
551:
Kinematics of the East African Rift from GPS and earthquake slip vector data, in The Afar Volcanic Province Within the East African Rift System
394:"Plate kinematic evidence for the existence of a distinct plate between the Nubian and Somalian plates along the Southwest Indian Ridge"
977:
872:
Lemaux, James; Gordon, Richard; Royer, Jean-Yves (2002). "Location of the Nubia-Somalia boundary along the Southwest Indian Ridge".
120:
Lwandle was assumed to be part of the Somali plate, at first. Here are two models that show how thinking about Lwandle has evolved.
54:
The Lwandle Plate is largely oceanic, lying off the southeast coast of Africa. It is currently believed that the southern part of
602:
Hartnady, C.J.H. (2002). "Earthquake hazard in Africa : perspectives on the Nubia-Somalia boundary : news and view".
935:
1424:
1602:
829:
Chu, Dezhi; Gordon, Richard (1999). "Evidence for motion between Nubia and Somalia along the Southwest Indian ridge".
772:
790:"The angular velocity of Nubia relative to Somalia and the location of the Nubia—Somalia–Antarctica triple junction"
1717:
1622:
893:
1063:
994:
1151:
970:
1507:
23:
Lwandle and its neighboring plates are shown. This figure is simplified, modified from Stamps et al. 2008.
1324:
1364:
319:
1739:
1705:
963:
1555:
622:
1693:
1597:
227:
1259:
1219:
58:
forms part of the Lwandlean Plate, with one of the plate boundaries cutting through the island.
1650:
1612:
1607:
1590:
1344:
549:; Ebinger, C.J.; Hartnady, C.; Nocquet, J.M. Yirgu, G.; Ebinger, C.J.; Maguire, P.K.H. (eds.).
102:
1017:
306:
19:
1525:
1447:
1437:
1384:
1379:
1319:
1184:
1121:
1044:
1034:
881:
838:
801:
727:
686:
637:
573:
461:
405:
361:
273:
146:
1224:
444:
Stamps, D. Sarah; Calais, Eric; Saria, Elifuraha; Hartnady, Chris; Nocquet, Jean-Mathieu;
8:
1640:
1409:
1174:
936:"Ultra Slow Spreading Ridges and Oceanic Core Complexes: Big Mountains and Bigger Faults"
715:
885:
842:
805:
767:(2nd ed., repr. with corrections. ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
731:
690:
641:
623:"Crustal velocity field of western Europe from permanent GPS array solutions, 1996–2001"
577:
465:
409:
365:
277:
1655:
1645:
1570:
1565:
1462:
1309:
1254:
1111:
854:
745:
655:
162:
The majority of Lwandle's plate boundaries are not well understood. What is known is:
1575:
1540:
1374:
1314:
1304:
1264:
1199:
814:
789:
768:
659:
650:
531:
514:
489:
374:
349:
80:
749:
1580:
1279:
1164:
1022:
916:
889:
858:
846:
809:
735:
694:
645:
581:
526:
469:
413:
369:
281:
190:
186:
1585:
1520:
1404:
1239:
1234:
1189:
1179:
1169:
1086:
1007:
986:
546:
510:
445:
232:
170:
136:
72:
48:
84:
additional “microplates” – the Lwandle Plate, Victoria Plate, and Rovuma Plate.
1681:
1545:
1497:
1452:
1414:
1369:
1269:
1209:
1159:
1091:
1012:
788:
Horner-Johnson, Benjamin; Gordon, Richard; Cowles, Sara; Argus, Donald (2005).
36:
1733:
1660:
1492:
1482:
1477:
1467:
1457:
1442:
1359:
1329:
1299:
1284:
1249:
1244:
1141:
1116:
1076:
1071:
1039:
1002:
185:– The western boundary is especially poorly understood; there is very little
44:
585:
1550:
1432:
1354:
1349:
1334:
1214:
1204:
1131:
1126:
1101:
1027:
40:
32:
1635:
1630:
1560:
1535:
1530:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1339:
1294:
1289:
1229:
1194:
1136:
1106:
1096:
1081:
740:
699:
674:
474:
449:
418:
393:
286:
261:
87:
714:
Calais, E.; Dong, L.; Wang, M.; Shen, Z.; Vergnolle, M. (October 2006).
1515:
1472:
553:(vol 259 ed.). London, U.K.: Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ. pp. 9–22.
55:
1676:
920:
66:
1487:
392:
Horner-Johnson, Benjamin; Gordon, Richard; Argus, Donald (May 2007).
213:
134:
In this model, Lwandle is considered to be part of the Somali Plate.
16:
Mainly oceanic tectonic microplate off the southeast coast of Africa
955:
850:
300:
787:
200:– Bordering the Lwandle plate to the north is the Rovuma plate.
716:"Continental deformation in Asia from a combined GPS solution"
217:
Red arrows show the relative plate velocity at that boundary
894:
10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0339:lotnsb>2.0.co;2
765:
The solid earth : an introduction to global geophysics
672:
189:
along this boundary. Despite that, a misfit to a seafloor
79:
For many years it was widely accepted that rifting in the
443:
391:
94:
673:
Altamimi, Z.; MĂ©tivier, L.; Collilieux, X. (July 2012).
545:
348:
DeMets, Charles; Gordon, Richard; Argus, Donald (2010).
31:
is one of three tectonic microplates, along with the
515:"Continental break-up: the East African perspective"
781:
563:
144:In this model, Lwandle is its own, separate plate.
906:
713:
871:
347:
262:"Present-day kinematics of the East African Rift"
61:
1731:
756:
940:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
971:
620:
450:"A kinematic model for the East African Rift"
707:
503:
266:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
255:
253:
251:
249:
247:
169:– The Southwest Indian Ridge, an ultra-slow
597:
595:
1688:
978:
964:
822:
343:
341:
339:
337:
335:
333:
331:
329:
39:, that make up the African Plate with the
828:
813:
739:
698:
649:
530:
473:
417:
387:
385:
373:
285:
244:
666:
621:Nocquet, J.-M.; Calais, E. (June 2003).
601:
592:
439:
437:
435:
433:
431:
429:
212:
145:
135:
65:
18:
933:
900:
614:
557:
509:
326:
129:Tectonic Model Including Lwandle Plate
1732:
865:
762:
482:
382:
126:Tectonic Model Excluding Lwandle Plate
959:
539:
426:
259:
1712:
927:
350:"Geologically current plate motions"
985:
204:
13:
14:
1751:
794:Geophysical Journal International
630:Geophysical Journal International
157:
1711:
1700:
1699:
1687:
1675:
1053:
815:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2005.02608.x
651:10.1046/j.1365-246X.2003.01935.x
604:South African Journal of Science
532:10.1111/j.1468-4004.2005.46216.x
375:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2009.04491.x
75:that separates the three plates.
679:Journal of Geophysical Research
566:Journal of Geophysical Research
398:Journal of Geophysical Research
1603:South American–Antarctic Ridge
934:Cheadle, Mike; John, Barbara.
294:
62:Discovery of the Lwandle Plate
1:
675:"ITRF2008 plate motion model"
238:
720:Geophysical Research Letters
454:Geophysical Research Letters
448:; Fernandes, Rui M. (2008).
115:
7:
221:
10:
1756:
1556:Galápagos Spreading Center
1669:
1621:
1506:
1423:
1150:
1062:
1051:
993:
490:"U.S. Geological Survey"
1598:Pacific-Antarctic Ridge
763:Fowler, C.M.R. (2006).
586:10.1029/JB078i014p02547
260:Saria, E (April 2014).
228:List of tectonic plates
1651:Pacific-Farallon Ridge
1623:Ancient oceanic ridges
1613:Southwest Indian Ridge
1608:Southeast Indian Ridge
1345:Philippine Mobile Belt
610:(9 & 10): 425–428.
314:Cite journal requires
218:
150:
140:
103:Southwest Indian Ridge
76:
24:
216:
149:
139:
69:
22:
1526:Central Indian Ridge
741:10.1029/2006GL028433
700:10.1029/2011JB008930
475:10.1029/2007GL032781
419:10.1029/2006JB004519
287:10.1002/2013JB010901
1641:Kula-Farallon Ridge
886:2002Geo....30..339L
843:1999Natur.398...64C
806:2005GeoJI.162..221H
732:2006GeoRL..3324319C
691:2012JGRB..117.7402A
642:2003GeoJI.154...72N
578:1973JGR....78.2547K
466:2008GeoRL..35.5304S
446:Ebinger, Cynthia J.
410:2007JGRB..112.5418H
366:2010GeoJI.181....1D
278:2014JGRB..119.3584S
1682:Geology portal
1656:Pacific-Kula Ridge
1646:Mid-Labrador Ridge
1571:Mid-Atlantic Ridge
1566:Juan de Fuca Ridge
219:
151:
141:
77:
25:
1727:
1726:
1541:East Pacific Rise
921:10.1130/G24270A.1
572:(14): 2547–2585.
198:Northern boundary
167:Southern boundary
155:
154:
81:East African Rift
1747:
1715:
1714:
1703:
1702:
1691:
1690:
1680:
1679:
1581:Kolbeinsey Ridge
1057:
980:
973:
966:
957:
956:
951:
950:
948:
946:
931:
925:
924:
904:
898:
897:
869:
863:
862:
826:
820:
819:
817:
785:
779:
778:
760:
754:
753:
743:
711:
705:
704:
702:
670:
664:
663:
653:
627:
618:
612:
611:
599:
590:
589:
561:
555:
554:
543:
537:
536:
534:
525:(2): 2.16–2.21.
507:
501:
500:
498:
496:
486:
480:
479:
477:
441:
424:
423:
421:
389:
380:
379:
377:
345:
324:
323:
317:
312:
310:
302:
298:
292:
291:
289:
272:(4): 3584–3600.
257:
205:Modern movements
191:magnetic anomaly
187:seismic activity
183:Western boundary
177:Eastern boundary
123:
122:
49:Antarctic Plates
1755:
1754:
1750:
1749:
1748:
1746:
1745:
1744:
1740:Tectonic plates
1730:
1729:
1728:
1723:
1674:
1665:
1617:
1591:Reykjanes Ridge
1576:Knipovich Ridge
1521:Carlsberg Ridge
1502:
1419:
1325:North Galápagos
1146:
1058:
1049:
1018:Indo-Australian
989:
987:Tectonic plates
984:
954:
944:
942:
932:
928:
905:
901:
870:
866:
837:(6722): 64–67.
827:
823:
786:
782:
775:
761:
757:
712:
708:
671:
667:
625:
619:
615:
600:
593:
562:
558:
544:
540:
519:Astron. Geophys
508:
504:
494:
492:
488:
487:
483:
442:
427:
390:
383:
354:Geophys. J. Int
346:
327:
315:
313:
304:
303:
299:
295:
258:
245:
241:
233:Plate tectonics
224:
207:
171:spreading ridge
160:
118:
73:triple junction
64:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1753:
1743:
1742:
1725:
1724:
1722:
1721:
1709:
1697:
1685:
1670:
1667:
1666:
1664:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1627:
1625:
1619:
1618:
1616:
1615:
1610:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1594:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1546:Explorer Ridge
1543:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1512:
1510:
1508:Oceanic ridges
1504:
1503:
1501:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1445:
1440:
1438:Bellingshausen
1435:
1429:
1427:
1425:Ancient plates
1421:
1420:
1418:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1387:
1385:South Sandwich
1382:
1380:South Bismarck
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1320:North Bismarck
1317:
1312:
1307:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1260:Juan Fernández
1257:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1237:
1232:
1227:
1222:
1217:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1197:
1192:
1187:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1167:
1162:
1156:
1154:
1148:
1147:
1145:
1144:
1139:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1109:
1104:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1079:
1074:
1068:
1066:
1060:
1059:
1052:
1050:
1048:
1047:
1045:South American
1042:
1037:
1035:North American
1032:
1031:
1030:
1025:
1015:
1010:
1005:
999:
997:
991:
990:
983:
982:
975:
968:
960:
953:
952:
926:
899:
864:
821:
800:(3): 221–238.
780:
773:
755:
726:(24): L24319.
706:
665:
613:
591:
556:
538:
502:
481:
425:
404:(B5): B05418.
381:
325:
316:|journal=
293:
242:
240:
237:
236:
235:
230:
223:
220:
206:
203:
202:
201:
195:
180:
174:
159:
158:Boundary types
156:
153:
152:
142:
131:
130:
127:
117:
114:
63:
60:
37:Victoria Plate
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1752:
1741:
1738:
1737:
1735:
1720:
1719:
1710:
1708:
1707:
1698:
1696:
1695:
1686:
1684:
1683:
1678:
1672:
1671:
1668:
1662:
1661:Phoenix Ridge
1659:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1628:
1626:
1624:
1620:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1573:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1505:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1422:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1186:
1183:
1181:
1178:
1176:
1175:Balmoral Reef
1173:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1163:
1161:
1158:
1157:
1155:
1153:
1149:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1069:
1067:
1065:
1061:
1056:
1046:
1043:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1029:
1026:
1024:
1021:
1020:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1004:
1001:
1000:
998:
996:
992:
988:
981:
976:
974:
969:
967:
962:
961:
958:
941:
937:
930:
922:
918:
914:
910:
903:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
868:
860:
856:
852:
851:10.1038/18014
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
825:
816:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
784:
776:
774:9780521893077
770:
766:
759:
751:
747:
742:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
710:
701:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
669:
661:
657:
652:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
624:
617:
609:
605:
598:
596:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
560:
552:
548:
542:
533:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
511:Ebinger, C.J.
506:
491:
485:
476:
471:
467:
463:
460:(5): L05304.
459:
455:
451:
447:
440:
438:
436:
434:
432:
430:
420:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
388:
386:
376:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
344:
342:
340:
338:
336:
334:
332:
330:
321:
308:
297:
288:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
256:
254:
252:
250:
248:
243:
234:
231:
229:
226:
225:
215:
211:
199:
196:
194:Nubian Plate.
192:
188:
184:
181:
178:
175:
172:
168:
165:
164:
163:
148:
143:
138:
133:
132:
128:
125:
124:
121:
113:
109:
106:
104:
99:
96:
92:
89:
85:
82:
74:
68:
59:
57:
52:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
29:Lwandle Plate
21:
1716:
1704:
1692:
1673:
1551:Gakkel Ridge
1463:Intermontane
1274:
1255:Juan de Fuca
1112:New Hebrides
1064:Minor plates
995:Major plates
943:. Retrieved
939:
929:
912:
908:
902:
877:
873:
867:
834:
830:
824:
797:
793:
783:
764:
758:
723:
719:
709:
682:
678:
668:
636:(1): 72–88.
633:
629:
616:
607:
603:
569:
565:
559:
550:
541:
522:
518:
505:
493:. Retrieved
484:
457:
453:
401:
397:
357:
353:
307:cite journal
296:
269:
265:
208:
197:
182:
176:
166:
161:
119:
110:
107:
100:
93:
86:
78:
53:
45:Nubian Plate
41:Somali Plate
33:Rovuma Plate
28:
26:
1636:Alpha Ridge
1631:Aegir Ridge
1586:Mohns Ridge
1561:Gorda Ridge
1536:Cocos Ridge
1531:Chile Ridge
1375:Solomon Sea
1315:North Andes
1305:Molucca Sea
1200:Conway Reef
1185:Bird's Head
1152:Microplates
915:(10): 207.
685:(B7): n/a.
88:Earthquakes
1516:Aden Ridge
1365:Seychelles
1280:Madagascar
1165:Aegean Sea
1122:Philippine
1023:Australian
945:29 October
880:(4): 339.
547:Calais, E.
495:25 October
239:References
56:Madagascar
1405:Trobriand
1310:Niuafo’ou
1265:Kerguelen
1240:Halmahera
1235:Greenland
1220:Galápagos
1190:Capricorn
1180:Banda Sea
1170:Anatolian
1087:Caribbean
1008:Antarctic
660:128437306
360:(1): 39.
116:Evolution
1734:Category
1706:Category
1498:Kshiroda
1483:Malvinas
1453:Farallon
1448:Cimmeria
1415:Woodlark
1410:Victoria
1370:Shetland
1270:Kermadec
1210:Explorer
1160:Adriatic
1092:Caroline
1013:Eurasian
750:55349527
513:(2005).
222:See also
43:and the
1718:Commons
1493:Phoenix
1468:Izanagi
1458:Insular
1443:Charcot
1360:Sangihe
1330:Okinawa
1300:Mariana
1285:Malpelo
1275:Lwandle
1250:Iranian
1245:Iberian
1142:Yangtze
1117:Okhotsk
1077:Arabian
1072:Amurian
1040:Pacific
1003:African
909:Geology
882:Bibcode
874:Geology
859:4403043
839:Bibcode
802:Bibcode
728:Bibcode
687:Bibcode
638:Bibcode
574:Bibcode
462:Bibcode
406:Bibcode
362:Bibcode
274:Bibcode
1433:Baltic
1355:Rovuma
1350:Rivera
1335:Panama
1225:Gonâve
1215:Futuna
1205:Easter
1132:Somali
1127:Scotia
1102:Indian
1028:Indian
857:
831:Nature
771:
748:
658:
1478:Lhasa
1400:Tonga
1395:Tisza
1390:Timor
1340:Pelso
1295:Maoke
1290:Manus
1230:Gorda
1195:Coiba
1137:Sunda
1107:Nazca
1097:Cocos
1082:Burma
855:S2CID
746:S2CID
656:S2CID
626:(PDF)
1694:List
1473:Kula
947:2014
769:ISBN
497:2014
358:1–80
320:help
35:and
27:The
1488:Moa
917:doi
890:doi
847:doi
835:398
810:doi
798:199
736:doi
695:doi
683:117
646:doi
634:154
582:doi
527:doi
470:doi
414:doi
402:112
370:doi
282:doi
270:119
95:GPS
1736::
938:.
913:42
911:.
888:.
878:30
876:.
853:.
845:.
833:.
808:.
796:.
792:.
744:.
734:.
724:33
722:.
718:.
693:.
681:.
677:.
654:.
644:.
632:.
628:.
608:98
606:.
594:^
580:.
570:78
568:.
523:46
521:.
517:.
468:.
458:35
456:.
452:.
428:^
412:.
400:.
396:.
384:^
368:.
356:.
352:.
328:^
311::
309:}}
305:{{
280:.
268:.
264:.
246:^
51:.
979:e
972:t
965:v
949:.
923:.
919::
896:.
892::
884::
861:.
849::
841::
818:.
812::
804::
777:.
752:.
738::
730::
703:.
697::
689::
662:.
648::
640::
588:.
584::
576::
535:.
529::
499:.
478:.
472::
464::
422:.
416::
408::
378:.
372::
364::
322:)
318:(
290:.
284::
276::
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
